완전학습에서의 평가: 타당도와 합리화의 핵심 이슈(Acad Med, 2015)

Making the Case for Mastery Learning Assessments: Key Issues in Validation and Justification

Matthew Lineberry, PhD, Yoon Soo Park, PhD, David A. Cook, MD, MHPE,

and Rachel Yudkowsky, MD, MHPE






교육연구 사업 영역에서 타당도와 정당화Validation and justification 는 중요한 활동이다. 새롭게 나타난 근거가 오랫동안 해온 평가의 타당성을 반박할 수도 잇으며, 검사점수의 해석과 활용에 관한 논란이 highest courts of law가 되기도 한다.

Validation and justification are important activities in the educational research enterprise; new evidence may show long-standing assessment practices to be invalid,8 and controversies about interpretations and uses of test scores have risen to the highest courts of law.9


그러나 완전학습에서의 평가는 점수의 해석과 활용이 표준적 평가와 다르며, 타당도와 정당화 과정에도 변화가 필요하다.

However, mastery learning assessments entail interpretations and uses of scores that differ from those of standard assessments, requiring changes in validation and justification practices.


완전학습 평가의 해석과 활용

Interpretations of and Uses for Mastery Learning Assessments


'완전'이 의미하는 의미는 무엇인가? 구어적으로는 높은 수준의 전문성을 말한다. 그러나 '완전학습'에 있어서 '완전(마스터)'란 단순히 '다음 교육 단계로 넘어갈 수 있게 준비되었음'을 말한다. 의과대학생이 돌연변이를 잘 이해하여 genetic transmission에 대해 배울 준비가 되어있다고 하더라도, 일반적인 관점에서 그 주제를 '마스터'했다고 볼 수는 없고, 다음 단계로 넘어갈 준비가 되었음을 말한다.

What does “mastery” mean? Colloquially, it suggests a high level of expertise. However, for mastery learning, it only means readiness to proceed to the next phase of instruction. A medical student who understands mutagenesis enough to learn about genetic transmission has almost certainly not “mastered” mutagenesis in the lay sense but may have mastered it enough to move on to the next educational unit.


한 학습유닛을 다 마친 학습자는 - 비록 완전학습적 관점에서의 '마스터'임에도 - 자신이 그 내용을 진짜로 일반적 관점에서 '마스터' 했다고 믿고 있을 수 있다. 마찬가지로, 교육자들도 마스터 기준을 정해달라는 요청을 받을 때, '마스터'라는 단어가 일반적으로 쓰이는 의미가 덧씌워지면서, 교육자들은 불필요하게 높은 기준을 설정할 수도 있다.

Learners who advance through a unit may believe they have “mastered” its content in the lay sense when they have only done so in the mastery learning sense. Conversely, educators asked to set mastery standards may set unnecessarily high standards, letting the lay connotation of “mastery” color their judgments.


학습자들은 얼마나 오래 '마스터' 수준을 유지해야 할까? 완전학습 모델에서 성취도는 종종 훈련이 종료된 직후에 평가된다. 대부분의 의학교육에서의 학습단위unit가 이후에 배울 많은 학습단위unit과 연결되어 있는 반면, 학습자의 성취도는 시간이 지나면서 종종 쇠퇴한다. 더 나아가서, 단기적 성취mastery를 최대화하기 위한 여러 학습활동이 오히려 그 성취의 장기적인 유지와 일반화에는 반대로 작용하기도 한다.

How long are learners expected to retain “mastery”? In mastery learning models, achievement is often assessed immediately after the completion of training. Yet most learning units in medical education are connected to many later units, and achievement often decays rapidly following training.13 Moreover, many learning activities that maximize short-term mastery are precisely the opposite of those that support long-term retention and generalization of mastery.14



완전학습 평가를 훈련 직후에 시행되는 평가로만 제한하는 것은 (균일하고, 오래 지속되는 역량을 갖추게 하려는) 완전학습 시스템의 의도를 전복시킬 수도 있는 것이다.

limiting mastery learning assessment to the period immediately following training could subvert the intent of the mastery system, which is to ensure uniform, enduring competence.15


'마스터'는 지식이나 스킬의 완전성을 의미할 수도 있다. 어떤 맥락에서는 '마스터'는 학습자가 해당 영역의 모든 하위영역subunit에서 충분한 역량을 갖췄음을 의미하기도 한다.

Mastery also may connote a completeness of knowledge or skill. In some contexts, mastery means that a learner has achieved sufficient competence in all the subunits of a content area


그러한 경우에 있어서, 만약 학습자가 90%를 달성하고, 10%를 놓친 것은 심각한 문제일 수 있으며 '마스터'를 수여해서는 안된다. 이러한 비보상적noncompensatory(conjunctive) 점수 계산 방식에서, 학습자의 수행능력은 각각의 subunit에 대해서 최소 기준을 달성하였는지를 평가해야 하며, 모든 subunit에서 통과했을 때야만이 '마스터'를 받을 수 있다.

In such situations, for example, if a learner scores 90% on a procedural task but the missed 10% reflect a serious error, the designation of mastery would be inappropriate.16 In such noncompensatory (i.e., conjunctive) scoring, learners’ performance on each subunit would be evaluated against a minimum standard, and mastery would be achieved only when the learner passes all subunits.



완전학습 모델의 핵심적 전제는 통과하고 다음으로 넘어가거나, 실패하고 현 과정을 반복하거나 이 두 가지 중 하나라는 것이다. 중간 지점은 없다. 따라서 '통과'기준은 반드시 엄격하게 설정되어야 한다.

the central inference in the mastery model is pass and advance or fail and repeat; there is no middle ground. Thus, the passing standard must be established with great rigor.


 

진점수가 '마스터 판정 기준'에 걸쳐 있는 학습자에 대해서는 (합격점수의 1SD 이내), 정밀한 측정이 우선되어야 한다. 이 범위 내에서 변별도가 높은 문항은 과도표집oversampled 되어야 하며, 이는 비록 이러한 문항을 찾거나 만드는 것이 psychometric하게 복잡하더라도 그렇게 해야 한다.

for learners whose true scores are within range of the mastery standard, perhaps within one standard error of measurement from the cut score, precise measurement becomes the priority. Assessment items that discriminate well in this range should be oversampled, though identifying such items may require sophisticated psychometric approaches, such as item response theory.17


고부담 시험을 위해서 그러한 문항은 보안을 철저히 해서 부적절하게 학생들에게 노출되는 것을 방지해야 한다(선배 학생이 후배 학생에게 물려주는 것 등). 이는 해당 문항에 대한 측정 정밀도를 떨어뜨릴 수 있다. 문항의 노출disclosure를 방지하는 방법으로는, 무엇을 맞추고 틀렸는지, 왜 그런 점수를 받았는지 알려주지 않는 것이 한 방법이 될 수 있다. 대신 학생들은 총점만 알게 된다. 이렇게 할 경우에, 이러한 범위에 있는 문항에 대해서는 측정의 정밀성을 위하여 '평가에 기반한 피드백'을 희생해야 할 수도 있다.

For high-stakes examinations, such items also need to be kept secure from inappropriate disclosure to examinees (e.g., senior students sharing test items from previous years with junior students), which would compromise the measurement precision of those items. Preventing such disclosure likely requires that, for any given item, educators not divulge which answers are correct versus incorrect nor the reasons they are so scored; instead, examinees are likely only to be told their total score across many items. As such, for items in this range, beneficial assessment-based feedback will often need to be sacrificed to maintain measurement precision.


이러한 평가를 반드시 사용하게 되는 시점은 학습자들이 다음 단계로 넘어갈지를 결정하는 시점이다. 이 결정에 대해서 두 가지 핵심 디테일 있다.

(1)통과하지 못한 학습자들에게 들어가는 자원과 이들을 위한 정책,

(2)마스터 기준을 계속 충족하지 못하는 학생들에 대한 특별한 조치consequences.

 

완전학습 평가점수를 다른 방식으로 사용하면 의도하지 못한 결과가 나올 수도 있다. 예컨대, '빨리 교육과정을 마스터한 학생에게 dean's letter를 수여'하는 경우 "마스터까지 걸리는 시간"이 새로운 성취지표가 되면서 학습자들로 하여금 교육과정을 '마스터'하기보다는 빨리 해치워rush through버리게끔 만들기도 한다.

The most obvious use of such assessments is for deciding when to advance learners in the curriculum. Two key details related to this decision are (1) the resources and policies in place for learners who do not pass, and (2) any special consequences for learners who fail persistently to meet mastery standards. Other uses of mastery scores exist but may have unintended consequences. For instance, a dean’s letter to a residency program that extols a medical student who quickly mastered the curriculum inadvertently makes “time to mastery” a new achievement indicator, perhaps encouraging learners to rush through the curriculum rather than truly mastering it.

 

 

 




타당도 근거: 내용

Sources of Validity Evidence: Content


완전학습시스템에서 사전시험을 볼 수도 있으며, testing effect를 통해 학습이 강화될 수 있고, 일부 학습자들로 하여금 이미 유닛을 마스터 한 경우 그 유닛을 넘어가게 해줄 수도 있다. 이러한 시스템에서 대부분의 학습자는 최소한 두 차례의 평가 - 사전시험, 사후시험 - 를 치르게 된다. 추가적으로, '마스터'에 대한 정의를 어떻게 내리느냐에 따라서 단순히 수행의 '산출물product'이 아니라 수행의 '과정how'이 핵심 평가준거가 될 수도 있다. 예컨대, 봉합기술의 '마스터'를 아무런 의식도 하지 않고 (무의식적으로 이뤄지는) automatical한 봉합의 수행으로 정의할 경우, 적절한 평가방법은 학습자의 집중력이 방해받는distract되는 상황에서도 그것을 잘 해내느냐가 되어야 한다.

mastery systems may include pretests before instruction begins, possibly enhancing learning via the testing effect19 and allowing some learners to skip already-mastered units entirely. In such systems, most learners complete at least two assessments—a pretest and at least one posttest. Additionally, depending on one’s definition of mastery, certain aspects of how learners perform may be key criteria, beyond simply the products of their performance (e.g., correct answers or completed procedural tasks). For instance, if one defines mastery of suturing skill as the ability to suture automatically, with minimal to no conscious thought, a suitable assessment must detect when learners can suture even while they are distracted.21



타당도 근거: 응답 절차

Sources of Validity Evidence: Response Process


완전학습 시스템에서 재시험은 내용에 관한 보안에 위협이 될 수도 있고, 학습자가 어떻게 평가문항에 응답하는지에 영향을 준다.

Retesting in mastery learning systems could in some cases create a content security threat that may be evident in how learners respond to assessment items. 


요령이 좋은 학습자들은 'test-wise'해지기 위해서 완전학습평가시험을 일부러 치른 다음에, 부족한 부분만 재빨리 채워서 재시험을 볼 수도 있다.

Savvy learners might deliberately take a mastery examination for which they are not prepared to become “test-wise,” and then study only enough to briefly regurgitate the required information on a retest.


답안을 암기해가는 학습자들에 대한 가장 직접적인 해결책은 (비록 자원이 많이 드나) 충분히 큰 문제(내용)은행을 만드는 것이다. 또는 학습자의 추론과정을 묻는 방법 역시 가능하다. 예를 들어, '정답이 무엇이냐'를 묻기보다는 '왜 그것이 정답이냐'를 물을 수도 있다. 그러나 이러한 더 심화된 이해는 '정답을 고르는 능력'과는 다른 구인을 대변하고 있음이 증명된 바 있기도 하다. 다행히도, 내용의 보안문제는 일부 영역에서는 문제가 되지 않는다. 예를 들어 임상스킬 절차의 체크리스트는 모든 단계를 만족스러운 수준으로 수행할 수 있도록 학습자들에게 제공되기도 한다.

The most straightforward solution to the problem of learners memorizing answers is to build larger content banks (e.g., more items, more scenarios), though this is admittedly resource intensive. Probing learners’ reasoning for the answers they select to detect superficial memorization also may be possible; for instance, one may ask not only what the correct answer is on a multiple-choice examination but also why it is correct. However, such deeper understanding is a demonstrably different construct than the ability to recognize correct answers.22 Fortunately, content security is not a concern for some types of content; for instance, procedural checklists are given freely to learners with the expectation that they will be able to demonstrate all procedural steps satisfactorily.


타당도 근거: 내적 구조와 신뢰도

Sources of Validity Evidence: Internal Structure and Reliability


즉, 동일 수행능력 영역에서의 점수는 평가 상황에 무관하게 신뢰성있어야reliable across 한다.

namely, scores reflecting the same dimension of performance should ideally be reliable across each test condition.


엄격하게 말하자면, 완전학습 평가에서 신뢰도는 얼마나 '마스터'와 '비마스터'를 일관되게 구분할 수 있느냐에 의해서만 결정된다. 전통적인 신뢰도 통계치들 (알파계수, 검사-재검사 상관)은 진점수의 분포가 모든 범위에 걸쳐서분포되어 있을 때에 관한 것이다. 그러나 특정 cut score에 있어서 통과/탈락 결정의 신뢰도는 동일한 평가를 가능한 모든 점수영역에 대해서 구한 신뢰도와 크게 다를 수 있다. 일반적으로, 평균적 수행능력 수준에 가까운 cut score가 가장 reliable하지 않으며, 극단적으로 높거나 낮은 cut score는 매우 reliable하다. 적절하게 신뢰도 공식을 변형하는 것이 가능하며, 완전학습평가에서는 (conditional error variance absolute decision generalizability coefficient24 and decision-consistency reliability indices) 등을 포함하여 그렇게 변형하여 활용해야 한다.

Strictly speaking, reliability in mastery learning assessments is defined only in terms of how consistently the mastery versus nonmastery distinction is made. Common reliability statistics, such as coefficient alpha and test–retest correlations, refer to the reliability of discriminations between learners across the full range of their true scores. However, the reliability of a pass/fail decision at a particular cut score can be dramatically different from the average reliability of the same assessment across the range of possible scores. Generally, cut scores at or near the average learner performance level will be the least reliable, whereas extremely high or low cut scores are often highly reliable.23 Suitably modified reliability equations are available and should be used for mastery learning assessments, including the conditional error variance absolute decision generalizability coefficient24 and decision-consistency reliability indices.25,26


만약 학습자가 언제 마스터평가 시험을 치를지 선택할 수 있다면, 학생들의 시험점수는 매우 비슷할 것이다(대부분이 합격선에 있음). 이러한 경우에는 점수의 variance가 작아지고, 신뢰도 추정계수가 약화attenuate될 것이다. 완전학습시스템의 목표는 - 모든 학습자가 균일한 성취를 하는 것으로 - 전통적인 신뢰도 추정과는 잘 맞지 않는다. 동시에, remediation과 retraining이 문항 수준의 점수 variation에 영향을 미칠 수 있으며, 신뢰도를 상승시킬 수도 있다. 따라서, 재시험의 빈도에 따라 완전학습평가는 안정적이지 못한 신뢰도 추정reliability estimates을 보여줄 수도 있다.

If learners can choose when to take the mastery assessment their total test scores will be very similar (i.e., very near the passing score). In situations of such reduced score variance (i.e., restriction in range), reliability estimates will be attenuated. The very goal of mastery learning systems—uniform achievement from all learners—is thus at odds with classical reliability estimation. At the same time, remediation and retraining can affect item-level score variation and may actually increase reliability. Therefore, depending on the frequency of retesting, mastery learning assessments can show unstable reliability estimates. 


연장선상에서, 이 이슈는 요인분석을 통한 내적 구조 분석도 어렵게 만드는데, 왜냐하면 요인분석을 하려면 subject와 item 사이에 일정정도의 variance가 존재해야 하기 때문이다.

By extension, these issues may limit one’s ability to assess internal structure using methods such as factor analysis, which also requires a reasonable degree of variance between subjects and items.


마지막으로, 평가 운영의 차원에서 완전학습평가를 비보상적noncompensatory 으로 진행할 수 있는데, 이 때 학습다는 다수의 서로 다른 subunit에서 '마스터'를 받아야 한다. 이러한 점수체계에서 전체 측정오차는 각 subunit의 측정오차의 지수함수가 되며, 그 결과 매우 통과/탈락 결정이 unreliable해질 수 있다. 예컨대, 다섯 개 subunit이 각각 0.8의 통과/탈락 신뢰도를 가진다면, 전체적으로는 0.8^5 = 0.33이 되어서 최악으로 낮은 신뢰도가 나온다.

Finally, as with credentialing examinations generally, administrators may choose to score mastery learning assessments in a noncompensatory fashion, whereby learners must demonstrate mastery on many different subunits before progressing.27 In noncompensatory scoring, overall measurement error is an exponential function of the measurement error for each subunit and thus can “balloon” into very unreliable overall pass/fail decisions. For instance, if learners must pass each of five procedural skill stations, which each have a pass/fail reliability of 0.8, overall pass/fail decision reliability would be only 0.8*0.8*0.8*0.8*0.8 = 0.33, an abysmally low reliability coefficient.28


타당도 근거: 다른 변인과의 관계

Sources of Validity Evidence: Relationships to Other Variables


완전학습 시스템에서 평가결과와 가장 중요한 관계에 있는 것은, 평가점수가 뒤따라오는 교육유닛에서의 성공과 관련되어 있는지에 대한 것이며, 여기에는 궁극적으로 진료로의 이행transition to practice도 포함된다.

the most important relationship to evaluate in a mastery learning system is whether assessment scores relate to learners’ success in their subsequent educational unit(s), including their eventual transition to practice.


완전학습평가에서 점수분포범위의 제한(restriction of range)으로 인한 신뢰도 추정에 손상이 있을 수 있기에, 다른 변인과의 관계를 추정하는 것도 어렵게 된다. 그러나 완전학습시스템을 도입하기 이전에 수집된 상대적으로 제한이 덜 되는unrestricted 평가자료와의 완계를 보는 것이 가능하다.

As it impairs the estimation of reliability, the restriction of range in mastery learning assessment scores makes estimating relationships to other variables difficult. However, correlating relatively unrestricted assessment data obtained prior to implementing a mastery learning system with other variables is possible.


타당도와 정당화 근거: 평가결과 활용에 따른 여파consequences

Sources of Validity and Justification Evidence: Consequences of Assessment Use


평가가 의도한 추론desired inference를 지지할 수 있느냐에 초점을 둔 타당도근거와 달리, 여파(결과, consequences)근거는 '의도한/의도하지 않은 결과', '평가의 도입절차가 논리적이고 바람직한가' 등을 고려하여 점수를 활용하고 적용하는 것을 정당화하는 것을 목적으로 한다. 여파근거는 기준을 설정하는 프로세스, 학습 프로세스/학습 성과 평가에 따른 영향impact, 헬스케어 수행practice of health care에 대한 정보 등을 포함한다.

In contrast to validity evidence that focuses on whether the assessment can support desired inferences, consequences evidence seeks to justify the uses or applications of scores by considering the intended and unintended consequences of the assessment and whether implementation of the assessment is reasonable and desirable.6,7 Consequences evidence includes information about the process of setting standards and the impact of the assessment on the learning process, learning outcomes, and the practice of health care.12


완전학습은 교육과정과 교육훈련 프로그램에 큰 영향을 줄 수 있다. 충분한 교육시간과 재교육, 재연습, 재시험을 위한 자원을 필요로 하며, 역량바탕접근을 강화한다.

The mastery model potentially could widely influence curricula and training programs. Mastery standards mandate sufficient curricular time and resources for repeated practice, remediation, and retesting, thus reinforcing a competency- based approach to education.5


개별 학습자 수준에서 다음을 찾아볼 수 있다.

On an individual learner level, one can seek evidence of

  • increased efficiency and effectiveness of study and practice strategies,
  • increased attention to the critical elements of the assessed domain,
  • more functional motivational orientations,32 and
  • improved self- regulation of learning.

 

그러나 완전학습 시스템은 정기적으로 '마스터' 여부를 재평가하지 않기에 학습자가 '마스터'수준을 단기적으로만 유지하지, 전체 커리어에 걸쳐 유지하게끔 하는 것에 초점을 두지 않을 수도 있다.

However, mastery learning systems that do not periodically reassess mastery may lead learners to focus on demonstrating mastery in the short term rather than maintaining mastery throughout their careers.


완전학습시스템은 학습자가 다음 단계로 넘어갈 준비가 되었을 때에만 넘어갈 수 있게끔 하는 것을 의도한다. 따라서 다음 교육유닛에서 학습자의 성과가 가장 주요한 관심의 대상이 되는 결과이다. 그러나 학습자가 이후에 보이는 progress를 가지고 완전학습평가에 관한 inference를 하는 것은 어렵다.

  • 만약 학습자가 이후 교육유닛에서 보이는 수준이 평균 이하라면, 앞서서 수여한 '마스터' 기준중 하나 이상이 너무 느슨했음을 뜻한다.
  • 반대로, 이후 교육유닛에서 학습자가 만족스러운 수준을 보인다면, 앞서 수여한 '마스터' 기준이 지나치게 엄격했기 때문이 약간 느슨하게 만들어서 시간은 덜 들이고 동등한 결과를 낼 수도 있다.

Mastery learning systems are meant to ensure that learners progress only when they are ready to do so; thus, learner outcomes in subsequent educational units are a primary consequence of interest. However, drawing inferences about mastery learning assessments from learners’ later progress can be challenging. If learners’ progress in later educational units is found to be subpar, it may be that one or more of the previous mastery standards were too lenient. If learners’ subsequent progress is satisfactory, the preceding mastery standards were arguably stringent enough, though more lenient standards may have yielded comparable results in less time.



systematic하게 기준을 실험하고, 어떻게 이후 성과가 영향을 받는지 실험하는 것은 logistic하게, 그리고 종종 윤리적으로 문제가 된다.

to systematically experiment with the standards and observe how later outcomes are affected can be logistically and sometimes ethically challenging.


마지막으로, 환자/보건의료시스템/사회 전체 에 미치는 영향에 대한 근거를 볼 수도 있다.

Finally, one can seek evidence of an impact on outcomes for patients, the health care system, and society as a whole.








 



8 Lineberry M, Kreiter CD, Bordage G. Threats to validity in the use and interpretation of script concordance test scores. Med Educ. 2013;47:1175–1183.


11 Cook DA, Beckman TJ. Current concepts in validity and reliability for psychometric instruments: Theory and application. Am J Med. 2006;119:166.e7–166.16.


22 Williams RG, Klamen DL, Markwell SJ, Cianciolo AT, Colliver JA, Verhulst SJ. Variations in senior medical student diagnostic justification ability. Acad Med. 2014;89:790–798.


23 Stansfield RB, Kreiter CD. Conditional reliability of admissions interview ratings: Extreme ratings are the most informative. Med Educ. 2007;41:32–38.







 2015 Nov;90(11):1445-50. doi: 10.1097/ACM.0000000000000860.

Making the case for mastery learning assessmentskey issues in validation and justification.

Author information

  • 1M. Lineberry is assistant professor, Department of Medical Education, and assistant director for research, Dr. Allan L. and Mary L. Graham Clinical Performance Center, University of Illinois at Chicago College of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois. Y.S. Park is assistant professor, Department of Medical Education, University of Illinois at Chicago College of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois. D.A. Cook is professor of medicine and medical education, associate director, Mayo Clinic Online Learning, and consultant, Division of General Internal Medicine, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Rochester, Minnesota. R. Yudkowsky is associate professor, Department of Medical Education, and director, Dr. Allan L. and Mary L. Graham Clinical Performance Center, University of Illinois at Chicago College of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois.

Abstract

Theoretical and empirical support is increasing for mastery learning, in which learners must demonstrate a minimum level of proficiency before completing a given educational unit. Mastery learning approaches aim for uniform achievement of key objectives by allowing learning time to vary and as such are a course-level analogue to broader competency-based curricular strategies. Sound assessment is the cornerstone of masterylearning systems, yet the nature of assessment validity and justification for mastery learning differs in important ways from standard assessment models. Specific validity issues include (1) the need for careful definition of what is meant by "mastery" in terms of learners' achievement or readiness to proceed, the expected retention of mastery over time, and the completeness of content mastery required in a particular unit; (2) validity threats associated with increased retesting; (3) the need for reliability estimates that account for the specific measurement error at the masteryversus nonmastery cut score; and (4) changes in item- and test-level score variance over retesting, which complicate the analysis of evidence related to reliability, internal structure, and relationships to other variables. The positive and negative consequences for learners, educational systems, and patients resulting from the use of mastery learning assessments must be explored to determine whether a given mastery assessment and pass/fail cut score are valid and justified. In this article, the authors outline key considerations for the validation and justification of masterylearning assessments, with the goal of supporting insightful research and sound practice as the mastery model becomes more widespread.

PMID:
 
26287919
 
[PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]


프로페셔널리즘에 대한 도전: 사회적 책무성과 글로벌 환경 변화(Med Teach, 2015)

Challenges to professionalism: Social accountability and global environmental change

DAVID PEARSON1, SARAH WALPOLE1 & STEFI BARNA2

1Hull York Medical School, UK, 2Norwich Medical School, UK






배경: 변화, 개념, 도전

Background: changes, concepts and challenges 


전문직업성은 value-driven concept 으로서, 헌장/선언문/테스크포스에 따라서 다양하게 정의되나 본질적으로 의료전문직과 그들이 serve하는 사회와의 "사회적 계약"이다. 이러한 목적에서 우리는 프로페셔널리즘을 "대중이 의사에게 가지는 신뢰의 근간이 되는 가치/행동/관계의 집합"으로 정의하고자 한다.

Professionalism is a value-driven concept, variously defined in charters, statements and by task forces, but essentially offering a ‘‘social contract’’ between health profes-sionals and the society that they serve (Cruess & Cruess 2008;Cruess et al. 2010). For the purpose of this discussion, we will use the definition of professionalism as a ‘‘set of values, behaviours and relationships that underpin the trust the public has in doctors’’ (Royal College of Physicians 2005). 


의-프로페셔널리즘 문헌의 systematic review를 보면 프로페셔널리즘의 세 가지 주요 주제가 드러난다.

A systematic review of the medical professionalism litera-ture (Van de Camp et al. 2004) identified three key themes in professionalism: 


  • Interpersonal professionalism: 환자의 요구에 부응하는 것, 이타성, 봉사
    meeting patient demands,altruism and service delivery. 
  • Public professionalism: 책무성, 윤리 원칙과 자기조절에 대한 헌신submission
    accountability, submission to an ethical code and self-regulation. 
  • Intrapersonal professionalism: 표준을 유지하고 평생학습을 하는 것
    maintaining standards and life-long learning. 



사회적책무성Social accountability 은 의과대학에서 지난 30년간 중요한 개념이었다. 일련의 최근의 리뷰와 보고서들은 이 개념을 강화하기 위해서 의과대학에서는 명시적으로 그들의 사명mission이 그들이 serve하는 커뮤니티의 건강요구와 합치align할 것을 요구하고 있다.

Social accountability has been an important concept for medical schools for 30 years. A series of recent reviews and reports have strengthened the concept by recommending that the mission of medical schools should be explicitly aligned with the health needs of communities (and regions) they serve


의과대학의 GCSA를 보면 사회적 책무를 다하는 의과대학이란 아래와 같다.

The Global Consensus for Social Accountability of Medical Schools (2010) defines a socially accountable medical school as one which 

  • 사회의 건강요구와 건강 과제에 대응respond하는 것
    Responds to society’s health needs and challenges. 
  • 교육, 연구, 봉사service의 우선순위를 이러한 요구 해소에 따라 재정비reorient하는 것
    Reorients its education, research and service priorities to address these needs. 
  • 이 목표를 달성하기 위해 다른 이해관계자들과 협력work in partnership하는 것
    Works increasingly in partnership with other stakeholders to meet these goals.
  • 이 목표에 따른 수행과 그 영향력을 평가하는 것
    Assesses performance and impact against the above goals.


이 토론을 위하여 우리는 WHO의 '사회적 책무성'의 개념을 사용하고자 한다.

For the purpose of this discussion, we use the definition of social accountability used by the World Health Organisation since 1995

 

"의과대학이 그들의 교육/연구/봉사(진료)활동을 그들의 serve해야 하는 커뮤니티/지역/국가의 최우선 건강 문제health concerns에 따라 수행한다. 최우선 건강문제는 정부, 보건의료조직, 의료전문직, 대중이 함께 정해야 한다"

‘‘...the obligation (of medical schools) to direct their education, research and service activities towards addressing the priority health concerns of the community, region and the nation that they have a mandate to serve. The priority health concerns are to be identified jointly by governments, health-care organizations, health professionals and the public’’. (Boelen & Heck 1995).



WHO의 정의는 더욱 발전하여 아래의 세 가지를 포함하게 되었다.

The WHO definition has been further developed to include social responsibility, social responsiveness and social account- ability (Boelen & Woollard 2011):


  • Social responsibility: 최우선 건강문제와 과제를 인식하나, 교육/연구/진료가 반드시 여기에 부합alignment하지는 않음
    an awareness of society’s priority health needs and challenges but not necessarily an alignment of educational, research or service outcomes to these needs 
  • Social responsiveness: serve하는 커뮤니티의 건강요구를 적극적으로 밝혀내는 것, 이 요구에 부응하는 사명, 프로그램과 그 목표가 이 요구에 부응하기 위하여 align된 것.
    an active identification of health needs of the community served, a mission to address these needs and programmes and outcomes aligned to address these needs. 
  • Social accountability: (의과대학이) serve하는 커뮤니티와 적극적 파트너십을 맺고, 어떻게 의과대학이 (교육/연구/진료활동을 통해) 의료서비스와 그들의 serve하는 커뮤니티의 건강을 향상시킬 수 있을지에 초점을 두는 것
    an active partnership with the community served (including the public voice) and a focus on how the schools (through their education, and research service activities) improve the health services and health of the communities they serve.

우리의 환경 변화

We are increasingly..

  • informed about (through media and travel),
  • connected to (through trade and migration) and
  • reliant on (for food and other goods and services) other parts of the globe.

 

의사의 활동은 다른 사람에게 영향을 준다.

As doctors and as citizens, our actions affect other people:

  • their environment (through climate change),
  • working prospects and conditions (through the international labour market) and
  • living conditions (via the development of new technologies, products and services).


사회적 책무성Social accountability 과 프로페셔널리즘

Social accountability and professionalism


사회적 책무성에 관한 모든 프레임워크는 의과대학이 그들이 serve하는 커뮤니티의 요구에 부응할 수 있는 기술과 자질을 갖춘 의사(졸업생)을 양성할 것을 강조한다.

All social accountability frameworks emphasise the need for medical schools to produce graduates with skills and the disposition to meet the needs of the communities they serve.


The GCSA suggests 10 strategic directions,

 




Interpersonal professionalism: 

 

도덕적 계약의 기초

The element of profession- alism which includes altruism, integrity and meeting patient demand (Van de Camp et al. 2004) constitutes the basis of a moral contract between the medical profession and society (RCP 2005; Cruess & Cruess 2008, Cruess et al. 2010).


커뮤니티/환자/대중의 목소리가 의료전문직의 목소리와 조화co-ordinate되었을 때 의료와 교육이 강화될 수 있음.

Community, patient and public voices co-ordinated with the voices of health professionals can strengthen health delivery and education. In the most socially accountable schools, such voices will be clear, explicit and central to schools planning and governance.


사회적책무성을 위해서 의과대학이 커뮤니티에 초점을 두고 성과척도와 교육훈련방식을 결정할 때 유연성을 가져야하는 것처럼, 의사들도 점차 환자에 초점을 두고, 역할/기술/접근법에 유연성을 가져야 한다.

For doctors, professionalism increasingly implies patient focus and flexibility in roles, skills and approaches just as social accountability implies that medical schools must develop a community focus and flexibility in determining outcome measures and delivery of training.

 


Public professionalism: 

자율, 자기조절, 윤리에 대한 복종submission 등과 같은 프로페셔널리즘의 핵심 주제들이 사회적 책무성 개념에 의해 challange되고 있다. 두 가지 모두 사회적 요구와의 관계를 인정하나, 전문직으로서의 자율성과 사회적 책무성이 충돌하는 지점에 대해서 의견이 다르다.

Key professionalism themes such as autonomy, self- regulation and submission to an ethical code (Van de Camp et al. 2004) are challenged by social accountability concepts: both accept a relationship to societal needs, but disagree at the sites where professional autonomy and social accountability clash.


Intrapersonal professionalism: 

Life-long learning, maintain- ing standards and professional knowledge are central features of intrapersonal professionalism (Van de Camp et al. 2004).




환경의 변화, 사회적 책무성, 프로페셔널리즘

Environmental changes, social accountability and professionalism


GCSA는 새로운 사회적 변화에 대하여 반응responsiveness하는 것의 중요성을 강조한다. 우선 생태계를 보호하는 것이다.

The GCSA (2010) highlights the importance of responsiveness to new societal challenges. Foremost is the need to protect ecosystems which provide the foundations of life and health.


만약 사회적 책무성이 커뮤니티의 요구와 의과대학 사이의 alignment라면, 프로페셔널리즘은 사회적 요구와 개인 사이의 alignment에 대한 것이다. 사회적 책무성과 프로페셔널리즘에 대한 고려시에는 늘 글로벌 환경 변화로부터 오는 새로운 도전과제들을 고려해야 한다. 건강의 환경적 결정요인과 그것이 사회적 결정요인에 미치는 영향에 대해서 진솔한 토론을 할 수 있게 의과대학이 장려해야 한다. 미래의 의사는 그들이 serve할 커뮤니티에 닥친 사회적/환경적 과제를 해결할 수 있어야 하고, 생태계에 미치는 영향을 완화mitigate시킬 수 있게 도와야 한다.

If social accountability is best understood as an alignment of the medical school with the needs of the community served, professionalism can be seen as an individual’s alignment with society’s needs. Any consideration of social accountability and professionalism must consider new challenges arising from global environmental change. As a first step, medical schools should encourage honest discussions about environmental determinants of health (e.g. water, land, air, and climate change) and their effect on social determinants (e.g. social injustice, nutrition, conflict, and migration). Tomorrow’s doc- tors must understand and address the social and environmen- tal challenges faced by the communities they serve, helping them to mitigate their own impact on the ecosystem. In that way, they can help ensure that the health services,



Interpersonal professionalism...

의사는 그들이 제공하는 (의료)서비스의 지속가능성에 있어서 responsible, responsive and accountable 해야 한다. 지속가능한 의료시스템은 미래 의사들이 미래 세대의 건강요구를 충족시키기 위한 능력을 과하게 희생시키지 않으면서 현 세대의 건강요구를 충족시켜야 한다. 지속가능한 헬스케어 서비스는 다음이 필요하다.

requires doctors to be of the responsible, responsive and accountable in terms sustainability of services that they deliver. Sustainable health- care systems meet the health needs of the current generation without overly compromising the ability of tomorrow’s doctors to meet their generation’s health needs. A sustainable healthcare service

  • uses resources more efficiently,
  • focuses on prevention,
  • avoids low value procedures,
  • streamlines care to avoid waste,
  • chooses low-carbon technologies wherever possible and
  • fosters patient autonomy to manage their own care (Mortimer 2010).




Public professionalism... 

 

의사들은 ethical and professional codes에 충실하여야 한다. 

requires doctors to adhere to ethical and professional codes. The UK Royal College of Physicians (RCP 2010), the UK Academy of Medical Royal Colleges Nursing (Maughan & Gibbs 2014) and the American Association (2010) are among professional bodies highlighting that health professionals must exhibit environmental respon- sibility and environmental stewardship.


health advocate 이 된다는 것은 점차 우리를 유지sustain시켜주는 생태계ecosystems의 건강을 advocate한다는 것을 의미하게 될 것이다.

Being a health advocate will increasingly mean being an advocate for the health of the ecosystems which sustain us.


Intrapersonal professionalism: 

 

많은 의사들이 사회적, 환경적으로 책임감있는 삶을 살아가나, 대부분의 시민들과 같이 개인의 행동 변화를 넘어서서 사회 정의나 생태계의 건강을 advocate하는 의사는 거의 없다. 실제로 우리 대부분은 이 문제에 불균형하게 이 문제에 기여하고 있다.

Many doctors live socially and environmentally responsible lives but, as most citizens, few doctors go beyond individual behaviour change to advocate for social justice or ecosystem health. Indeed, most of us contribute disproportionately to the problem: we are..

  • high earners (contributing to social injustice),
  • high consumers (contributing to environmental degradation) and
  • high polluters (large carbon footprint, high water use, big cars, and relatively extravagant lifestyles).

Recommendations


핵심 교육과정

Core curriculum


세 개의 큰 틀에서의 학습목표가 제시된 바 있으며, GCSA에 매핑될 수 있다.

three overarch- ing learning objectives have been proposed (Thompson et al. 2014) which can be mapped to the strategic directions from the Global Consensus statement on social accountability (Table 1).

 

 


선택 교육과정

Optional or student-selected components



교육과정에서 SSC는 동기부여가 되어 있는 학생들이 기업가적 아이디어를 개발할 수 있게 해주며, (사회적 책무성이나 환경 변화에 대해서) 다른 학생과 전문직의 인식 변화도 일으킬 수 있다.

Student-selected components of the curriculum allow moti- vated students to develop entrepreneurial ideas and also shift the awareness of other students and professionals, including develop ideas of social accountability and environmental responsiveness (Lausten 2005).


교육과정에서 학생이 선택가능한 또 다른 영역인 일렉티브는 프로페셔널리즘 교육, 사회적 책무성, 환경적 책무성을 강화하고 통합할 수 있게 해준다. 의과대학은 일렉티브의 근원이 되는 윤리적으로, 환경적으로 타당sound한 원칙을 만들게끔 도울 수 있다. 또한 개인적으로는 크게 도움이 될지 몰라도, 환경적으로는 파괴적일 수도 있으며, 그 호스트 커뮤니티에 poorly integrated 되어 있을수도 있다. 의과대학은 학생들이 일렉티브의 영향(사회적, 윤리적, 환경적)을 성찰해보고, 프로페셔널리즘과 사회적 책무성을 일렉티브 보고서에서 다루게끔 권장해야 한다.

Medical electives are another student-selected area of the curriculum where schools can help reinforce and merge the teaching of professionalism, social accountability and envir- onmental responsiveness. Schools can help shape the prin- ciples underlying electives to ensure that they are ethically and environmentally sound (Johnson et al. 2012). While often of profound individual benefit, electives can be both environ- mentally destructive (not least through the carbon footprint of international travel) and locally poorly integrated into host communities. Medical schools should encourage students to reflect on their impact (socially, ethically and environmentally) and consider professionalism and social accountability along- side medical learning and personal development in electives reports.



Policy


The UK’s Sustainable Development Unit has produced a practical guide for sustainable meetings (SDU 2013) and Green Impact (NUS 2015) offers universities a framework to analyse and reduce their environmental impact, and the opportunity to involve staff and students in doing so.


Further debate


사회적 책무성과 환경적 책임의 개념이 규범적인normative한 것이므로, 다양한 의견은 도움이 되기도 하겠지만, 조금 불편할 수도 있다.

Because the concepts of social accountability and environ- mental responsibility are normative, a diversity of opinions is both useful (to promote discussion and engagement with new issues) and potentially uncomfortable.


각 의과대학이 이러한 토론을 장려할 책임이 있다.

We suggest that each medical school has a duty to encourage such debates among its staff, stakeholders and students.









For full Education for Sustainable Healthcare Priority Learning Outcomes, see
http://sustainablehealthcare.org.uk/sustainable-healthcare-education/priority-learning-outcomes



 2015 Sep;37(9):825-30. doi: 10.3109/0142159X.2015.1044955. Epub 2015 Jun 1.

Challenges to professionalismSocial accountability and global environmental change.

Author information

  • 1a Hull York Medical School , UK .
  • 2b Norwich Medical School , UK.

Abstract

This article explores the concept of professionalism as it relates to social change and social accountability, and expands on them in the light ofglobal environmental changes. Professionalism in medicine includes concepts of altruism, service, professional knowledge, self-regulation and autonomy. Current dialogues around social accountability suggest that medical schools should re-orientate their strategy and desired education, research and service outcomes to the health needs of the communities they serve.This article addresses the following questions: • How do we reconcile ideas of medical professionalism with the demands of creating a more equal, just, sustainable and socially inclusive society? • What newchallenges do or will we face in relation to environmental degradation, biodiversity loss, ecosystem health and climate change? • How can medical schools best teach social and environmental responsiveness within a framework of professionalism? • How do medical schools ensure that tomorrow's doctors possess the knowledge, skills and attitude to adapt to the challenges they will face in future roles?We offer ideas about why and how medical educators can change, recommendations to strengthen the teaching of professionalism and social accountability and suggestions about the contribution of an emerging concept, that of "environmental accountability".

PMID:

 

26030377

 

[PubMed - in process]




학습스타일 활용하기[Teaching Anatomy: A Practical Guide, 2015, Chapter 13]

Applying Learning Styles to Engage a Diversity of Learners and Behavioral Problems in Anatomy Education

Mark Terrell




Introduction


학습스타일이란..

A learning style is a set of biologically based and sociologically developed cognitive, affective, and psychosocial characteristics influencing how learners perceive, interact with, and respond to a learning environment or task [ 2 , 3 ]. 


학습스타일에 대한 두 가지 모델

The study of learning styles can be organized into two models.

  • Cognitive models emphasize differences between how learners process, encode, and retrieve information in the brain.
  • Psychosocial models are based on personality preferences and the nature of interactions between the educator and learner.



Cognitive Models of Learning Styles


다중지능이론

Multiple Intelligence Theory


고등교육은 언어지능과 수학지능을 선호하는 단일한 교육 설계를 선호한다.

Higher education has a preponderance of singular instructional designs that favor linguistic and mathematical intelligences [ 7 ].

 

 


 

콜브의 경험학습이론

Kolb’s Experiential Learning Styles


초창기의 연구는 많은 학생들이 그들의 학습스타일이 그들의 전공과 맞지 않아 생기는 스트레스를 관찰한 것으로부터 시작했다.

Initial research was based on the observation of dis-tress encountered by many students whose learning styles seemed mismatched to their dis-ciplinary majors [ 9 ]. 


네 개의 학습 스타일

The per- ceiving and processing dimensions combine to form quadrants representing four different learning styles (Fig. 13.1 ):


Diverging learners perceive new information through concrete experience and process through refl ective observation. They observe things from different perspectives, gather infor- mation, and are sensitive and imaginative. These learners prefer to work in groups, listen with an open mind, and value personal feedback.


Assimilating learners perceive new information through abstract conceptualization and pro- cess using refl ective observation. They have a preference for a concise, logical approach focused on ideas and concepts. These learners require a good clear explanation rather than practical opportunity. They excel at under- standing wide-ranging information and orga- nizing in a clear logical format.


 Converging learners perceive new information through abstract conceptualization and pro- cess using active experimentation. They have a preference for solving problems to practical issues. They prefer technical tasks, experi- ment with new ideas, simulate, and work with practical applications.

 

 Accommodating learners perceive new infor- mation through concrete experience and pro- cess using active experimentation. They have a preference for “hands-on” activities and rely on intuition or “gut instinct” rather than logic. They use other people’s analysis and are attracted to new challenges and experiences.






Psychosocial Personality-Preference Models of Learning Styles


VARK


VARK설문지

The VARK questionnaire ( http://www.vark- learn.com ) is a free, easy-to-use, online instru- ment that gives users a quick profi le of their VARK preferences.



Grasha’s Learning Styles


Anthony Grasha 의 학습스타일. 여섯개의 학습스타일과 그에 따른 교육스타일

Anthony Grasha [ 13 ] observed interactions between educators and students to develop six learning styles with corresponding teaching styles (Table 13.3 ).

 

 


 

"문제적" 학습행동

“Problematic or Diffi cult” Learning Behaviors


문제학생을 대하는 가장 좋은 방법은 patient centeredness의 원칙에 따라 생동하는 것이다. patient centeredness란 다음과 같은 것을 생각하여 행동하는 것이다.

The best approach to dealing with the problem or diffi cult learner is to relate the behav- ior to the principle of patient centeredness [ 14 ]. Healthcare professionals who func- tion using the principle of patient centeredness exhibit behaviors consistent with

  • (1) what is good for the patient (versus what is not good for the patient),
  • (2) the primacy of patient needs (versus the primacy of self-needs), and
  • (3) the integrity of the profession (versus the disintegration of the profession) [ 14 ].


많은 교육자들이 학생들의 전문직답지 못항 행실에 대해 토론하는걸 꺼리거나 눈감아버리곤 하는데, 왜냐하면 "나쁜 사람이 되기 싫어가" 학생들이 "다시는 안 그러겠지"라고 생각하거나 "그냥 갈등이 싫어서" 등의 이유를 댄다. 사실, 언프로페셔널한 행실을 찾아내지 않고 이를 다루지 않는 것 자체가 언프로페셔널한 것인데, 왜냐하면 이는 교육자 자신의 니즈를 환자나 전문직으로서의 니즈보다 우선시하는 것이기 때문이다.

Many educa- tors avoid confl icts and discussions of or have a blind eye for unprofessional behaviors because “they don’t want to be the bad guy” or the student “won’t do it again” or they “just don’t like con- fl ict.” In fact, the issue of not identifying and deal- ing with an observed unprofessional behavior is in itself unprofessional because it puts needs of the educator over that of the patient or the profes- sion. Clarity and constructive feedback coupled with descriptions of service to patients (patient centeredness) is crucial [ 14 ].

 

 


 

학습스타일 원칙에 관한 여섯 가지 토론

Discussion of Six Learning Style Principles for Anatomy Educators


1. Learning styles and teaching styles should be refl ected upon and identifi ed. Knowing one’s learning style can be benefi cial if learners take the next step and consider how and when they learn, as part of a refl ective, metacognitive process, with action to follow. 

 

2. Learning styles are preferences and are not the only way a learner can learn. Learners should initially have the opportunity to learn through their preferred style and then be advanced toward other, less developed styles. Strengthening students’ less preferred learning styles helps them become more ver- satile learners and amendable to the requi- sites of real world of the health professions [ 15 ]. 

 

3. Learning styles should drive the selection of teaching styles. It is more effective for the educator to match their teaching style with their learners than learners to adjust their learning style to the teaching style. 

 

4. Learning styles are equal; one is not superior to the other. Educators should develop specifi c educational activities that support each learn- ing style. Using only one strategy selectively excludes many learners. Educators that teach in a multi-style fashion reach the greatest diversity of students and challenge all stu- dents to grow [ 16 ]. 

 

5. Learning styles should drive multimodal assessment. This allows students to demon- strate competency in alignment with their pre- ferred style of learning. 

 

6. Problematic learning behaviors impede devel- opment toward competency. Applying the principle of patient centeredness to the prob- lematic learning behavior is powerful approach to discuss the behavior’s impact on patient care.


Conclusion




 


 


 


 


 






Chapter

Teaching Anatomy

pp 107-114

Date: 

Applying Learning Styles to Engage a Diversity of Learners and Behavioral Problems in Anatomy Education

Mark Terrell 


Abstract

The integration of learning styles helps anatomy educators meet the diverse needs of healthcare students who can later apply these learning styles to learn about and teach to diverse patients they encounter in the clinic. A learning style is a set of cognitive and psychosocial characteristics influencing how learners perceive, interact with, and respond to a learning environment. The study of learning styles uses two models of thought. The cognitive model examines how learners process information in the brain and extrapolates educational strategies to the classroom and includes Gardner’s multiple intelligences and Kolb’s experiential learning styles. The psychosocial model uses classroom observations of interactions between educators and learners to derive learning styles, including the VARK learning styles and the work of Grasha. Some learners exhibit problematic behaviors that prevent learning, requiring the educator to apply the principle of patient centeredness to address the behavioral deficiencies. Finally, six learning style principles specific for anatomy education are synthesized from the analysis of the aforementioned learning styles.

강의하기[Teaching Anatomy: A Practical Guide, 2015, Chapter 8]

Giving a Lecture 

Lap Ki Chan




강의는 "정보가 교수자와 학습자의 생각minds of either은 거치지 않은 채로 강의자의 노트에서 학생의 노트로 넘어가는 과정"

A lecture has been defi ned as “a process by which information is transferred from the notes of the lecturer to the notes of the student without going through the minds of either” (by Sir Joseph Barcroft, cited by Book [ 2 ]).


교육의 초점을 정보를 전달하는 것에서 학생들이 정보material을 통합assimilate하게 도와줘야 한다는 근거는 넘쳐난다. 나의 유일한 후회는 내가 강의를 사랑했다는 것이다.

“So, evidence is mounting that readjusting the focus of education from information transfer to helping students assimilate material is paying off. My only regret is that I love to lecture.” Mazur [ 1 ]




강의 전에 할 것

What to Do Before a Lecture



ILO 작성

Formulate the Intended Learning Outcomes



성과-바탕 접근 도입

Adopt the Outcome-Based Approach


우리가 무엇을 하느냐가 아니라 학생이 무엇을 하느냐가 중요하다.

“It’s not what we do, but what students do that’s the important thing” [ 3 p. 19].


This alignment of activities and assessments with the intended learning outcomes is called constructive alignment


ILO작성

Write Intended Learning Outcomes


Bloom’s taxonomy

Bloom’s taxonomy [ 4 ] provides a useful list of such verbs for cognitive learning,


 

강의 내용 결정

Determine the Content of a Lecture



학생이 성과를 달성하게 돕기

Help Students to Achieve the Outcomes


강의의 내용은 학생이 ILO를 달성하게 도와주어야 하며, 모든 다른 목표는 부수적인 것이다.

The content of a lecture should help students to achieve its intended learning outcomes. All other goals are secondary.



강의를 맥락 안에 두기

Put the Lecture in Its Context


교수자는 자신의 강의가 전체 프로그램 내에서 어떻게 위치하는지 알아야 한다.

The teacher needs to know how his/her lecture fi ts into the course or the whole program:

 


 

오버패킹 지양하기

Avoid Overpacking


강의를 정보로 오버패킹 하는 것은 학습을 저하시킬 수 있다. Russell 등은 정보밀도가 낮은 강의에서 학생들이 오히려 더 잘 배운다는 것을 발견했다. 그들은 수업시간의 절반을 새로운 내용을 전달하는데introducing 쓰고, 나머지 절반은 설명/강화/적용explana- tions, reinforcement, and applications 해야 할 것을 권고했다.

Moreover, overpacking a lecture with information may actually decrease learning. Russell et al. [ 5 ] found that students in lectures with low informa- tion density actually learned more than those in lectures that conveyed more information. They suggested that only half of the time in a lecture should be used for introducing new information and the other half should be devoted to explana- tions, reinforcement, and applications.



연습

Rehearse



준비가 덜 된 것은 교수자에게도 부정적인 영향을 준다. 교수자가 강의 슬라이드를 리드하는 것이 아니라, 강의슬라이드에 교수가 끌려다니게 된다.

Such a lack of preparation refl ects negatively on the teacher, who is now being led by the slides, instead of leading the slides and the lecture.


슬라이드를 왔다갔다 할 수 있다.(숫자 누르고 엔터)

They can even jump from one slide to another in response to the audience’s needs or questions (by pressing the slide number and then “enter”).



강의 도중에 해야 할 것

What to Do During a Lecture


어떻게 스스로를 프리젠테이션 할 것인가.

How to Present Yourself


열정 보여주기

Show Enthusiasm


열정적으로, 명확하게 말하기

Speak Enthusiastically and Clearly


  • 1. Conveying enthusiasm. Variations in the tone and speed, among other things, convey enthusiasm. 
  • 2. Emphasizing points. You can emphasize important points by saying them more loudly, at a higher pitch; by lengthening certain syl- lables; or by pausing before and after the important words. 
  • 3. Speaking clearly. A good teacher should avoid halting speech, false starts, redundancy, and fi llers (e.g., um er ah uh eh right like you know ). The best way to self-diagnose fi ller is to listen to a recording of one’s own lecture. 
  • 4. Pausing appropriately. Pauses are important, not only for emphasis but also to leave room for students to think, to digest, and to raise questions. Pausing is also important after you ask a question. Most teachers do not pause long enough before they give the answers themselves. Such self-answering behavior indicates to the students that they do not need to answer your questions since they know you will give them the answers. 
  • 5. Being humorous. Appropriate use of humor can relax both the teacher and the student and shorten the perceived psychological distance between them. 
  • 6. Using a wireless microphone. When the audi- ence is large, you need a microphone. However, speaking into the microphone fi xed to the podium immobilizes and limits your performance on stage. A wireless microphone is much preferred.

 






눈맞춤

Make Eye Contact


제스쳐

Gesture


하지 말아야 할 제스쳐 

There are, however, some gestures that you should avoid, e.g.,

  • 학생 손가락으로 가리키기 pointing at the students (peo- ple in general do not like being pointed at),
  • 연단 한쪽 짚고 서있기 hold- ing onto the side of the podium,
  • 주머지에 손 넣기 putting your hands in your pockets (both give the impression that you feel insecure), or
  • 동전 짤랑거리기 any gestures and man- nerisms that might distract students’ attention, such as jiggling coins or keys in your pocket.

돌아다니기

Walk Around


연단은 전쟁에서 터렛과 같다. 연자를 청중으로부터 보호해준다.

A podium can be compared to a turret during battle: it defends the speaker from the audience.



적절한 복장

Dress Appropriately


여러 차례 연속된 강의를 하는 것이라면, 처음에는 보다 포멀하게 입고(신뢰 구축), 점차 보다 편안한 복장을 입음으로서 power distance를 줄일 수 있다.

If you are giving a series of lectures, you can wear more formal clothing for the fi rst few lectures to establish your credibility and then switch to more relaxed attire when you want to decrease the perceived power distance between you and the students.



도구 사용

Use Tools


  • 1. A pointer allows the teacher to indicate the point of interest on the slide.
  • 2. A presenter (or remote presentation clicker) remotely controls the progression of computer slides.
  • 3. A visual presenter (or document camera) con- sists of a video camera connected to the pro- jector or a computer.
  • 4. An on-screen drawing device allows the teacher to digitally draw on the screen of the computer at the podium or even on the pro- jected image.
  • 5. Audience response systems (ARS) or clickers allow all students in a lecture to indicate their responses to, say, a question.




강의의 각 부분별로 무엇을 하면 좋을까

What to Do in Different Parts of a Lecture


도입부

The Introduction of a Lecture


첫 몇 분이 학생과의 관계 형성에 중요

The fi rst few minutes of the lecture are very important since you establish your relationship with the students and prepare them for learning.


    • 자기소개 A self-introduction
    • 비형식 대화 An informal conversation
    • 이전 강의에 대한 짧은 리뷰 A short review of how the current lecture relates to previous ones
    • 강의의 ILO 설명 The intended learning outcomes should be stated.


중간부

The Body of a Lecture



1. 핵심 포인트 중심으로 나누기

Divide it into key points.


  • In the classical method a lecture is divided into sections and each section into subsections, each with its own key points. In anatomy lectures delivered using this method, a region is divided into subregions or a struc- ture into its parts, each with its own elabora- tion and summary.
  • The problem-centered method starts with a problem that forms the focus of the lecture, with the solutions form- ing the parts of the lecture. This method can be intellectually stimulating and motivating, can stimulate students to refl ect on their prior knowledge, and can be used for illustrating the clinical aspects of anatomy.
  • The sequential method consists of a series of linked state- ments, eventually leading to the conclusions. This method is commonly used in lectures on management of clinical problems.

 

These three methods of organizing a lecture are not mutu- ally exclusive. One can have a classical lec- ture, with one of the sections being organized by the problem-centered method or the sequential method.

 


 

2. 핵심 포인트 설명하기

Elaborate the key points.


이야기, 자격요건(qualifications), 사진, 적용사례 등

A well-delivered lecture should not be completely packed with key points. Each key point needs elaboration, which can be explanations, examples, stories, qualifi cations, photos, applications, etc.



3. 핵심 포인트 연결하기

Link the key points.


by using such words as “thus,” “there- fore,” “consequently,” etc.


4. 속도 조절하기

Manage the pace.


The best way to avoid getting into this situation of being forced to go fast at the expense of student learn- ing is to avoid overpacking the lecture.




강의 마무리

The Conclusion of a Lecture


강의는 갑작스럽게 끝나서는 안된다. 학생의 집중력은 강의 종료 직전 몇 분간 가장 높다.

A lecture should not end abruptly. The attention of the students is usually the highest in the last few minutes of the lecture.




 

학생과 교사의 상호작용

Interaction Between the Teacher and Students


심리적, 물리적 거리가 작다고 느낄 때 학생들은 더 상호작용하게 됨(teacher immediacy)

Interactions are possible and should be encour- aged in lectures. But students are more likely to interact with teachers who are perceived as hav- ing less physical and psychological distance from them (called teacher immediacy ),


1. 질문

Questions.


질문을 한 다음 10초간 기다림. 대답이 없으면 질문을 다시 말해주거나(다른 방식으로) 더 구체적으로 말해줌. 학생에게 더 가까이 다가갈 수도 있음 답이 나오면 지지적이어야 하며 nonjudgemental해야 함

But after asking a question, the teacher should pause for at least 10 s, to allow students to think and prepare the answer. If there is no response, the teacher should restate the question differently or more specifi cally. The teacher can move closer to the students, lean forward, and open his/her arms to invite answers. When an answer comes, the teacher should be supportive and nonjudgmental ( verbally and in your facial expression and gestures),



2. Think–pair–share and write–pair–share.


2~3분간. 그룹지어서.

the students form groups of two to exchange their responses. After 2 or 3 min,


3. Demonstration.



4. Role-playing.



5. One-minute paper.


마지막 몇 분간 학생들에게 다음에 대해서 종이에 써서 제출하게 함.

In the last few minutes of a lecture, the teacher asks the students to write down on a piece of paper their answers to such questions as follows:

(a) 가장 중요한 부분은? What are the most important points that you learned today?

(b) 가장 어려웠던 부분은? What are the most confusing points?

(c) 명확하지 않았던 부분은? Are there points that are not clear to you?

 

 



PPT슬라이드 만들기

How to Prepare Presentation Slides


배경

Background


solid color 배경이 가장 좋다.

Therefore, a solid color background is the best. A picture should not be used as a background. When a picture must be used, it should be dimmed or blurred.



텍스트

Text


Short Bullet Points


메시지는 교수자가 전달해야지 슬라이드가 전달해서는 안된다.

The messages of the lecture should be delivered by the teacher, not by the presentation slides.


6 x 6 법칙. (6줄, 줄당 6단어)

PPT노래방 이 되어서는 안됨

But the “six-by-six” rule, which states that a slide should contain at most six lines of text, each with at most six words, should not be taken too literally in presenting complex content to students. On the other hand, one should not put everything one wants to say on the slides and use them as script (a presenta- tion style jokingly referred to as “PowerPoint karaoke”).



Simple and Consistent Text Format


두 개 이하의 포트만 사용. Sans serif 사용

Therefore, a teacher should use only one or at most two fonts. Sans serif fonts are pre- ferred,




Platform Compatibility


맥과 윈도우 모두에서 가능한 것으로. 폰트도 Arial, Times New Roman, or Courier등 사용

If the slides are created on a Mac but will be pre- sented on a PC (or vice versa), it is best to use a font which is available on both platforms, such as Arial, Times New Roman, or Courier.




멀티미디어

Multimedia


Use Good and Relevant Graphics


Elaborate and Progressively Reveal Complex Graphics


Avoid Animation


Use Video


Avoid Chart Junk and Junk Charts


Chart junk 표에서 메시지 전달에는 도움이 되지 않고 방해만 되는 것.

Chart junk is elements of a chart that do not con- tribute to its message and therefore serve only to distract.

 

Junk charts 는 잘 그려지지 않아서 의도한 메시지를 전달하지 못하는 표

Junk charts are charts that are poorly designed to convey their intended message.



슬라이드

Slides



텍스트와 멀티미디어의 통합

Integrate Text and Multimedia


근접성 원칙con- tiguity principle : 텍스트와 관련 그래픽을 인접하게 두어서 학생이 머리속으로 그 작업을 하지 않게 하는 것.

Integrating text and graphics means doing this mental integration for the students by putting the parts of the text next to the corre- sponding parts of the graphic. This recommendation is called the con- tiguity principle [ 14 ].



그래픽을 말로 설명하기

Explain Graphics Orally


modality principle:

The modality principle tells us that students learn better when the graphics are explained in spoken words than with written text accompanying the graphics [ 14 ].


redundancy principle:

The redundancy principle says that when a graphic is explained orally and is accompanied by textual explanation, student learning may be impaired [ 14 ]. The reason is that the graphic and the textual explanation are both jammed into the visual component of the working memory, which may thus be overloaded.


Leave Space



Use a Consistent Layout


The layout refers to the position of the text, graphics, titles, etc., on the slide.



Use B and W Keyboard Functions


Avoid Fancy Slide Transitions



결론

Conclusions


 



 


 






Chapter

Teaching Anatomy

pp 61-71

Date: 

Giving a Lecture

  • Lap Ki Chan 

Abstract

Lectures, when appropriately delivered, can promote effective student learning. During preparation of a lecture, an outcome-based approach helps the teacher to plan the content and activities to help students achieve the intended learning outcomes. The teacher also needs to consider the relationship of the lecture to the rest of the course or program so that the lecture builds on what students have learned and prepares them for further study. In the introduction of a lecture, the teacher needs to establish a closer relationship with the students and prepare them for learning. In the body of a lecture, the teacher needs to organize the content into key points and link them to give students the big picture. But the teacher must not pack excessive information into a lecture, sacrificing elaborations. There should also be an effective conclusion in which the teacher can summarize the key points and outcomes and stimulate further self-directed learning. Apart from the careful organization of the lecture content, the teacher’s enthusiasm will also significantly affect student learning and attitude toward the subject, and it is reflected in the way that the teacher speaks, moves, makes eye contact, and interacts with the students. The teacher also needs to prepare the presentation slides carefully, if he/she chooses to use them, so that they do not distract the students from the content and the interactions with the teacher.



성공적인 성인학습의 요소[Teaching Anatomy: A Practical Guide, 2015, Chapter 1]

Elements of Successful Adult Learning

Lap Ki Chan and Miriam Uhlmann






노울즈는 성인학습과 아동학습을 비교하면서 아동학습을 "아이들을 가르치는 예술과 과학"이라고 부르며, 학습자들이 무엇을 어떻게 배울지에 대해서 선생님에게 의존하며, 학습절차에 대한 개인적 경험이 거의 없고, 학습요구를 다른 사람이 대체로 결정해주며, 대상-중심적subject centered 라고 했다. 그러나 성인학습과 아동학습은, 서로 다른 상황에 놓였을 때, 동일한 학습자에 대해서도 적용될 수 있는 두 가지 서로 다른 가정assumption으로 보아야 한다.

Knowles [ 1 ] contrasted andragogy with peda- gogy, which he defi ned as “the art and science of teaching children” (note that it is different from the general usage of the term nowadays) wherein the learners are assumed to be more dependent on the teachers in determining what and how they learn,have little personal experience to bring to the learn-ing process, have learning needs largely deter-mined by someone other than themselves, and are more subject centered. However, andragogy and pedagogy should be considered as two separate sets of assumptions that can sometimes be applied to learners of any age under different situations [ 1 ]. 


요구에 기반함

Based on Needs


Abraham Maslow 의 욕구 피라미드

A theory of motivation based on human needs was described by Abraham Maslow and is known by many as Maslow’s pyramid/hierarchy of human needs [ 2 ].


노울즈가 묘사한 것과 연관지어보자면..

The relation to edu- cation was described by Knowles in 1980 [ 1 ]:

 

“These basic needs have relevance to education in that they provide the deep motivating springs for learning, and in that they prescribe certain conditions that the educators must take into account if they are to help people learn…. An educational need, therefore, is the discrepancy between what individuals (or organizations or society) want themselves to be and what they are; the distance between an aspiration and a reality.”

 


 

동기

Motivation



동기는 교육적 요구가 있을 때 생긴다. 그리고 동기에는 '인식'이 중요한 역할을 한다. 인식은 "왜 의료전문직들이 유사한 주제와 프로그램에 대해서 서로 다른 요구를 갖는지를 이해하는 핵심"이다.

Motivation to learn arises from an educational need. Perception plays a major role in motivation and “…is the cornerstone of understanding why health professionals may have different levels of motivation related to similar topics and pro-grams…” [ 4 ].


 


 

Table 1.1 Advantages/disadvantages of several need assessment methods (adapted from Kern et al. [ 3 ])

 

 


현실적으로 적용하기 위해서, 학습자의 동기부여를 위해서는 다음의 두 가지를 고려해야 한다.

For practical application, it is crucial to consider the following two points to motivate your learners:


1. 학습자들이 지식과 수행능력의 gap을 인식하게 하라
Help your learners to realize their gaps in knowledge and performance
by, for example: 

  • Online self-assessments: Based on your defi ned outcomes, ask your learners about their perceived present level and their desired level. This can easily be done with an online survey tool. It is important that learners can see their results to recognize their gaps. 
  • On-site small group discussions: During small group discussions, you can fi nd out about the present level of knowledge, and you can help learners to understand where they are and where they should be. This is important in situations where learners think they already know a lot (although they in fact do not) and would therefore not be highly motivated to learn. 
  • Reflection (see also section on “Refl ection”): Refl ective practice helps learners to identify their gaps.


2. 다양한 교육법을 활용하여 학습자들이 동기부여된 상태로 유지되게끔 하라

Help your learners to stay motivated by using a variety of teaching methods: 

  • Use interactive methods for teaching such as interactive lectures and small group discussions. 
  • Use new technologies to allow for self- directed learning, e.g., provide online resources such as readings or recorded lec- tures/webinars. 
  • Provide learners with clear goals and outcomes
  • Provide time and opportunities for reflection
  • Blend traditional strategies with technology, e.g., self-assessment tests can be completed online and linked to discussion forums.




성과

Outcome Driven


한 가지는 SOLO(Structure of Observed Learning Outcomes) taxonomy가 있다.

One is the SOLO (Structure of Observed Learning Outcomes) tax- onomy [ 5 ], which describes several levels of complexity in the learner’s understanding of a subject:

  • 전-구조 prestructural (learners have unconnected information),
  • 단일-구조 unistructural (learners are able to make simple and obvious connections between facts),
  • 다(층)-구조 multistructural (learners see more connec- tions but miss the signifi cance to the whole),
  • 관계적 relational (learners appreciate the signifi cance of the parts to the whole), and
  • 확장된 추상 extended abstract (learners make connections beyond the subject and are able to generalize).

 

또 다른 것으로 Bloom’s taxonomy가 있다.

Another model is the revised Bloom’s taxonomy [ 6 ], which identifi es six sub- categories in the cognitive domain of learning activities:

  • knowledge,
  • comprehension,
  • applica- tion,
  • analysis,
  • synthesis, and
  • evaluation. 


밀러의 피라미드도 있다.

Miller’s pyramid can also help teachers to formulate learning outcomes for their learners(Fig. 1.3 ) [ 7 ].


평가방법은 의도한 성과를 염두에 두고 결정하여야 한다. 이러한 교수/학습 활동과 평가의 alignment를 constructive alignment라 한다.

They also need to decide on the assessment meth-ods and standards with the intended outcomes in mind. Such an alignment of teaching/learning activities and assessment with the outcomes is called constructive alignment [ 8 ] 

 

 


 

'이해한다'는 적절한 동사가 아니며, 관찰가능하지 않고, 간접적으로만 평가가능하기 때문이다.

On the other hand, “under- stand” will not be an appropriate verb, because it is not observable and can only be indirectly assessed.

 

 


능동 학습

Active Learning


능동학습에서 성인학습이 더 잘 배운다는 근거가 있으며, 능동학습이란 일반적으로 '학습자가 유의미한 학습활동에 참여하고, 그들이 무엇을 하고 있는가에 대해서 mindful한 학습 프로세스'로 정의할 수 있다.

There is evidence that adults learn better with active learning, which can generally be defi ned as a learning process in which the learners are engaged in meaningful activities in the classroom and are mindful of what they are doing [ 12 13 ].


전통적 강의는 일방향적으로 이뤄지며 상호작용어 없어서 '능동학습이 빠져있을 때 학습이 어떠한가'를 보여주는 예시로 쓰인다.

A traditional lecture, which is delivered in a unidirectional manner without interactions between the teacher and the learners, is often used to illustrate what learning is like when active learning is absent.


성찰

Reflection



성찰이 먼저 정의되어야 한다.

Before a meaningful discussion can proceed, “refl ection” must fi rst be defi ned because this term is used in everyday life and has different meanings in specifi c circumstances.

  • Moon [ 17 ] defi ned it as “a form of mental processing with a purpose and/or anticipated outcome that is applied to relatively complex or unstructured ideas for which there is no obvious solution,” while
  • Boud et al. [ 18 ] defi ned it as “a generic term for those intellectual and affective activities in which indi- viduals engage to explore their experiences in order to lead to a new understanding and appre- ciation.” A more inclusive defi nition is given by
  • Sanders [ 19 ]: “Refl ection is a metacognitive pro- cess that occurs before, during and after situations with the purpose of developing greater under- standing of both the self and the situation so that future encounters with the situation are informed from previous encounters.”


따라서 이 과정은 '생각에 대한 생각'이며(메타인지), 이것은 새로운 지식과 스킬의 습득에 관한 것일 뿐만 아니라, 자신과 상황에 대한 이해도 포함되며, 학습자가 미래에 닥칠 (지금과 다른) 상황에 대응하기 위한 것이다.

It is thus considered a process of thinking about thinking (metacogni- tion) that involves not only the acquisition of new knowledge or skills but also an understanding of both the self and the situation, so that the learner will respond differently in future encounters.


학습에 있어서 성찰이 중요함을 고려하면, 성찰이라는 것이 필요한 만큼 자연스럽게 일어나는 것이 아니고, 적극적으로 장려(촉진)되어야 하는 것이라는 사실은 놀랍다. Moon 은 과제가 challenging하고 ill-structured 되어 있을 때, ordering of thougths를 필요로 할때, 평가가 동반될 때, 이전 학습에 새로운 것을 통합해야 할 때 성찰이 더 잘 일어난다.

Given the important role of refl ection in learn- ing, it is surprising that it does not spontaneously occur as often as desired and needs to be actively promoted. Moon [ 23 ] pointed out that learner refl ection can be promoted when the tasks are challenging and ill structured (e.g., real-life examples), demand ordering of thoughts (e.g., following exposure to disorganized data), involve evaluation, and require integration of the new into previous learning.

 

 


피드백

Feedback


피드백의 목적은 수행능력과 성찰의 향상이며, 비판이나 판단이 아니다. 

Therefore, the purpose of feedback is to improve performance [ 26 ] and refl ection [ 25 ], not to criticize or judge.


흔한 피드백의 모델은 Pendleton 모델

A common model for giving feedback in clini- cal education settings was developed by Pendleton [ 27 ]. Pendleton’s rules consist of the following steps:


Elements of Effective Feedback


  • 1. Check if the learner wants and is ready for feedback. 
  • 2. Allow the learner to give comments/back- ground to the material that is being assessed.
  • 3. The learner states what was done well.
  • 4. The observer states what was done well.
  • 5. The observer states what could be improved.
  • 6. The teacher states how it could be improved.
  • 7. An action plan for improvement is made together.

샌드위치 모델

One of these is the “sandwich” model, which

  • starts with identi- fying the learner’s strength, is
  • followed by identi- fying the learner’s areas in need of development, and
  • concludes by reinforcing the strengths again.




 


 


 


 


 


 





Chapter

Teaching Anatomy

pp 3-10

Date: 

Elements of Successful Adult Learning

  • Lap Ki Chan 
  • Miriam Uhlmann


Abstract

Most adult learners are self-directed, attach high value to learning through experience, prefer learning that helps them to deal with real-life situations or problems, are more interested in immediate, problem-centered approaches, and are more motivated to learn by internal drivers than by external drivers. To promote successful adult learning, faculty needs to understand the needs of learners and to motivate them by enabling them to perceive any gaps that exist between their present level of ability (what is) and their desired level (what ought to be). Motivation and learning can be improved by informing learners about the intended outcomes of learning activities and how achieving these outcomes will help them to bridge the gap between their present and desired levels of ability. Teaching and learning activities and assessment methods and standards should all be designed to help learners to achieve these outcomes. Learners should be actively engaged in the learning process, instead of passively receiving information. They should be given frequent, accurate, and specific feedback at the appropriate time and should be given time and opportunities for reflection.



완전학습: 의학교육이 21세기에 합류할 시대(Acad Med, 2015)

Mastery Learning: It Is Time for Medical Education to Join the 21st Century

William C. McGaghie, PhD






전통적인 임상의학교육은 Sir William Osler 가 New York Academy of Medicine 에서 1903년 발표한 19세기적 '임상역량의 습득'에 대한 생각에 기반을 두고 있다. 이 발표의 제목은 “The hospital as a college,” 로서 이후 'Aequanimitas'라는 제목으로 발표되었다. 1903년의 강연은 오슬러의 유럽의학교육에 대한 이전 경험을 반영하고 있으며, 오슬러는 유럽의학교육이 미국의 모델보다 우월하다고 판단했다. 오슬러는 이렇게 말했다.

Traditional clinical medical education is grounded in 19th-century thinking about the acquisition of clinical competence expressed by Sir William Osler in an address to the New York Academy of Medicine in 1903. The address, titled “The hospital as a college,” was published later in a collection of Osler’s essays titled Aequanimitas.2 The 1903 lecture reflects Osler’s earlier experience with European medical education which he judged superior to the extant American model. Osler states,

 

 

이 나라의 clinical clerk 시스템에는 급진적 개혁이 필요하다. 학생을 가르치는 자연적 방법natural method은 환자로부터 시작하고, 환자와 더불어 이어지고, 환자에 대한 의사의 연구로서 종결된다. 학생에게 어떻게 관찰할 것인가만 가르치면, 팩트로부터 교훈이 저절로 나올 것이다.

“The radical reform needed is in the introduction into this country of the system of clinical clerks.…” Osler continues: “In what may be called the natural method of teaching the student begins with the patient, continues with the patient, and ends his studies with the patient [emphasis added]. Teach him how to observe, and the lessons will come out of the facts themselves.”


'natural method of teaching'에 대한 오슬러의 생각은 존스홉킨스의 외과의사 동료인 William Halsted 역시 지지하게 되는데, 그는 1904년 “the training of the surgeon” 를 기술한 바 있다. 오슬러와 할스테드는 임상의학교육이 환자에 내제embodied 되어 있다고 보았다. 즉, 학생이 환자에 노출되어 오랜 시간 함께하게 되면, 이것으로 역량있는 의사가 되기에 충분한 훈련을 받은 것이다. 이는 수동적인 임상교육과정모델이며, 온전히 지속적 환자 경험에만 의존하고 있는 것이다. 오슬러와 할스테드는 구조화된, 단계화된 교육과정을 언급한 바가 없다. 피드백을 동반한 객관적 평가, 초심자 의사가 마스터가 되기 위한 guided reflection 등도 없다.

Osler’s idea about the natural method of teaching was endorsed by his Johns Hopkins surgeon colleague William Halsted,3 who described “the training of the surgeon” in 1904. Osler and Halsted argued that the clinical medical curriculum is embodied in patients—that is, student exposure to patients and experience over time is sufficient to ensure that physicians in training will become competent doctors. This is a passive clinical medical curriculum model based solely on longitudinal patient experience. Osler and Halsted made no place for structured, graded educational requirements; skills practice; objective evaluation with feedback; accountability; and guided reflection for novice physicians to master their craft.


오슬러의 natural method of teaching 에 대한 구조와 조작적 표현은 오늘날 의과대학/레지던트/펠로우/CME에서도 흔하게 볼 수 있는 것이며, "시간이 중요한time honored" 방식이 여전히 보존되고 지속되고 있다.

Structural and operational expressions of Osler’s natural method of teaching are seen every day at medical schools, residencies, fellowship programs, and continuing education where “time honored” practices (e.g., morning report, professor and grand rounds) are preserved and sustained.



완전학습 프로그램에 대한 메타분석 결과는 no intervention과 비교했을 때, 스킬 영역에 효과가 크고, 환자outcome에 대해서 중등도의 효과가 있다.

The meta-analytic results show that mastery learning programs are associated with large effects on skills and moderate effects on patient outcomes compared with no intervention.


저자들은 "완전학습 모델이 역량중심교육에 특히 관계가 깊으며, 이는 규정된 학습시간이 아니라 규정된 목표를 공동으로 강조shared emphasis하기 때문이다"라고 결론지었다.

The authors conclude, “The mastery model may be particularly relevant to competency-based education, given the shared emphasis on defined objectives rather than defined learning time.”6


Clinical experience alone is insufficient to guarantee the acquisition and maintenance of clinical competence. Osler’s natural method of teaching based solely on longitudinal clinical experience without curriculum objectives and measurement, performance expectations, learner practice with supervision, rigorous assessment with feedback, high achievement standards, and clear educational milestones is obsolete and simply does not work.



완전학습

Mastery Learning


완전학습은 여러 교육과학자들, 그리고 John Carroll이 1963년 연구하고 저술한 교육적 접근법으로부터 유래한다. 완전학습의 중심 교리는 다음과 같다.

Mastery learning is an educational approach that originates from research and writing beginning with John Carroll7 in 1963 and other early educational scientists including Fred Keller,8 James Block,9,10 and Benjamin Bloom.11 The central tenets of mastery learning are that

(1) 모든 학습자에게 교육 수월성을 기대하고 학습자는 이를 달성한다.

educational excellence is expected and can be achieved by all learners, and

(2) 완전학습에 있어서 학습자간 성과의 차이는 거의 없다.

little or no variation in measured outcomes will be seen among learners in a mastery environment.


완전학습은 K.A. Ericsson이 언급한 교육공학(educational engineering)의 문제로서 시작되었다. 핵심 질문은, '높은 교육적 태도와 강력한 성취동기를 가진 유망한 학습자들이 있을 때(의과대학생과 레지던트 등), 어떻게 교육환경을 설계해야 최대한의 학습성과를 얻을 수 있을까?' 였고, 이에 대한 대답은 모든 학습자가 완전(수준)성취를 이루게끔 촉진하는 교육조건을 만들고 관리하는 것이었다.

Mastery learning starts as an educational engineering problem, as articulated by K.A. Ericsson12 in his contribution to this thematic cluster. The key question is, given prospective learners with high educational aptitude and strong achievement motivation (e.g., medical students and residents), how shall we design an educational environment that produces maximum learning outcomes among all trainees? The answer is to create and manage a set of educational conditions—a curriculum and assessment plan—that promotes mastery level achievement among all learners.


완전학습에서는 학습자간 variation이 거의 존재하지 않으며, 반대로 학습시간은 학습자간 크게 다를 수 있다.

Mastery learning results are uniform with little or no variation among learners. By contrast, educational time can vary among learners.


 

다른 곳에서 기술된 바와 같이,

As stated elsewhere,14 


완전학습은 최소 아래의 일곱 개의 complementary feature를 가지고 있다.

mastery learning has [at least] the following seven complementary features: 

1. 베이스라인 평가 Baseline, or diagnostic testing; 

2. 점차 난이도가 증가하는 순서로 배치된 명확한 학습성과, Clear learning objectives, sequenced as units usually in increasing difficulty; 

3. 목표 달성을 위한 학습활동에 참여 Engagement in educational activities (e.g., deliberate skills practice, calculations, data interpretation, reading) focused on reaching the objectives; 

4. 각 학습유닛에 대한 최소 합격선 설정 A set minimum passing standard (e.g., test score) for each educational unit; 

5. 완전mastery 수준을 위한 단위 성취unit completion을 측정하기 위해 미리 설정된 최소 통과기준에 대한 형성평가
Formative testing to gauge unit completion at a preset minimum passing standard for mastery; 

6. 완전 기준을 달성하거나 넘어서면 다음 교육단계로 넘어가기
Advancement to the next educational unit given measured achievement at or above the mastery standard; and 

7. 완전 기준을 달성할 때까지 해당 유닛을 지속적으로 연습(학습)

Continued practice or study on an educational unit until the mastery standard is reached.




Mastery Learning Cluster





Future Directions


완전학습 교육과정의 도입되면서 점차 더 많은 의학교육프로그램들이  Berwick의 'categories of innovator'에서 '초기 도입자' 수준에 이르렀다.

A growing number of medical education programs now qualify for Berwick’s categories of innovator or early adopter25 as a result of implementing mastery learning curricula.



Conclusion



Thomas Kuhn은 정상과학을 다음과 같이 정의했다.

Writing in The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, Thomas Kuhn27 defined normal science as


the activity in which most scientists inevitably spend almost all of their time, [which] is predicated on the assumption that the scientific community knows what the world is like. Much of the success of the enterprise derives from the community’s willingness to defend that assumption, if necessary at considerable cost.



 



12 Ericsson KA. Acquisition and maintenance of medical expertise: A perspective from the expert performance approach and deliberate


17 Inui TS. The charismatic journey of mastery learning. Acad Med. 2015;90:1442–1444.


18 Lineberry M, Park YS, Cook DA, Yudkowsky R. Making the case for mastery learning assessments: Key issues in validation and justification. Acad Med. 2015;90:1445–1450.



20 McGaghie WC, Barsuk JH, Cohen ER, Kristopaitis T, Wayne DB. Dissemination of an innovative mastery learning curriculum grounded in implementation science principles: A case study. Acad Med. 2015;90:1487–1494.


21 Yudkowsky R, Park YS, Lineberry M, Knox A, Ritter EM. Setting mastery learning standards. Acad Med. 2015;90:1495–1500.


22 Eppich WJ, Hunt EA, Duval-Arnould JM, Siddal VJ, Cheng A. Structuring feedback and debriefing to achieve mastery learning goals. Acad Med. 2015;90:1501–1508.



23 Cohen ER, McGaghie WC, Wayne DB, Lineberry M, Yudkowsky R, Barsuk JH. Recommendations for reporting mastery education research in medicine (ReMERM). Acad Med. 2015;90:1509–1514.



24 Griswold-Theodorson S, Ponnuru S, Dong C, Szyld D, Reed T, McGaghie WC. Beyond the simulation laboratory: A realist synthesis of clinical outcomes of simulation based mastery learning. Acad Med. 2015;90:1553–1560.



25 Berwick DM. Disseminating innovations in health care. JAMA. 2003;289:1969–1975.






 2015 Nov;90(11):1438-41. doi: 10.1097/ACM.0000000000000911.

Mastery learning: it is time for medical education to join the 21st century.

Author information

  • 1W.C. McGaghie is professor of medical education, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois.

Abstract

Clinical medical education in the 21st century is grounded in a 19th-century model that relies on longitudinal exposure to patients as the curriculum focus. The assumption is that medical students and postgraduate residents will learn from experience, that vicarious or direct involvement in patient care is the best teacher. The weight of evidence shows, however, that results from such traditional clinical education are uneven at best. Educational inertia endorsed until recently by medical school accreditation policies has maintained the clinical medical education status quo for decades.Masterylearning is a new paradigm for medical education. Basic principles of mastery learning are that educational excellence is expected and can be achieved by all learners and that little or no variation in measured outcomes will result. This Commentary describes the origins of mastery learningand presents its essential features. The Commentary then introduces the eight reports that comprise the mastery learning cluster for this issue of Academic Medicine. The reports are intended to help medical educators recognize advantages of the mastery model and begin to implementmastery learning at their own institutions. The Commentary concludes with brief statements about future directions for mastery learning program development and research in medical education.

PMID:
 
26375269
 
[PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]


완전학습 기준 설정하기(Acad Med, 2015)

Setting Mastery Learning Standards

Rachel Yudkowsky, MD, MHPE, Yoon Soo Park, PhD, Matthew Lineberry, PhD, Aaron Knox, MD, and E. Matthew Ritter, MD






완전학습은 학습향상educational progress를 교육과정 시간이 아니라 학생이 보여주는 수행능력을 기반으로 판단하는 교육적 접근법이다.

Mastery learning is an instructional approach in which educational progress is based on demonstrated performance rather than curricular time.1


완전학습의 핵심 특징은 "완전" 수준에 도작하기 위하여 수 차례의 재시험을 치를 수 있는 것이며, 최종 성취 수준은 모든 학생에서 동등하다.

A key characteristic of mastery testing is the ability to retest on multiple occasions to reach a designated “mastery” level; the final level of achievement is the same for all learners,


전통적인 기준설정법이 최소역량minimal competence를 타겟으로 한다면, 완전학습의 목적은 모든 학습자가 다음 이어지는 훈련단계에 잘 준비되게끔 하는 것이다.

Whereas traditional standards target minimal competence, the goal of mastery learning is to ensure that all learners are well prepared to succeed in subsequent stages of training.


기준은, 다른 말로는 합격기준, 합-불합 점수, 최소합격점수 등은 normative 또는 criterion based 일 수 있다. 

Standards, also called cut scores, pass/ fail scores, or minimum passing levels, be normative, or criterion based


규범적 기준은, 모든 학습자의 합-불합이 해당 그룹의 다른 학생들의 수행능력에 따라 정해지는 것이며, 역량중심교육과정이나 완전학습에서는 더 이상 그 자리는 없다. 반대로, 준거-기반 기준은 역량중심교육과정에 특히 적합하다.

Normative standards, in which a learner’s pass/fail status depends on the performance of other members of the group, have no place in competency- based curricula or mastery settings. Criterion-based standards, on the other hand, are especially appropriate for competency-based curricula


 

 

역량바탕 교육과정에서 종종 전통적 기준-설정 방법인 Angoff,8 Hofstee,9 borderline, or contrasting groups.6을 사용한다. 비록 전통적인 준거-기반 방법이 완전학습 세팅에서 적절하긴 하나, 완전학습에서는 근본적으로 "완전학습이 이후 교육 또는 수행의 성공을 예측한다" 라고 추정하고 있기에 근거-기반 접근법이 필요하다. "근거"에는 다음과 같은 것이 들어간다.

Competency-based curricula frequently use traditional standard-setting procedures such as Angoff,8 Hofstee,9 borderline, or contrasting groups.6 Although criterion-based methods are appropriate for mastery settings, the central inference of mastery standards— that they predict success in subsequent training or practice—demands an evidence-based approach.10 Evidence can include
  • 예측력을 보여주는 과거 수행능력 자료 the use of predictive past performance data,
  • 서로 다른 기준이 미래 수행능력에 미치는 영향 information about the consequences of different standards for future performance,
  • 타겟 참조군targeted reference groups의 활용 the use of targeted reference groups, and
  • 환자안전의 고려 consideration of patient safety in clinical settings.


기준 설정 절차

Standard-Setting Procedures


판단의 기준이 되는 정보는 '미래 수행능력에 대한 예측'에 초점을 둬야 한다.

the information on which judgments are based should be focused on predicting future performance,


문항-기반 기준설정 절차: 수행능력예측자료

Item-based standard-setting procedures: Predictive performance data


문항-기반 Angoff 방법은 종종 지필고사나 수행능력 체크리스트에 활용되며, "경계선상의 학생"(즉 최소역량을 가까스로 보유한 학생)의 수행능력을 예측한다. 이 학생이 각 문항이나 체크리스트를 옳게 답할 가능성을 예측하여 기준을 정한다. 완전학습에서는 최소역량을 갖춘 학생의 행동을 예측하기보다는, 다음 교육단계나 다음 수행단계를 위해 성공적으로 준비된 학생의 수행능력이 어떨지 그려본다modelling.

The item-based Angoff method,6,8 frequently used for written tests and performance checklists, asks judges to predict the performance of the “borderline student,” a student who is just at the edge of minimal competence. Judges indicate the probability that the borderline student would accomplish each item of a test or checklist correctly. In mastery settings, rather than predicting the behavior of a minimally competent student who is just at the edge of acceptable performance, judges will be modeling the performance of a student who is well prepared to succeed at the next stage of instruction or practice.


전통적인 교육과정에서 이러한 통계치는 한 학습단위가 종료되는 시점에서 치러지는 한 차례의 시험에 기반을 두고 있으며, 이 한 차례의 시험에서 모든 학습자가 통과할 것을 기대하게 된다. 반대로 완전학습 환경에서는 첫 번째 시험에서의 합격률(통과율)은 낮을 수도 있다. 심지어 2, 3, 5, 10회의 재시험을 치른 후에도 그럴 수 있으나, 결국에는 '완전' 수준에 도달하여 다음 단계로 넘어간다. 그렇다면 기준을 정하기 위해 어떤 시험의 결과자료를 활용해야 하는가?

In traditional curricula these statistics are based on a single test administration at the end of the learning unit, which most learners are expected to pass on the first attempt. In a mastery environment, on the other hand, the first test may have a very low pass rate. Eventually—after 2, 3, 5, 10 retests—they will reach the mastery level and move on. Which test results should be used to inform the judges?


완전학습에서 기준을 설정할 때 문항의 난이도보다는 '관련성' 이나 '중요도'가 더 중요하다.

When setting standards in the context of a mastery learning approach, item difficulty is less important than item relevance or importance.


과거의 시험에서 어떤 문항을 50%의 학생만 맞춘다는 것이 그 문항을 덜 중요하게 만드는 요인은 아니었다.

knowing that in the past only 50% of learners accomplished that item does not make the item any less important.


완전학습에 있어서의 근거-기반 접근법이 함의하는 것은 "'수행능력 자료'는 앞선 단계에서 학습자의 성공 혹은 실패가 이후 단계에서의 학습경험에 대한 정보를 제공해줄 수 있을 때 가장 가치롭다"라는 것이다.

An evidence-based approach to mastery standards implies that performance data are most valuable when the data include information about past examinees’ success or failure in subsequent learning experiences.14


어떤 분석에서 '시뮬레이션 기반 평가가 학습자가 어떻게 실제 환자에서의 수행능력을 예측해주는지'를 보여준다면 매우 유용할 것이다.

Analyses showing how scores on the simulation-based assessment predict examinees’ performance on actual patients could be very useful to judges—


피평가자-기반 절차: 적절한 비교대상 그룹 찾기

Examinee-based procedures: Identifying appropriate benchmark groups


피평가자-기반 절차(borderline-group method or the contrasting-groups method)에서는 피평가자를 서로 구분되는 수행능력 수준에 따라서 카테고리화해야 한다. 예컨대 proficient vs nonproficient, or pass/marginal/fail.

Examinee-based procedures or methods such as the borderline-group method or the contrasting-groups method6,11 require judges or external criteria to categorize examinees into groups at contrasting levels of performance—for example, proficient versus nonproficient, or pass/ marginal/fail.


특정 시험에서 가장 좋은 기준은 두 그룹을 가장 잘 구분해주는(contrasting-group) 점수이거나, 경계선상그룹(marginal)의 중간값(median score)점수이다(borderline-group method).

The standard for a particular exam is obtained by determining the test score that best discriminates between the two groups (contrasting-groups method) or the median score of the marginal group (borderline-group method).


전통적인 피시험자-기반 방법을 완전학습에 적용하려면 "다음 단계로 넘어succeed가기에 충분한 준비가 되었다"라는 것으로 수정되어야 한다. 전통적인 방법으로 정의된 경계선상그룹의 수행능력은 완전학습의 최종 목표에는 부적절하다.

Traditional examinee-based methods generally need to be modified to support the “well prepared to succeed” inferences of a mastery setting. The marginally acceptable performance of peers identified by the traditional borderline-group method is not an appropriate final goal for mastery learners;


"숙달그룹"접근법은 발달적으로 적합한 발달을 이루고 있는 그룹의 점수를 기준 설정에 활용한다. 숙달그룹은 매듭짓기와 같은 것을 계장화instrumented 환경(가상현실 시뮬레이터 등)에서 수행할 수 있다.

The “proficient group” approach18,19 uses the performance scores observed from a developmentally appropriate benchmark group to guide standard setting. The proficient group performs a task such as knot tying in an instrumented environment (e.g., a virtual reality simulator).


고도로 숙달된, 혹은 심지어 전문가 그룹이 '독립적 수행'으로 이행하는 학습자에게는 적합한 기준이 될 수 있다. 그러나 '전문가'는 어떤 과제를 수행할 때 절차적 변이procedural variants를 활용할 수 있고, 이것은 임상적 판단과 기술이 부족한 초기 단계의 학습자에게는 안전하지 못할 수 있다.

A highly proficient or even expert benchmark group may be appropriate for learners transitioning to independent practice. However, experts may perform the task using procedural variants that would be inappropriate and unsafe for early trainees with limited clinical judgment and skills.


경험 그 자체만으로는(몇 년간 경험했는가) 합당한 수준의 수행능력을 갖추었는지를 예측하지 못한다. 개개인이 적절한 수준으로 숙달하였는가는 임상경험의 기간과 객관적 수행능력 측정의 점수를 종합해야만 판단할 수 있다.

Measures of experience alone, such as years of practice, do not well predict acceptable performance.20 Suitably proficient individuals are best identified on the basis of a combination of clinical experience and scores on an objective measure of performance.


contrasting- groups methods 에서의 대조그룹의 설정은 조심해야 한다.

Comparison groups for contrasting- groups methods used in mastery settings must be chosen with care.


완전학습에서, 우리는 '초심자'를 '전문가'와 구분하는 평가를 필요로하는 경우가 별로 없다. 대신, 우리는 '그 다음단계로 충분히 넘어갈 역량을 갖춘 초심자'와 그렇지 않은 초심자 사이에 구분이 필요하며, 관리감독 없이 수행할 준비가 되지 못한 피훈련자와 안전하게 수행할 준비가 된 피훈련자 사이의 구분이 필요하다.

in mastery learning we rarely need assessments that can tell novices from experts; instead, we need assessments that discriminate between novices who are sufficiently competent to move on versus novices who are not, or that distinguish trainees who are not quite ready for unsupervised practice from those who can graduate and practice safely.


전문가 혹은 숙달 그룹의 수행능력이 기계적인 기준 생성의 근거가 되지는 못한다(임의로 전문가 점수 빼기 1.5SD를 한다거나, 전문가 점수의 분포와 초심자 점수의 분포간의 교점 이라든가)

Performance data of expert or proficient groups should not form the basis for a mechanistic generation of a standard (e.g., arbitrarily choosing “expert score minus 1.5 standard deviations,” or “the point of intersection between experts’ and novices’ score distributions”).

 

 


시험-기반 절차

Test-based procedures



시험-기반 Hofstee method은 규범-기반 과 준거-기반 기준을 복합적으로 활용하여 어느 정도 숫자의 학습자가 탈락하는 것이 수용가능한지 판단하고, 이에 따라 설정한 준거가 도입가능한지 판단한다. 최소 합격선과 최대 합격선을 정하고, 최소 합격률과 최대 합격률을 정한다. 최종 합격점수는 피시험자들의 실제 수행능력에 따른다.

The test-based Hofstee method6,9 (also called the whole-test method or compromise method) uses a combination of normative and criterion-based standards to ensure that the number of failed learners will be acceptable and the standards therefore implementable. Judges are asked to bracket the cut score by specifying the minimum and maximum acceptable passing scores and the minimum and maximum acceptable failure rates; the final cut score is based on the actual performance of the examinees.

 

 

Hofstee method 는 완전학습에 있어서 거의 분명희 부적합한 방법이며, 완전학습에서는 사실상 모든 학습자가 궁극적으로 정해진 기준에 도달하여 다음 단계로 나아가야 하기 때문이다.

The Hofstee method is arguably inappropriate for setting standards in a mastery context, in which practically all learners are expected to eventually achieve the specified standard and advance to the next phase of training.


환자 안전을 위한 완전학습

Mastery Standards to Support Patient Safety


전통적인 기준-설정에 있어서 흔히 해야 하는 일은 '학습자가 다음 단계로 나아가기 위해서는 '얼마나 많은' 내용content를 습득해야 하는가'를 정하는 것이다. 예컨대, 객관식 시험에서 맞춰야 하는 문항의 숫자와 같은 것이다. 그러나 환자안전을 고려한다면, 결정해야 하는 것은 학습자가 그 내용을 '얼마나 잘' 습득해야 하는가이다.

The usual task in traditional standard-setting exercises is to specify how much of the content learners must master to proceed to the next learning experience—for example, the number of multiple- choice or procedure checklist items accomplished. However, in consideration of patient safety consequences, judges may wish to specify process variables that indicate how well learners must master that content—for example,

  • how quickly knowledge can be retrieved
  • , the time frame in which a procedure must be performed, or
  • evidence of overlearning and automaticity that help predict long-term retention.21,22,28–30

습득한 기술이 녹스는 것이 완전학습에서만 벌어지는 것은 아니나, 절차적 기술 procedural skills에 있어서 특히 두드러지는 현상이다.

Although skills decay is not unique to mastery learning, it is especially salient for activities such as procedural skills


전통적인 기준-설정 절차는 시간에 따라 보상적compensatory이다. 일단 피시험자가 합격선을 통과하면, 어떤 문항을 맞췄고 못 맞췄는지는 중요하지 않다. 그러나 임상환경에서 특정 수행능력을 잘못 하고 있거나 어떤 항목을 맞추지 못한 것은 환자 안전이나 환자 성과에 심각한 영향을 줄 수도 있다. 기본적 절차적 기술에 있어서 완전학습의 접근법은 근거자료에 기반하여 환자안전/환자의 편안함comort/절차적 결과procedure outcome 등에 미치는 영향을 고려해서 각 아이템을 평가하는 것이다. 즉, (완전학습에서는) 어떤 것을 잘 수행할 수 있고 그렇지 못하고가 환자안전 등에 영향을 미칠 수 있다면 그 문항은 "중요critical"한 것이다.

Traditional standard-setting procedures are compensatory across items: As long as examinees achieve the cut score, it does not matter which individual items are missed and which are accomplished. In clinical settings, however, the omission or incorrect performance of individual items may have a significant impact on patient safety and outcomes. One approach to setting mastery standards for basic procedural skills is to have judges rate each item as to its impact on dimensions such as patient safety, patient comfort, or procedure outcome, relying on evidence based data when available; an item whose performance or nonperformance has an impact on one of these dimensions can be considered “critical.”27 


이러한 방식의 '중요' 항목에 대한 기준 결합conjunctive standard을 만드는 것은 초기 검사 이후 지연 검사delayed test를 통해서 그 기술의 유지maintenance를 평가할 때도 중요하다. 즉, 중요하지 않은 항목에서 높은 retention을 보이는 것이 중요한 항목에서의 쇠퇴decay를 가려서는 안되기 때문이다.

Setting this type of conjunctive standard for critical items is also important when assessing maintenance of skills from initial testing to a delayed retest, to avoid having retention of noncritical items mask the decay of critical skills.


시뮬레이션을 통한 임상스킬의 평가는 언제나 일정 수준 구인의 과소대표성(construct underrepresentation)을 포함하고 있다. 즉, 임상환경에서의 스트레스나 집중을 방해하는 요소들이 실제 환자를 보는 세팅에서는 수행능력의 저하로 이어질 수 있는 것이다. 시뮬레이션 환경에서 전통적인 수준의 "최소 역량"에만 도달하고자 하는 학습자는 실제 환경에서는 최소 역량에 미치지 못할 가능성이 높다.

Assessment of clinical skills in a simulated environment almost always involves some degree of construct underrepresentation31 that, combined with the stress and distractions inherent in clinical environments, often leads to a decrement in performance in live-patient settings.32,33 Learners who aim for and reach only the traditional standard of “minimal competence” in a simulated environment are at risk of falling below minimal items.world. competence on the task as a whole when they attempt to perform it in the real


기준의 퀄리치와 영향력 평가

Evaluating the Quality and Impact of Standards



완전학습에 있어서 설정한 기준의 퀄리티를 평가하는 것은 쉽지 않다. 일단 완전학습 시스템이 도입되면, 합격선을 통과한 학습자는 다음 단계를 잘 해내고, 합격선을 통과하지 못한 학습자는 다음 단계를 잘 해내지 못하는 식의 (학습자간) 비교 데이터를 얻기가 어렵다. 학습자의 통과 기준이 마련되면, 그 기준을 낮추더라도 충분히 기대하는 효과를 얻을 수 있는지를 알기가 어려운데, 왜냐하면 그 기준을 통과하지 못한 학습자를 다음 단계로 넘어가게 하는 것이 가능feasible하지 않거나, 윤리적이지 못하기 때문이다.

Evaluating the quality of mastery for the standards can be challenging. Once a performance.mastery learning system is implemented, it is difficult to obtain comparative data showing that learners who achieve the cut score are successful in the next stage of training and practice while learners who do not reach the passing score are likely to struggle or to be unsafe. When learners who pass the standard are successful, it is difficult to know whether a lower standard might have been sufficient to obtain the desired effect because allowing learners who did not achieve the standard to progress may not be feasible or, in patient care settings, ethical.


완전학습에 있어서 신뢰도 계산 역시 어려운데, 수행과 재시험을 반복함으로서 완전학습의 가능성은 높아지고, 시험성적의 variance는 작아진다. 그 결과 신뢰도는 높아지고, standard error는 작아진다.

Reliability metrics for mastery tests are complex, Each round of practice and retesting increases the learners’ probability of mastery and decreases the variance of test scores (see Figure 1), resulting in a higher reliability and a decreased standard error of measurement;


반면, 학습자간 variance가 작아지는 것은 - 시험이 반복되면 거의 0에 수렴하게 되는데 - 전통적인 신뢰도 계산metrics으로는 완전학습에 대한 것을 해석하기도 어렵고 적절relevant하지도 못할 수 있다.

On the other hand, the decreased variance across learners— which may approach zero with repeated testing because all are achieving the mastery standard—means that traditional reliability metrics will be difficult to interpret and may not be relevant in a mastery setting.







 








34 Lineberry M, Park YS, Cook D, Yudkowsky R. Making the case for mastery learning assessments: Key issues in validation and justification. Acad Med. 2015;90:1445–1450.





 2015 Nov;90(11):1495-500. doi: 10.1097/ACM.0000000000000887.

Setting mastery learning standards.

Author information

  • 1R. Yudkowsky is associate professor, Department of Medical Education, and director, Dr. Allan L. and Mary L. Graham Clinical Performance Center, University of Illinois at Chicago College of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois. Y.S. Park is assistant professor, Department of Medical Education, University of Illinois at Chicago College of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois. M. Lineberry is assistant professor, Department of Medical Education, University of Illinois at Chicago College of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois. A. Knox is a resident in plastic and reconstructive surgery, University of British Columbia Faculty of Medicine, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. E.M. Ritter is associate professor, vice chairman for education, and program director for the general surgery residency, Norman M. Rich Department of Surgery, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences F. Edward Hébert School of Medicine/Walter Reed National Military Medical Center, Bethesda, Maryland.

Abstract

Mastery learning is an instructional approach in which educational progress is based on demonstrated performance, not curricular time. Learners practice and retest repeatedly until they reach a designated mastery level; the final level of achievement is the same for all, although time to masterymay vary. Given the unique properties of mastery learning assessments, a thoughtful approach to establishing the performance levels and metrics that determine when a learner has demonstrated mastery is essential.Standard-setting procedures require modification when used for masterylearning settings in health care, particularly regarding the use of evidence-based performance data, the determination of appropriate benchmark or comparison groups, and consideration of patient safety consequences. Information about learner outcomes and past performance data of learners successful at the subsequent level of training can be more helpful than traditional information about test performance of past examinees. The marginally competent "borderline student" or "borderline group" referenced in traditional item-based and examinee-based procedures will generally need to be redefined in mastery settings. Patient safety considerations support conjunctive standards for key knowledge and skill subdomains and for items that have an impact on clinical outcomes. Finally, traditional psychometric indices used to evaluate the quality of standards do not necessarily reflect critical measurement properties of mastery assessments. Mastery learning and testing are essential to the achievement and assessment of entrustable professional activities and residency milestones. With careful attention, sound mastery standard-setting procedures can provide an essential step toward improving the effectiveness of health professions education, patient safety, and patient care.

PMID:
 
26375263
 
[PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]









'블랙박스' 다르게 보기: 세 가지 관점에서 보는 평가자의 인식(Med Educ, 2014)

Seeing the ‘black box’ differently: assessor cognition from three research perspectives

Andrea Gingerich,1 Jennifer Kogan,2 Peter Yeates,3 Marjan Govaerts4 & Eric Holmboe5






INTRODUCTION


수행능력 평가의 한 가지 형태는 workplace-based assessment (WBA)로서 매일매일의 진료현장에서 복잡한 임상과제에 대한 수행능력을 피훈련자가 실제로authentically 환자와 실제 임상 상황에서 상호작용을 하는 모습을 직접 관찰하여 평가한다.

One type of performance assessment, workplace-based assessment (WBA), incorporates the assessment of complex clinical tasks within day-to-day practice through direct observation of trainees as they authentically interact with patients in real clinical settings.


WBA가 중요하고 필요하지만, 이러한 형태의 평가는 측정상 한계가 있다. 낮은 평가자간 신뢰도와 같은 한계는 종종 평가자의 판단이 잘못된 것으로 그 책임을 돌리곤 한다. 실제로 수행능력 평가를 분석하는데 psychometric을 사용하여 평가자에 의한 variance가 피훈련자에 의한 variance보다 크게 나타나곤 한다.

Despite the importance and necessity of their use, WBA and other performance assessments have mea- surement limitations.7–9 These limitations, such as low inter-rater reliability, are often attributed to flaws in assessors’ judgements.10–12 In fact, when psycho- metrics are used to analyse performance assessments, often a greater amount of variance in ratings can be accounted for by the assessors (i.e. rater variance) than the trainees (i.e. true score variance).13–15


이 논문에서는 rater라는 단어보다 assessor라는 단어를 사용하고자 하며, 이는 평가가 단순히 rating(점수의 수치화)뿐 아니라 서술형 코멘트/피드백/supervisory 결정 등과 관련되기 때문이다.

In this paper, the term ‘assessor’ will be used rather than ‘rater’ to emphasise that assessment involves not only rating (numerical scores), but the provision of narrative comments, feedback and supervisory decisions.



방법

METHODS



결과

RESULTS


 

비록 상호베타적이지는 않지만, 평가자의 인식에 대한 세 가지의 구분되는 관점이 있다.

There appear to be three distinct, although not mutually exclusive, perspectives on assessor cogni- tion within the research community.

  • 행동학습이론, 통제가능한 인지과정으로 보는 관점.
    The first per- spective describes potentially controllable cognitive processes invoked during assessment and draws on components of behavioural learning theory to help frame an approach to reduce unwanted variability in assessors’ assessments through faculty training.
  • 사회 심리학 연구에서 흔히 다뤄지며, 자동적이고 회피불가능한 인간 인식의 오류에 대한 것
    The second perspective draws on social psychology research and focuses on identifying the automatic and unavoidable biases of human cognition so that assessment systems can compensate for them.
  • 사회 문화적 이론에 기반하며, 판단의 다양성이 유용한 정보를 제공할 수 있다는 관점
    A third perspective draws from socio-cultural theory and the expertise literature and proposes that variability in judgements could provide useful assessment infor- mation within a radically different assessment design.


처음 두 가지 관점은 어떤 주어진 수행능력에는 단일한 '참'기준이 있으며, 비록 평가자간 변동성(variability)을 설명하는 방식에는 차이가 있지만, 둘 모두 이것을 에러로 바라본다. 반면, 평가자간 변동성이 다양한 합리적 진실에 의해서 생긴다는 관점에서는 이것을 '오류'로 보지 않는다.

Importantly, the first two perspec- tives assume that any given performance exhibits a singular ‘true’ standard of performance; although they differ in their explanations of assessor variabil- ity, both perspectives view it as error. Conversely, the third perspective argues that variability may arise as a result of multiple legitimately different truths, which may not represent error.




관점 1. 평가자는 훈련가능하다

Perspective 1. The assessor as trainable


 

이 관점에서 WBA의 평가자간 변동성은 평가자가 평가 준거를 '잘 알지 못하거나' '정확하게 적용하지 못함으로써' 나타나는 결과이다. 따라서 평가에 있어서의 변동은 평가자가 제공하는 정보가 부정확함을 의미하고, 이 변동은 반드시 최소화되어서 평가 정보의 퀄리티를 향상시켜야 한다. 이러한 변동을 줄여서 평가의 측정결과를 향상시키기 위한 실행 가능한 해결책은 목표를 정해서 평가자를 훈련시키는 것이다.

From this perspective, inter-assessor variability in WBA is seen as the result of assessors not ‘knowing’ or correctly ‘applying’ assessment criteria. There- fore, variability in assessment judgements reflects inaccuracy in the information provided by assessors and this variability must be minimised to improve the quality of assessment information. A viable solution to reduce variability in judgements and improve measurement outcomes in assessments is the provision of targeted training for assessors.


이러한 관점은 일부 행동학습이론에 토대를 두며, 여기서는 

  • 피훈련자의 행동에 측정하고 평가할 수 있는 관찰가능한 변화가 있을 때 학습이 일어났다고 본다.
  • 학습과제는 구체적인 측정가능한 행동들로 쪼개지고, 구체적 행동 목표SBO를 설정하여 학습자는 구체적으로 어떤 행동을 해야 하는가를 배우게 된다.
  • 평가의 측정(점수표)는 준거-기준평가이며 왜냐하면 학습자를 평가할 때 동료에 비해서 얼마나 잘 했느냐가 아니라 그 준거에 비추어볼 때 얼마나 잘 했느냐를 평가하기 때문이다.

This perspective is partially grounded in behavioural learning theory, which assumes that trainee learning has occurred when there are observable changes in the trainee’s behaviours (or actions) which can be measured and evaluated. Learning tasks can be bro- ken down into specific measurable behaviours16 and, by identifying specific behavioural objectives, learners can know exactly what behaviours should be performed.17,18 Assessment measures (i.e. scoring rubrics) are crite- rion-referenced in that learners are assessed accord- ing to how well they do rather than by how well they rank among their peers.19,20


WBA에서 평가자가 피훈련자를 관찰하고 평가할 때, 평가자는 반드시 피훈련자의 '바람직한' 행동과 '바람직하지 못한'행동을 찾아낼 수 있어야 한다. 

In WBA, in which assessors observe and assess train- ees with patients, assessors must be able to identify trainees’ ‘desired’ and ‘undesired’ behaviours (clini- cal skills).


피훈련자 평가를 위해서 '가장 바람직한 행동'이 무엇인가에 대한 정보를 주어야 하며, 평가자는 이 퀄리티 기준quality metrics 을 가지고 임상스킬을 평가한다. 이렇게 기준이 있다면 단 한 차례의 자극single stimulus, 즉 한 차례의 환자-의사 상호작용도 이상적으로는 평가자간 유사한 반응을 일으켜야 한다. 그러나 평가자들은 종종 퀄리티 기준을 적절하게 활용하는데 실패한다.

best practices for care quality should inform trainee assessment, and assessors should use these quality metrics to assess clinical skills.31 A single stimulus, the interaction between a trainee and a patient, would then ideally result in more similar responses by assessors. However, assessors often fail to appropriately use quality met- rics to assess clinical skills.


WBA에서의 연구는 평가에 안 좋은 영향을 미칠 수 있는 최소 세 가지의 핵심 인지 프로세스를 찾아냈다. 하나는 평가자가 피평가자를 판단할 때 사용하는 frame of reference(FOR)이나 기준이 다양하다는 것이다. '불만족' '만족' 우수'는 흔히 사용되는 anchor이나 이것에 대한 해석은 매우 다양하다.

Research in WBA has revealed at least three key cog- nitive processes used by assessors that could adversely influence assessments. One is that asses- sors use variable frames of reference, or standards, against which they judge trainees’ performance.32–35 ‘Unsatisfactory’, ‘satisfactory’ and ‘superior’ are common anchors on many assessment tools.36 How these anchors are interpreted is very variable.


다른 흔한 FOR은 평가자 자신이다. 피훈련자가 환자를 대하는 모습을 볼 때 평가자는 자기 자신의 스킬을 비교대상으로 삼는다('자신'이 FOR이 됨). 이는 평가에 있어서 큰 문제가 되는데, 왜냐하면 임상스킬에 있어서 의사마다 차이가 크고, 심지어 어떤 경우에는 핵심 임상스킬 수행 능력이 부족한 경우조차 있기 때문이다. 스스로의 임상스킬이 떨어질 경우 제대로 평가를 할 수 있을 가능성이 낮다. 많은 평가자에게 있어서 피훈련자를 평가할 때 사용하는 준거는 경험적으로 개발되며, 동일한 수행에 대해서도 사람마다 관심을 가지고 바라보는 지점이 다르기 때문에 평가의 퀄리티를 결정하는 평가자간 변동성을 야기한다.

Another particularly prevalent frame of reference that assessors use is themselves. While observing trainees with patients, assessors commonly use their own skills as comparators (the ‘self’ as the frame of reference).32,37 This is problematic for assessment because practising physicians’ clinical skills may be variable, or sometimes even deficient, in core skill domains such as history taking, physical examina- tion and counselling.38–41 They may be less able to do this if their own clinical skills are insufficient. For many assessors, the criteria they use to assess trainees develop experientially and different individuals subsequently come to focus on different aspects of performance, which results in variable definitions among assessors of what determines quality.32,33


오류의 근원이 되는 두 번째는 평가자가 직접 관찰을 하면서 '평가'가 아니라 '추론'을 하는 경우에 발생한다. 평가자는 그러나 자신이 이러한 '추론'을 내리고 있다는 사실을 인지하지 못하며, 그 추론의 정확성을 validate하지 않는다. 검증되지 않은 추론은 정확한 평가를 '왜곡'할 위험이 있으며, 왜냐하면 이러한 평가자의 추론은 관찰되거나 측정될 수 없기 때문이다.

A second potential source of measurement error arises when assessors make inferences during direct observation rather than assessing observable behaviours.32,42 Assessors do not recognise when they are making these infer- ences and do not validate them for accuracy.32 Unchecked inferences risk ‘distorting’ the accurate assessment of the trainee because the assessor’s inferences cannot be observed and measured;


세 번째로는 평가자가 불편한 간접영향을 회피하고자 평가 판단을 조정하는 경우가 있다. 어떤 평가자들은 인기와 호감을 얻기 위해서 점수를 잘 줄 수 있다.

A third cognitive process used by assessors that might increase assessment variability is the modify- ing of assessment judgements to avoid unpleasant repercussions. Some may inflate assessments in order to be perceived as pop- ular and likable teachers,


이러한 관점에서 앞서 언급된 오류의 원인들은, 적어도 일부분은, 교수개발을 통해서 극복될 수 있으며, 어떤 행동학습이론의 원칙은 '훈련을 통한 문제해결'을 지지한다.

From this perspective, the aforementioned sources of error can, in part, be addressed through faculty development (i.e. the assessor is trainable) and cer- tain principles of behavioural learning theory can be invoked to support proposed ‘training solutions’.


피훈련자에 대한 평가는 그들이 달성해야 하는 역량을 기준으로 이뤄져야 하며, 이것을 달성하기 위해서 평가자는 준거-기반 접근법을 익혀야 한다. 준거기반 평가에서는 피훈련자의 수행능력이 의료행위에 대한 근거에 기반하여 사전에 정의된 준거에 따라 평가된다.

assess- ment of trainees should be based upon those com- petencies needed to achieve. To accom- plish this, assessors will need to learn a criterion- based approach to assessment in which trainee per- formance is compared with pre-specified criteria that are ideally grounded in evidence-based best practices.


그러나 제대로 이뤄지지 않으면 문제가 되는데, 학습자가 평가를 거치며 혼란스러운 뒤섞인 메시지나 피드백을 전달받게 되면 어떤 행도을 강화해야 하는지에 대한 비일관성이 학습에 오히려 안 좋은 영향을 미칠 수 있다.

This situation creates problems for learners, assessors and patients. Learners receive mixed mes- sages during assessment, as well as discrepant feed- back, which can interfere with their learning because there is inconsistency in what is or is not being reinforced.




관점 2. 평가자는 오류에 빠지기 쉽다.

Perspective 2. The assessor as fallible


논리적으로, 관점 1에서 드러난 어떤 평가의 문제도 더 명확한 프레임워크를 제시하고 더 평가자를 훈련시켜서 더 정확한 관찰을 하게 하면 향상될 수 있다. 그러나 수십년의 연구 결과는 이러한 접근법으로는 거의 차이를 만들어내지 못함을 알려준다. 왜 그럴까? 여러 문헌에서 이 '정밀한 분석기계' 가설에 도전하였다. 두 번째 관점은 평가자간 변동성을 인간 인지과정의 근본적 한계에서 기인한다고 본다. 간략히 말하자면, 낮은 평가자간 신뢰도는 훈련을 해도 계속 있을 것이며, 그 이유는 평가자가 평가에 대한 준비가 잘 안되었기 때문이 아니라, 인간의 판단이 원래 불완전하고, 여러 요인에 의해 쉽게 영향을 받기 때문이다.

Logically, any difficulties with this approach should be improved through clearer frameworks or through training in more accurate observation. Yet decades of research tell us that these approaches make comparatively little differ- ence.49 Why? A different body of literature chal- lenges this ‘precise analytical machine’ assumption. This second perspective sees assessor variability aris-ing from fundamental limitations in human cogni- tion. In short, low inter-rater reliability persists despite training, not because assessors are ill pre- pared, but because human judgement is imperfect and will always be readily influenced. 


인지심리학과 사회심리학 연구들은 평가자가 단순히(수동적으로) 관찰하고 특징을 잡아내는 것이 아님을 주장한다. 인간의 작업기억과 처리용량은 제한되어 있다. 정보는 매우 빠르게 소실되거나, 그렇지 않으려면 처리과정을 통해 기존에 가지고 있던 지식구조에 연결되어야 유지되고 사용될 수 있다. 그 결과, 수행능력에 대한 '객관적' 관찰이란 애초에 존재하지 않는다.

Cognitive and social psychology assert that assessors cannot simply (passively) observe and capture per- formances.50 Human working memory and process- ing capacity are limited.51 Information is either lost very quickly, or must be processed and linked to a person’s pre-existing knowledge structures to allow it to be retained and used.52 As a result, there can be no such thing as ‘objective’ observation of per- formance.


인지와 관련한 무수한 bias들이 있지만, 몇 가지가 유용하다. 정보를 인지적으로 관리가능하게 만들기 위해서 사람들은 'schema' 혹은 관련 정보의 네트워크를 활성화시켜야 한다. 예를 들면 '심장 마비'라는 용어는 '전형적인' 환자의 이미지를 떠올리게 한다. 이러한 '전형적인' 환자에 대한 개념은 우리가 사람을 카테고리화하는 경향으로부터 발생하는 것이며, 종종 '대표성 오류representativeness bias'에 빠지게 한다.

Although numerous biases in cognition exist, some illustration is useful. To make information cogni- tively manageable, people activate ‘schemas’ or net- works of related information. Thus, for example, the phrase ‘heart attack’ might also activate a mental image of a ‘typical’ heart attack patient. The notion of a ‘typical’ patient, or person, arises from our tendency to categorise people,55 which leaves us open to ‘representativeness bias’,56


이러한 과정은 정신적 노력을 매우 절감시켜주나, 중요한 정보를 놓치게 하는 원인도 되고, 판단을 비뚤게 할 수도 있다. 이러한 유형의 bias는 '고정관념stereotype'에 대한 문헌에서 잘 연구되어 있다.

This saves a lot of mental effort, but means we tend to ignore important information, and this can bias our judgements. This type of bias is well illus- trated by the literature on stereotypes.


고정관념은, 일단 발동되기만 하면, 개개인이 어떤 특징에 관심을 갖게 되는지, 어떤 판단을 내리게 되는지, 어떤 기억을 회상할 것인지를 왜곡distort시킨다. 후자가 특히 중요한데, 평가자가 방금 관찰한 것을 '객관적으로' 회상하기 보다는, 사람들은 무의식적으로 자신이 기존에 가지고 있던 고정관념적 신념에 기반해서 '빈 칸을 채우는'식으로 작동하기 때문이다. 이는 WBA에서 특히 중요한데, 왜냐하면 단순히 점수를 왜곡시키는 것이 아니라 피훈련자에게 제공되는 피드백에 영향을 주기 때문이다.

Once active, stereotypes can distort which features individuals pay attention to,57 the judgements they reach58 and their recall of what occurs.59 The latter is particu- larly important: rather than ‘objectively’ recalling what they have just observed, people may uncon- sciously ‘fill in the blanks’ based on what their stereotypical beliefs suggest.60 This is particularly important in WBA because it will distort not just scores, but also the feedback given to trainees.


중요한 점은, 고정관념의 영향이 의식의 통제 아래 있지 않다는 점이다. 맥락의 변화는 어떤 고정관념이 활성화될지를 결정한다. 또한 사람들은 그들의 인식이나 행동에 영향을 미치는 무의식적 사고를 잘 인식하지 못한다. 정서/시간 압박/주기 리듬/동기부여/편견의 정도/개인의 인식 선호 등이 영향을 준다

Importantly, the influence of stereotypes is often not under conscious control: changes in context determine which stereotypes are activated,61 and people are often unaware of the unconscious thoughts that influence either their cognition62 or behaviour.63 Emotions,64 time pressure,59 circadian rhythms,65 motivation, pre-existing levels of preju- dice66 and individual cognitive preferences67


고정관념을 회피하게 만들려는 목적의 지침이 오히려 역설적으로 그것을 더 악화시킨다.

Instructions to avoid stereotyping can make their influence para- doxically worse,68


우리는 시니어 의사들이 학생들에 대한 고정관념을 가지고 있어서, 소수인종 학생들의 수행능력이나 행동에 대해서 무의식적으로 낮게 보는 경향이 있음을 안다. 또한 의사들이 피훈련자의 수행능력을 판단함에 있어서 스스로의 판단에 과도한 자신감을 보이는 것으로 드러났다. 스스로의 판단에 대한 과도한 자신감은 흔히 대표성 편향representativeness bias의 결과로 나타난다고 본다.

However, we do know that senior doctors possess well-developed stereotypes of the way that ethnic minority students may perform or behave69 and that, in other aspects of education, unconscious stereotyping of ethnic minorities can be seen to account for the reduced academic achievement of these students.70 It has previously been shown that doctors judging performances of trainees are over-confident in their judgements (they are right less often than they think).71 Judge- mental overconfidence is thought to typically arise as a result of representativeness bias,56


인간은 절대적 수치를 계량하거나 판단을 내리는 것에 취약하다고 알려져 있다. 판단은 매우 쉽게 맥락적 정보에 의해 영향을 받으며, 이는 assimila- tion or contrast effects로 알려져 있다.

Humans are known to be poor at judging or scaling absolute quantities; judgements are easily influenced by contextual information72 through processes known as assimila- tion or contrast effects.73


연구 결과를 보면 이러한 영향이 다양한 범위의 수행능력에서 나타나고 있으며, 매우 왕성하나, 평가자는 그것이 존재함조차 모르고 있는 경우가 많다. 

study suggested that this effect can occur across a range of performance levels, is fairly robust and that assessors may lack insight into its operation.33


실제로 더 많은 구체적인 체크리스트를 만드는 것은 평가자의 인지부담을 증가시키고, 이러한 접근법은 역설적으로 개선하고자 하는 문제를 악화시킨다.

In fact, as making more detailed checklists might increase the cognitive load experienced by assessors, this approach could poten- tially (paradoxically) worsen the very problem it hopes to improve.75


따라서, 이러한 관점에서 내리는 결론은 평가-기반 판단의 허무주의로 빠지게 된다. 인간의 판단은 애초에 문제가 있으며 교정될 수 없는 것이 아닐까? 그렇지 않다. 대신, 이것이 시사하는 바는 인지적 개입이 가능한 도구 속에 해결책이 있다. 최근의 연구를 살펴보면, 사람들은 한 사람에 대한 판단을 내리기 전 평등주의자적 동기egalitarian motivation가 있다. 이는 고정관념의 활성화를 줄여줄 수 있으며, 행동의 의도나 대인관계 상호작용에 관한 고정관념의 영향을 줄여줄 수 있다.

It would be easy, therefore, to conclude that this perspective demands a nihilistic view of judgement- based assessments: judgement is flawed and cannot be fixed. It does not. Instead, it suggests that pro- gress may lie within a toolbox of possible cognitive interventions. Recent research indicates that people can be induced to adopt an ‘egalitarian motivation’ prior to making judgements of a person.78,79 This reduced the cog- nitive activation of stereotypes78,79 and lessened the influence of stereotypes on behavioural intentions and interpersonal interactions.79


말할 필요도 없이, 더 많은 연구가 필요하며, 비록 이러한 인터벤션이 성공적이더라도, 맥락적 영향이 판단에 미치는 영향을 완전히 극복할 수는 없다. 한 가지 함의는 인간의 판단을 알고리즘을 활용한 측정으로 대체해야 하는가이다.

Needless to say, much further work is required before any claims can be made about the potential benefits of these approaches. Even if these interven- tions are successful, they are unlikely to completely overcome contextual influences on judgements.74 One possible implication of this perspective would be to seek ways to replace human judgement with algorithmic measurement.


알고리즘을 활용한 측정에는 인간의 판단이 개입되지 않으며, 아마 인간의 판단을 점차 대체할지도 모른다.

No human judgement is involved.80 Perhaps further develop- ments of this sort will gradually replace human judgement.




관점 3. 평가자의 특이성은 나름의 의미가 있다.

Perspective 3. The assessor as meaningfully idiosyncratic


만약 평가자간 변동성이, 적어도 일부분이나마, 서로 다르긴 해도 분명히 (피평가자와) 관련되어 있고 합당한, 그러나 서로 다르고 종종 상반되는 해석을 낳는다면 어떨까? 라는 의문을 가질 수 있다. 이러한 관점에서는 평가자 인식의 독특성idiosyncrasy가 유의미한 평가정보를 제공해줄 수 있으면서, 동시에 평가자간 변동성과 불일치를 야기하고, 더 나아가 낮은 평가자간 신뢰도에 이르게 한다고 본다.

One of its fundamental questions con- cerns what happens if variability, at least in part, derives from the forming by assessors of relevant and legitimate but different, and sometimes con- flicting, interpretations. This perspective examines potential sources of idiosyncrasy within assessor cog- nition that could provide meaningful assessment information, but also lead to variability, assessor dis- agreement and low inter-rater reliability.


WBA가 표준화되지 않은 상태에서, 평가자의 idiosyncrasies에 따르는 변동은 맥락특이성에 따른 변동에 비견outmatch 될 수 있다. psychometric한 측정관점에서 보자면, 이 두 가지 중 어떤 것도 피평가자의 역량에 대해서 알려주는 바가 없으며, 일반적으로 측정오류로 여겨진다. 그러나 상황인지이론situated cognition theory와 사회-문화 (학습)이론에 따르면, 맥락-특이적 variance는 오류error가 아니다. 이 이론에 따르면 맥락은 비활성inert한 것이 아니며, 피훈련자의 수행능력과 분리되어서 여러 맥락이 서로 상호교환가능한 것이 아니다. 대신 맥락은 피훈련자가 어떤 의도한 스킬을 수행하는데 있어서 그것을 가능하게 하거나 제약시키는 요인으로 여겨진다. 이는 왜냐하면 '맥락'이라는 것이 모든 사람과 모든 환경 사이에서 가능한 모든 역동적 상호작용을 포괄하기 때문이며, 단순히 물리적 환경에 대한 이름표가 아니기 때문이다. 맥락을 이렇게 이해한다면, 피훈련자는 그들이 접하는 임상상황이나 임상사건에 대한 완전한 통제를 가지고 있지 않으며, 그들의 역량은 독특한 맥락에 의해서 형성되고, 그 맥락과 연결되어 드러나는 것이다.

In the non-standardised reality of WBA, variance attributable to the idiosyncrasies of assessors is only outmatched by variance attributable to context spec- ificity.81–83 From a psychometric measurement standpoint, neither of these sources of variance reveal anything about the trainee’s competence and are generally assumed to contribute to measure- ment error. Viewed from situated cognition theory and socio-cultural (learning) theories, however, con- text-specific variation is not ‘error’. According to these theories, context is not an inert or inter- changeable detail separate from a trainee’s perfor- mance, but instead is viewed as enabling and constraining the trainee’s ability to perform any intended or required skills.84–86 This is because con- text is understood to encompass all the dynamic interactions between everyone and everything within an environment, and is not just a label for the physi- cal location.84,85,87,88 Based on this understanding of context, trainees will not have full control over the events within a clinical encounter and their compe- tence will instead be shaped by, revealed within, and linked to that unique context.89,90


이러한 관점에서 맥락을 '무시되어야 할 것' 혹은 여러 맥락이 '평균내어질 수 있는 것'으로 보는 것이 어렵다. 또한 역량에 대해서 평가자에게만 내재된reside solely within 것으로 보는 관점, 역량이 서로 다른 장소/환자/시간에 걸쳐 안정적으로 유지된다는 관점에 대해서도 의문을 표한다. 반대로 역량은 사회적으로 구성되고, 다른 사람에 의해서 보여지고 인지될demonstrated and perceived 필요가 있다. WBA에서 한 사람이 다른 사람의 역량을 '인지'한다는 관점특히 중요한 이유는 많은 핵심 구인들이 직접적으로 관찰가능하지 않기 때문이다. 대신 환자-중심, 프로페셔널리즘, 휴머니즘 등과 같은 여러 구인이 관찰가능한 행위로부터 추론되는 것이다.

Viewpoints such as these make it more difficult to think of context as something to be disregarded or averaged across. They also call into question the idea of competence as something that resides solely within each trainee and remains stable across differ- ent places, patients and time.91 On the contrary, competence has been described as being socially constructed and needing to be demonstrated and perceived by others.92–94 The idea of perceiving oth- ers’ competence is especially important for WBA because many of the key constructs that must be assessed are not directly observable.95 Instead, con- structs such as patient-centredness, professionalism, humanism and many others must be inferred from observable demonstrations.89,93


여러 연구로부터 평가자의 전문성은 임상에서 진단의 전문성과 닮아있음을 제시한다. 경험이 많은 의사는 신속하고 자동화된 패턴 인식을 통해서 진단을 내린다diagnostic impression. 정보의 집합을 빠르게 유의미한 패턴으로 묶고, 빠르고 정확하게 진단적 추론을 한다. 이들은 구체적인 체크리스트를 사용하지 않으며, 오히려 환자를 만나는 맥락에 따른 사소한 차이들을 반영해내는 방식으로 정보를 사용한다. 추가적으로 전문가는 '기대'에 위배되는 '이상anomalies'를 인지하며, 즉각적 사건을 넘어서 배경이 가지는 중요성을 알고, ...등등

Research increasingly suggests that assessor expertise resembles diagnostic expertise in the clini-cal domain to a remarkable extent.43,100,101 Experi- enced clinicians use rapid, automatic pattern recognition to form diagnostic impressions; they very rapidly cluster sets of information into mean- ingful patterns, enabling fast and accurate diagnos- tic reasoning.102 They do not use detailed checklistswith signs and symptoms based on textbook knowl- edge as novices would do, and more than that, they use information reflecting (subtle) variations in the context of the patient encounter.103 In addition, experts can

  • recognise anoma- lies that violate expectancies,
  • note the significance of the situation beyond the immediate events,
  • iden- tify what events have already taken place based on the current situation, and
  • form expectations of events that are likely to happen also based on the current situation.105–107

WBA에 대한 연구결과는 경험 많은 평가자는 평가 과제의 상황-특이적 신호를 인지해서, 과제-특이적 신호를 과제-특이적 수행요건과 수행능력 평가에 연결시킬 수 있다.

In WBA, research findings indicate that experienced assessors are similarly able to note situation-specific cues in the assessment task, link task-specific cues to task-specific performance requirements and performance assessment,


경험이 많은 임상 평가자는 복잡한 과제에 대한 수행능력을 평가할 때에도, 시간의 압박이 있어도, 목표들이 서로 상충하고 잘 정의되어있지 않아도, 피훈련자의 수행능력에서 미래의 수행능력과 관련된 신호를 잡아낼 수 있다. 이들은 핵심을 짚어낼 줄 안다.

Even when experienced clinical assessors are engaged in complex tasks, often under time pressures and with conflicting as well as ill-defined goals, they seem to be capable of identifying cues in trainees’ performances that correlate with future performances.100 They spot the gist.


평가 전문가는 어떤 전문직의 전문가와 마찬가지로, 특정 맥락에 immersio을 통해 발달한다. 각 평가자의 전문성은 그들의 독특한 경험에 의해서 만들어지고, 다양한 맥락..등등 에 따라 영향을 받아서 독특한 인지 필터unique cognitive filter를 발달시킨다.

Assessor expertise, as with any professional expertise, develops through immersion within specific contexts.108 As each asses- sor’s expertise will have been influenced by

  • differ- ent contexts and shaped by unique experiences,
  • different mental models of general performance,
  • task-specific performance and person schemas might be expected,
  • with each assessor inevitably developing a unique cognitive filter.42,43

평가자는 gist를 잡아낼 줄 안다.

Consequently, assessors may spot different ‘gists’ or underlying concepts within a complex performance and con- struct different interpretations of them.89,109 Variations in assessor judg- ements may very well represent variations in the way performance can be understood, experienced and interpreted.


이러한 관점에서 평가자간 차이는 제거해야 할 무언가가 아니다. 오히려, 평가자간 차이가 존재한다는 것은 평가가 이상적이지 못한 것을 의미한다기보다는 이러한 불일치가 수행능력의 복합성, 그 수행능력이 평가자의 이해를 거칠 때 본질적으로 따라오는 해석의 '주관성' 등을 보여준다. 평가자 간 차이가 다양한 사람이 수행능력 다양하게 인식한다는 방식으로 인정될 수 있다면 평가자들의 해석은 상호보완적이며 모두 동등하게 유효하다.

From this perspective, differences in assessor judge- ments are not something to eliminate. However, rather than reflecting subop- timal judgements, inconsistencies among assessors’ interpretations may very well reflect the complexity of the performance and the inherently ‘subjective’ interpretation of that performance filtered through the assessor’s understanding. If differences in assess- ment judgements were to come from differences in the way the trainee’s performance can be perceived and experienced by others, then the inconsistencies among assessors’ interpretations might be comple- mentary and equally valid.


어떤 유형으로든 정보가 포화될 때까지 의도적으로 수집된 것이라면 심지어 서로 모순되는 정보조차 도움이 될 수 있다. '신뢰도' 대신 '포화'를 활용하는 것의 핵심 이점은 대다수의 해석majority interpretation과 다르지만 여전히 레지던트의 행동이 인식될 수 있는 중요한 변종들variants이 무엇인지 알려주기 때문이다.

Even contradictory judgements might be informa- tive if judgements were collected purposefully until some type of information saturation was reached.113 A key benefit of using saturation, rather than reli- ability, to analyse assessors’ judgements is that it provides the power to capture pockets of repeated interpretations that may differ from the majority interpretation yet represent important variants of how that resident’s behaviour can be perceived.


경험이 많은 평가자는 WBA에서 중요한 평가도구이다. 따라서 평가자의 전문성을 함양하는 것은 지속적 피드백을 제공하고 평가 결정을 내리는데 중요하다. 체크리스트나 관찰가능한 하위요소로 과제를 나눔으로써 평가자간 변동을 최소화하고자 하는 목적의 해결책은 반드시 지양되어야 하며, 왜냐하면 평가자가 전문가적인 판단을 내리는데 방해가 되기 때문이다.

If experienced assessors are viewed as poten- tially important assessment instruments for WBA, then it will be important to cultivate expertise in assessors through the provision of ongoing feedback and deliberate practice in making assessment judge- ments. Solutions that aim to minimise assessor vari- ability, such as checklists and the reduction of tasks into observable subcomponents, would be best avoided as they may interfere with assessors making expert judgements.91,114,115


피훈련자들에게 있어서, 그들은 상충되는 평가정보를 받기 때문에, 어떻게 다른 사람들이 그들의 행동을 해석했고 애초의 본인의 의도와 어떻게 다른지에 관한 guided reflection이 필요할 것이다.

As for trainees, because they may receive conflicting assessment information from assessors, guided reflection may help them to reconcile how others can derive an interpretation of their behaviour that differs from how it was intended.


반대로 두 번째 관점에서 평가자간 변동성은 서로 다른 전문성을 개발하고 서로 다른 전문가 판단을 사용하는 평가자들로부터 나오는 유용한 평가정보의 원천이다.

By contrast with the second perspective, vari- ability has been described as a potentially useful source of assessment information that stems from assessors differently developing expertise and using expert judgement.


DISCUSSION



세 관점의 공통점

Areas of concordance


첫째로, 모든 세 가지 관점이 평가자가 객관적으로 피평가자를 관찰할 것을 요구하며, 모든 관점이 현재의 UME와 PGME에서 관찰-기반 평가의 빈도와 양quantity가 이상적인 수준보다 못 미침을 지적한다. 이것은 즉각적 관심이 필요한 평가 프로그램에 있어서의 심각한 결핍이다. 따라서 WBA를 향상시키기 위한 첫 번째 단계는 교수들이 실제로 그것을 할 수 있게끔 지원해주고, 그렇게 확실히 하도록 만드는 것이다.

Firstly, all three perspectives require assessors to actually observe trainees interacting with patients and all recognise that the current quantity and fre- quency of observation-based assessment of under- graduate and postgraduate medical trainees is less than ideal. This is a serious deficiency in assessment programmes, which requires immediate atten- tion.36,116–124 Hence, the first step to improving WBA requires institutions to provide support and to ensure that faculty staff actually do it.


두 번째 공통점은 교수들이 스스로의 임상역량을 기르고 유지해야 한다는 것이며, 동시에 평가자로서의 전문성도 길러야 한다. 피훈련자 스킬의 퀄리티를 평가하는데 있어서 장애물은 특정 과제를 수행할 때 그 특정 스킬이 필요하다는 것을 평가자가 인식하지 못하는 것이다. 따라서 평가자를 위한 교수개발은 임상 스킬을 어떻게 평가할지 뿐만 아니라, 스스로 그 임상스킬을 어떻게 개발할 수 있는지도 포함되어야 한다.

A second area of concordance among the three per- spectives concerns the need for faculty members to achieve and maintain their own clinical compe- tence, while concomitantly developing expertise as assessors. An impediment to assessing the quality of specific skills performed by a trainee is an assessor’s lack of awareness of the specific skills required to competently perform that task. Therefore, faculty development for assessors may need to include training that refers to their own clinical skills devel- opment in addition to training in how to assess those skills.


마지막으로, 각 관점에 대해서 강점을 강화하고 약점을 줄이는데 도움이 될 두 가지 메커니즘이 있다.

Finally, there are two mechanisms common to each perspective that may help to maximise the strengths and minimise the weaknesses of assessor cognition.

  • Robust한 피평가자 샘플링평가자 샘플링
    One concerns the robust sampling of tasks per- formed by each trainee and assessed by an equally robust sample of assessors and is intended to improve the reliability, validity, quality and defensi- bility of assessment decisions.
  • 모든 활용가능한 정보를 종합하여 피평가자의 총괄적 수행능력에 대한 완전한 그림을 명확히 보여줄 수 있게 하는 평가자간 그룹토론
    The other is facili- tated group discussions among assessors and assessment decision makers that provide opportuni- ties to synthesise all available assessment data to cre- ate a clearer composite picture of a trainee’s overall performance.125 Group discussions allow both con- sistent and variable judgements to be explored and better understood.126


세 관점의 차이

Areas of discordance


세 관점의 차이에는 과연 하나의 진실이 존재하는지 다수의 진실'들'이 존재하는지에 대한 것, 교수개발의 목표, 추론을 하는 것의 효용성, 신뢰성reliability의 추구 등이 있다. 관점의 차이를 극복하고 완전히 통합하여 하나의 이론을 만들려고 노력하기보다는 상황에 따라 도움이 되는 관점을 적용하는 것이 좋을 것이다.

There are also areas of discordance, or incompati- bilities, among the three perspectives that cannot be ignored. For example, whether there exists one or multiple ‘truths’, the goals of faculty development, the utility of making inferences and the pursuit of reliability have been previously discussed. Rather than trying to overcome the discordances and fully integrate the different perspectives into a unified theory, it may be useful to identify circumstances in which the strengths of a particular perspective may be especially advantageous.


단순한 축구와의 비유가 도움이 될 수 있다. 축구선수는 반드시 공을 골대에 넣어서 점수를 내야 하며, 골대를 벗어난 것은 모두 miss이다. 보건의료서비스도 비슷하다. 안전하고 효과적인 환자-중심 진료를 제공하는 방법이 무한하지는 않다. 어떤 임상업무는 좀더 타이트한 경계가 있다(골대와 비슷). 예를 들어서 CVC 삽입이나 Mech Vent 관리 등이 그러하다. 이러한 임상행위는 반드시 최신의 근거와 절차적 체크리스트에 기반하여 이뤄져야 한다. 기준에서 벗어나는 것이 매우 제한된다. 따라서 이러한 수행에 관한 평가는 변동성이 적다.

 

그러나 피훈련자의 수행능력이 훨씬 더 많은 숫자의 맥락적 요인에 달려 있는 경우도 있다. 예를 들면 나쁜소식을 전하기는 가이드라인이 있지만(SPIKE framework), 그 경계boundary zone은 CVC삽입과 달리 더 넓고, 그러나 둘 모두 그 가지수가 무한한 것은 아니다. 맥락적 요인에 의해서 심하게 영향을 받을 수 있는 임상과제의 경우 평가자 판단의 변동성과 전문성을 수용할 수 있는 시스템이 적합할 것이다.

A simple football (soccer) analogy might help to illustrate how different perspectives on assessor cog- nition could be purposefully matched to fundamen- tally different assessment situations to improve WBA. A football player must place the ball into the net in order to score a goal and anything outside the boundary of the net is a miss. The delivery of health care is similarly bounded; there are not limit- less ways for trainees to provide safe, effective patient-centred care. Some clinical tasks have tighter boundaries, or a smaller ‘net’. For example, the insertion of central venous catheters and the management of mechanical ventilators to prevent pneumonia should be performed within the bound- aries specified by the latest evidence-based medicine or procedural checklists. Variance from the stan- dards in these cases should be limited. Correspond- ingly, it would be advantageous for assessor judgements of these performances to have less vari- ability. However, there are situations in which deter- mining the quality of the trainee’s performance depends on a larger number of contextual factors For example, although there are guidelines for delivering bad news (e.g. the SPIKES127 framework), the boundary zone (i.e. the size of the net) is wider for breaking bad news than it is for central venous catheter insertion, but nei- ther is infinite. For clinical encounters that can be highly influenced by contextual factors, an assess- ment system that can accommodate variability and expertise in assessors’ judgements may be appropri- ate and valuable.


Moving forward








 2014 Nov;48(11):1055-68. doi: 10.1111/medu.12546.

Seeing the 'black box' differentlyassessor cognition from three research perspectives.

Author information

  • 1Northern Medical Program, University of Northern British Columbia, Prince George, British Columbia, Canada.

Abstract

CONTEXT:

Performance assessments, such as workplace-based assessments (WBAs), represent a crucial component of assessment strategy in medical education. Persistent concerns about rater variability in performance assessments have resulted in a new field of study focusing on the cognitive processes used by raters, or more inclusively, by assessors.

METHODS:

An international group of researchers met regularly to share and critique key findings in assessor cognition research. Through iterative discussions, they identified the prevailing approaches to assessor cognition research and noted that each of them were based on nearly disparate theoretical frameworks and literatures. This paper aims to provide a conceptual review of the different perspectives used by researchers in this field using the specific example of WBA.

RESULTS:

Three distinct, but not mutually exclusive, perspectives on the origins and possible solutions to variability in assessment judgements emerged from the discussions within the group of researchers: (i) the assessor as trainable: assessors vary because they do not apply assessment criteria correctly, use varied frames of reference and make unjustified inferences; (ii) the assessor as fallible: variations arise as a result of fundamental limitations in human cognition that mean assessors are readily and haphazardly influenced by their immediate context, and (iii) theassessor as meaningfully idiosyncratic: experts are capable of making sense of highly complex and nuanced scenarios through inference and contextual sensitivity, which suggests assessor differences may represent legitimate experience-based interpretations.

CONCLUSIONS:

Although each of the perspectives discussed in this paper advances our understanding of assessor cognition and its impact on WBA, every perspective has its limitations. Following a discussion of areas of concordance and discordance across the perspectives, we propose a coexistent view in which researchers and practitioners utilise aspects of all three perspectives with the goal of advancing assessment quality and ultimately improving patient care.

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

PMID:
 
25307633
 
[PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]


문화권별 의-전문직업성: 의료와 의학교육의 과제(Med Teach, 2014)

Medical professionalism across cultures: A challenge for medicine and medical education

Vikram Jha, Michelle Mclean, Trevor J. Gibbs & John Sandars






의과대학 교육과정에서 프로페셔널리즘을 졸업 성과로 기술하지 않은 곳을 찾기는 어려운 반면, 어떻게 프로페셔널리즘을 가르치고 평가할 것인가에 대해서는 차이가 크다. 이는 부분적으로는 프로페셔널리즘을 정의하는 것 자체가 애매한 특성elusive nature를 갖기 때문이다.

While it would be rare to find a medical curriculum in which professionalism was not a stated graduate outcome, there is a wide variation in how profes- sionalism is taught and assessed (Hodges et al. 2011). This is, in part, due to the elusive nature of a definition of profession- alism (Jha et al. 2010; Passi et al. 2010; Aguilar et al. 2011; O’Sullivan et al. 2012),


현재 프로페셔널리즘에 대한 이해는 여러 문헌에서 프로페셔널리즘에 대해서 주로 서구의(앵글로-색슨) 개념을 반영하기 때문에 보다 복잡해지기도 한다. 여러 연구자들은 프로페셔널리즘이 복잡하고 다차원적인 사회적 구인complex, multi- dimensional social construct 으로서, 모든 프로페셔널리즘에 대한 토론에서 맥락/지리적 위치/문화적 주요 고려사항 등을 고려해야 한다고 주장한다.

Our current under- standing of professionalism is further complicated by the fact that the literature largely reflects a Western (Anglo-Saxon) notion of professionalism(Hodges et al. 2011). Several authors have, however, identified professionalism as a complex, multi- dimensional social construct (Ginsburg et al. 2000; Stern 2006; Martimianakis et al. 2009; Cruess et al. 2010; Ho et al. 2011), making context, geographical location and culturally important considerations in any discussion of professionalism (Cruess et al. 2010; Chandratilake et al. 2012).


맥락이 특정하게 제한된 상황에서 프로페셔널리즘을 측정가능한 구인으로 정의하고자 하는 노력은 엄청나게 어려운 것은 아니지만, 지난 수십년간 의과대학생들과 의사들이 국경을 넘나드는 일이 잦아지면서 어떻게 프로페셔널리즘을 정의하고 평가할지가 점차 더 문제가 되어왔다.

If trying to define professionalism as a measurable construct within a particular context is not sufficiently difficult, the increased movement of medical students and qualified health practitioners across the globe over the last few decades has further challenged how we define and assess professionalism.


  • 의학교육자들과 의사들의 이동 medical educators and clinicians are also on the move (Hodges et al. 2009; Gibbs & McLean 2011; McKimm & McLean 2011),
  • 국제 학생들, 해외 위탁 의과대학 international students and offshoring of medical campuses in, the Middle East and the Caribbean


대중들이 의사와 의대생을 막론하고 점차 더 비전문직업적 행위에 대해서 엄격한 판단을 내리는 성향을 보임에 따라, 문화마다 다양한 의사 환자 관계 혹은 교사-학생 상호작용의 방식들이 "서로 다른" 행동이나 태도가 "전문직답지 못한 것"으로 인식될지를 상상하는 것은 어렵지 않다. 사례로는..

With reports that the public appears to be more judgemental of unprofessional behaviour than either doctors or students (Brockbank et al. 2011), it is not difficult to imagine how in a cross-cultural doctor–patient or a teacher–student interaction, perceptions of a ‘‘different’’ behaviour or attitude might be perceived as ‘‘unprofessional’’. Examples of this include:

  • IMG사이의 의사소통 perceived barriers in communication skills amongst International Medical Graduates,
  • 효과적 커뮤니케이션을 막는 언어 장벽 language barriers impeding effective communication, 
  • 사회적으로 용납되지 않는 행동에 관한 문화적 차이 cultural differences leading to socially unacceptable practices and
  • 하나 혹은 그 이상의 집단에 대한 오해와 잘못된 해석 misunderstanding or misinterpretation by one or more parties (Yao & Wright 2001; Dorgan et al. 2009).


Rothwell 등은 해외에서 수련받은 의사들이 환자-의사 관계에 있어서 다른 의사들과 차이를 보이며, 특히 그들의 고국에서보다 위계구조에 있어서 보다 부드러운fluid 태도를 보임을 보고한 바 있다.

In Rothwell and colleagues’ (2013) paper, overseas-trained doctors reported differences in patient–staff relationships, with more fluid hierarchical struc-tures than they were used to in their home countries.


Chandratilake 등은 프로페셔널리즘을 구성하는 것으로 생각하는 태도/신념/행동에 지리적, 지역적 차이가 있다는 근거를 제시하였다. 이들은 전문직으로서 갖춰야 할 자질에 대해서는 어느 정도 합당한 합의가 있지만, 그 자질 중 무엇이 필수적인가에 대해서는 지역적 차이가 있다고 하였다. 이들은 이러한 차이가 사회문화적 요인에 기인해씅ㄹ 것이라고 결론지으며, 반-문화적 반응counter-cultural response의 존재를 제안하였다.

In a study by Chandratilake et al. (2012), there was the evidence of geographical and regional variations in attitudes, beliefs and behaviours believed to constitute profes-sionalism. They found that while there was a reasonable consensus on professional attributes, there were regional differences as to which of the attributes were essential. The authors concluded that differences may be due to socio-cultural factors and suggested the existence of a counter-cultural response, first reported by Schmidt et al. (2004) to explain medical students’conventional perceptions of holism. 


물론 이 분야의 연구가 여러 이해관계자들의 관점을 반영해야 하겠지만, 문화에 대한 어떤 설명을 할 때 '개인'에 초점을 맞춰야 한다는 의견에 동의한다. 여기에 깔린 전제는 문화는 개인이 표현하는 가치/신념/행동을 보여주는데, 이것이 사회적으로 구성된다는 것이다. 예컨대, 더 넓은 범위의 사회에서 하나의 지배적인 문화가 존재한다면, 그 환경 내에 있는 의사는 사회화를 통해 그 문화를 내면화할 것이다. 반대로 지배적 문화가 다양한 경우, 다양한 가치/신념/행동이 학생이나 의사에게 제시될 것이다.

Whilst we agree that future research in this area should include canvassing the views of other stakeholders, e.g. patients and students (Chandratilakeet al. 2012), we are also of the opinion that any exploration of culture pertaining to interactions between medical students and their teachers, doctors and patients, and amongst member of the multiprofessional team should focus on the individual(Goldie 2012). The underpinning rationale is that culture represents the values, beliefs and behaviours expressed by an individual, which are socially constructed. For example, if there is a particular dominant culture in the wider society, then doctors within that context will internalise the culture through socialisation. Diversity in dominant cultures may, on the other hand, result in differing values, beliefs and behaviour being presented to students or doctors (Bennett & Bennett 2004). 


문화간 발달 연속체

Intercultural development continuum


1993년 Bennett 은 문화간 민감성의 발달모델Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity 을 통해서 개인의 문화적 차이에 대한 반응을 묘사하였다. 이 모델은 문화간 발달 연속체intercultural development con-tinuum로 진화하였으며, Hammer는 2011년 "더 넓은 문화간 역량/민감성을 향한 움직임으로서, 문화적 공통점과 차이점에 관한 보다 덜 복잡한 인식과 행동으로부터(monocultural mindset orien-tations), 보다 복잡한 상태로 나아가는 것(intercultural/global mindset)."이라고 하였다. 이는 이(종)문화간 정체성intercultural identity을 구성하기 위해 다음의 단계를 거치게 된다.

In 1993, Bennett proposed a Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity to describe a person’s reactions to cultural differences (Bennett 1993). This model evolved into the intercultural development con-tinuum, described by Hammer (2011) as ‘‘a movement towards greater intercultural competence/sensitivity, from a less com-plex set of perceptions and behaviours around cultural commonalities and differences (monocultural mindset orien-tations) to a more complex set of perceptions and behaviours This continuum therefore(intercultural/global mindset)’’. involves an individual potentially moving from

  • 거부 단계 the initial stages of denial,
  • 양극화/대립 through polarisation,
  • 최소화 minimisation,
  • 수용 accept-ance and
  • 적응 finally to adaptation,

 

which involves the construction of an intercultural identity. 



문화적 적합성

Cultural fit


Lu 에 따르면, 사회적 수준의 문화는 주류의 경향을 반영하나 모든 개인의 모든 행동을 반영하지는 않는다. 저자는 개인의 문화적 적합성은 그들의 웰빙을 보여준다고 주장한다. 만약 한 개인이 공동의 가치나 행동과 잘 부합하면 그/그녀의 사회환경과의 상호작용은 보다 부드러울 것이고, vice versa.

According to Lu (2006), the culture at a societal level involves mainstream tendencies but does not involve all behaviours  of all individuals. The author contends that an individual’s cultural fit has implications for their well-being. If an individual is in accord with the shared values or behaviours, his/her interactions with the social environment are likely to be smooth


 

앞으로는?

Moving forward?


만약 Bhawuk and Brislin 이 제안한 바와 같이 "(무언가가 혹은 사람이) 다른 문화권에서도 효과적이려면 반드시 다른 문화에 관심을 가져야 하며, 문화적 차이를 인식할 수 있을 만큼 민가해야 하고, 다른 문화의 사람들이 가리키는 방향에 맞춰서 행동을 변화시키고자 하는 의지가 있어야 한다"면, 이는 문화적으로 다른 곳에서 일을 하기로 마음을 먹은 사람들의 책임이며, 그러한 결정이 마주할 도전을 설명하는 것이다.

If, as Bhawuk and Brislin (1992) have suggested that ‘‘to be effective in another culture, people must be interested in other cultures, be sensitive enough to notice cultural differences, and then also be willing to modify their behaviour as an indication of respect to the people of other cultures’’ (p. 416), this places an onus on the individual who has chosen to study or work in a culture different to contemplate the implications of their decision, particularly in terms of the potential challenges they may face.


스스로 자신이 얼마나 tolerant 한지 생각해봐야 한다. 즉, 자신의 문화적 민감성과 역량에 대해서 생각해봐야 하며, 얼마나 자신이 새로운 사회, 문화적 맥락에 적합fit할 것인지 생각해봐야 한다.

One would need to question how tolerant one might be, i.e. one’s intercultural sensitivity/competence (Hammer 2011) and one would also have to project how one might ‘‘fit’’ into a new social and cultural context (Lu 2006).


의료인력에 국제적으로 이동하는 현 시점에서, 글로벌 프로페셔널리즘을 위학 핵심 교육과정이 제시된 바 있다. 아마도 이러한 상황에서 의학교육자들은 글로벌 시티즌으로서 졸업생을 가르쳐야 할 것이며, 그들이 단순히 사회문화적 맥락에 따른 프로페셔널리즘에 대한 다양한 인식을 갖는 것을 넘어서, 다양성을 포용할 수 있는 스스로의 능력에 대해 성찰하는 능력reflexivity을 기르게 해야 하며, 이것은 다양한 인식을 받아들이는 시작점이 될 것이다

With an internationally mobile medical workforce, a core global professionalism curriculum has been suggested (Evert et al. 2010). Perhaps, as medical educators in a world of international travel and migration, we need to be educating graduates who are global citizens (McKimm & McLean 2011), making them aware not only of different perceptions of professionalism across different social and cultural contexts but also developing their reflexivity in terms of interrogating their ability to embrace difference as a starting point to accepting varying perceptions in order to fit in with local needs.


Bennett and Bennett 및 여러 연구에 근거해서 조직 차원에서는 다음을 해야 한다.

Based on the work of Bennett and Bennett (2004) and a number of others (Slowther et al. 2009; Morrow et al. 2013; Rothwell et al. 2013), ways forward from an organisational perspective would include:



  • 기관의 다양성 프로필diversity profile을 인정하고 다양한 가치와 신념의 차이가 존재함을 인식함
    Acknowledging the institution’s diversity profile and recognising that differences in values and beliefs will exist. 
  • 문홪거 선입견에 따른 라벨링 지양
    Avoid labelling in terms of cultural stereotypes. 
  • 다양성 프로필이 그 지역의 지배적 사회/정치/법적 맥락과 잘 맞게끔 하는 것에 발달 초점을 둠(합목적성) 
    Ensuring a development focus to ensure that the diversity profile fits with the dominant local socio-political/legal culture (i.e. fit for purpose).
  • 이문화간 발달 연속체를 따라 훈련과 오리엔테이션 제공
    Providing training and orientation that takes into account that individual students and employees may be some- where along the intercultural development continuum, ranging from denial and defence and so not tolerating difference in culture (ethno-centricism) to being able to adapt to the different cultural context (ethno-relativism). 
    The ethno-centric stance may culminate in anger and attempts to control the situation while ethno-relativism will involve tolerance and understanding, allowing for negotiation and discussion so that both parties can learn from each other.





결론

Conclusions


시나리오 1

Scenario 1


Dr A, a Canadian-born gastroenterologist, starts working at a hospital in the Middle East. During his first month, a young man brings his 80-year-old widowed mother to the hospital because she has noticed bloody stools. During the consult- ation, it is the son who communicates with Dr A, rather than the mother, who is not able to speak English. Dr A accepts this, knowing that many elderly patients in the region have a poor command of English.

 

Consent for a colonoscopy is obtained from the patient via her son. The result reveals advanced colorectal cancer. At the follow-up consultation, the young man brings a younger male sibling but not his mother. They ask Dr A for the colonoscopy results, suspecting that the news is not good and not wanting their mother to know. They also state that if their mother requires surgery, they consent. Dr Ais not sure how to proceed.


원칙: 고지에 입각한 동의, 환자의 권리, 비밀유지

Principles: Informed consent, patient rights and confidentiality



코멘터리

Commentary


고지에 입각한 동의, 환자의 권리, 비밀유지는 서구에서는 잘 받아들여지고 소중하게 여겨지는 것이지만, 가족 관계와 사회적 규범을 보존하는 것이 개인의 자율성보다 더 가치로운 것으로 여겨지는 사회에서는 반드시 그렇지는 않다. 이러한 사회에서는 여러 의사결정이 집단적collective이며, 가족/부족/커뮤니티 수준에서 결정된다. 이 시나리오의 사회-문화에서 아들은 가족 내에서 여성(어머니)를 보호하고자 한다.

Informed consent, patient rights and confidentiality, accepted and enshrined Western constructs, are not always given the same weight in some societies in which preserving family relationships and social norms are valued more than individual autonomy. Many decisions are collective, being made at the family, tribal or at community level (Berg et al. 2001; del Carmen & Joffe 2005). In the socio-culture depicted in this scenario, the son is expected to protect the women in his family.


사우디아라비아에서 병원들이 겪는 주된 윤리적 문제에 대해서 Alkabba 등은 top 10 문제 중 환자의 권리/비밀유지/고지에 입각한 동의를 꼽았다. 그러나 고지에 입각한 동의나 비밀유지와 같은 서구적 개념에 대한 이러한 저항challenge이 비단 한 지역에서의 문제는 아니다. 파키스탄 역시 대체로 이슬람 국가이며, Humayun 등은 대부분의 이들 원칙이 거의 지켜지지 않으며, 저자들은 파키스탄을 비롯한 많은 아시아 문화권의 가부장주의적 모델paternalistic model를 그 원인으로 지적했다. 우간다에서는 Baigana 등이 아프리카의 '우분투' 철학이 "한 사람은 다른 사람의 결과로 존재하는 것이다"를 가지고 있기에, 의과대학생들에게 비밀유지confidentiality를 지키게 만들지 않으며, 대신 환자의 친척들로 하여금 그들이 환자의 정보에 대한 접근이나, 의학적 의사결정에 참여할 수 있는 권리를 허한다.

In a review of the major ethical challenges facing hospitals in Saudi Arabia, Alkabba and colleagues (2012) reported patients’ rights, confidentiality and informed consent amongst the top 10 challenges in terms of the commonly accepted principles of professionalism. These ‘‘challenges’’ to Western perceptions of informed consent and confidentiality are, confined In however, not to one geographic region. Pakistan, which is also largely Islamic, Humayun and col- leagues (2008) reported the almost complete lack of these principles, which the authors ascribe to a paternalistic model of patient care in Pakistan and many other Asian cultures. In Uganda, Baigana and colleagues (2010) reported that the African Ubuntu philosophy of one being as he/she is as a result of others, not only made medical students less likely to practice confidentiality compared with students in the West but also allowed relatives of patients to believe that they had the right to access patient information and to be involved in medical decision making.


문화는 shared decision making에 대한 환자의 기대 수준이나 관여에도 영향을 준다. Yousuf 등은 말레이시아와 인도에서의 연구로부터 의사들이 환자(특히 여성환자)를 보호하기 위해서 진실truth를 딱 필요한 만큼만 제시함을 발견하였다. 이들 의사들은 '환자들은 진짜로 의사결정에 참여하기를 원하는 것이 아니다'라고 가정하고 있다. Barr의 에스토니아 연구에서 환자들은 그들이 진료의 구체적 사항에 대해서 알 권리가 있다는 인식을 못하며, 종종 병환에 대한 정보를 충분히 제공받지 못한다.

Cultures also vary with regard to patient expectations and involvement in shared decision making. In Yousuf and colleagues’ (2007) study in Malaysia and India, doctors were found to be economical with the truth to ‘‘protect’’ patients, particularly females. The doctors also assumed that patients did not really wish to be involved in decision making. In Barr’s (1996) Estonian study, patients were not aware of their right to know details of their care and were often not informed of their illnesses.


 

중동에서 수행된 연구에서 Al-Eraky and Chandratilake 는 ABIM의 프레임워크에 일곱 번째 영역, professional autonomy를 새롭게 만들 것을 권고하며, 이 지역에서는 의사결정에 있어서 권력의 균형이 환자가 아니라 의사에 맞춰져 있다고 주장했다.

In a study conducted in the Middle East involving the American Board of Internal Medicine professionalism frame- work, Al-Eraky and Chandratilake (2012) suggesting adding a new seventh domain, professional autonomy, claiming that in this region, the power balance in the decision-making process is in favour of the doctor rather than patients.


Recommendations




시나리오 2

Scenario 2


Dr B, who was born in South East Asia, has completed her medical degree in her home country. She was a diligent student, always following her seniors’ advice. In particular, the professors at her medical school were treated with utmost reverence and, in the eyes of students and patients, they could do nothing wrong. In her first job in the UK, Dr B is placed on a team to work with Professor P, a very senior Professor of Medicine who is also the Head of Department. He is known to have a bad temper. During a ward round one morning, Professor P is rude to the senior nurse. When he finds a patient who he has specifically come to see is not on his bed, he turns to Dr B, shouting: ‘‘It is your job as a house officer to ensure that all patients are ready to be seen once I am on the ward’’. The patient concerned needs his warfarin dose adjusted. Professor P snatches the prescription chart and increases the dose of warfarin. When Professor P leaves, Dr B realises that the dose is too high. She decides not to question Professor P’s decision. He is, after all, the expert and a senior colleague and, back home, she would not challenge him.



원칙: 위계구조와 위계에 대한 도전

Principles: Hierarchical structures and challenging senior colleagues



Commentary


많은 서구 국가(캐나다, 미국)와 달리 아시아 국가들은 임상 근무환경에서 특히 엄격한 위계구조를 보여주고 있으며, 이는 서구적 맥락에서 '프로페셔널한 행동'으로 여겨지는 일부 측면의 발달이나 발현을 억제한다. Kobayashi 등의 연구에서 일본에서 시니어를 향해 목소리를 높이는speaking up 것은 받아들여지지 않으며, 이것이 개개인들이 다른 사람의 전문직답지 못한 행동을 목격하고도 이에 대응하지 못하는 요인이라고 지적했다 또한 일본 의사와 달리 미국 시니어 의사는 주니어 의사의 질문을 보다 더 장려하였다.

Compared with many Western countries, e.g. the USA and Canada, Asian countries in particular, have a stricter hierarchical reporting structure in the clinical workplace, impede which may the development/exhibition of some aspects of what would be considered professional practice in a Western context. In Kobayashi et al.’s (2006) study, the unacceptability of speaking up in front of seniors in Japan was a factor inhibiting individuals from challenging unprofessional behaviour they had witnessed. In addition, compared with their Japanese colleagues, US seniors were much more encouraging of questions from juniors.


터키에서 Ozan 등은 유사한 조직적 위계를 발견하였고, 지지적 환경이 존재하지 않는 것이 의과대학생들의 윤리적 문제에 대한 결심resolution을 제한시킨다고 보고했다. 윤리적 문제에 직면했을 때, 학생들은 교사보다 친구나 선배 학생과 그것을 논의하는 편이다. 같은 연구에서 학생들은 선배 학생의 전문직답지 못한 행동을 보고하는 것을 꺼려했다.

In Turkey, Ozan and colleagues (2010) found a similar organisational hierarchy and reported the lack of a supportive environment limited medical students’ resolution of ethical problems. When faced with ethical issues, e.g. rational use of medicine, drug promotion by pharmaceutical companies, confidentiality or malpractice, students were more likely to discuss these issues with friends or senior students than with their teachers. In the same study, students also failed to report poor professional behaviour amongst seniors.


Recommendations



시나리오 3

Scenario 3


Student C, a fourth year medical student in the UK, chooses to undertake an elective in a far Eastern country, staying with his parents’ family friends who are doctors. Their son, Student M, is a medical student and a friendship develops between the two. Whilst studying together, Student C is shocked to find that Student M copies and pastes large sections froma standard text into his assignment without referencing the original.



원칙: 표절

Principles: Plagiarism



Commentary

 

인도에서의 연구가 보고한 바와 같이 학업적 부정직행위와 관련한 교육이 없는 것이 부정행위가 발생하는데 기여했을 수 있지만, 어떤 문화권에는 북미나 영국에서 수련받은 사람이 보기에는 unprofessional한 행동임에도 그 문화권에는 "문화적으로 뿌리내린" 행동이 있다. 예컨대, 부정행위나 학업적 비정직행위는 크로아티아 학생들에게 흔하고 받아들여진다. Taradi 등의 연구에서 표절은 경고할 만한 수준으로 퍼져 있었다. 이러한 현상은 국가의 빈곤한 사회경제적 구조에 따른 것으로 볼 수 있는데, 전쟁과 더 큰 사회적 수준에서의 부패가 만연한 것에서부터 생기기 때문이다 또한 잡혔을 때 적절한 제재가 없는 것도 한 이유이다.

While the lack of training around academic misconduct may contribute to cheating, as reported for medical students in India (Babu et al. 2011), there is ‘‘culturally engrained’’ behaviour in some contexts that would be deemed unprofessional by someone trained in North America or the UK. For example, cheating and academic dishonesty appears to be commonplace and acceptable amongst Croatian medical students (Bilic´-Zulle et al. 2005; Kukolja et al. 2010; Taradi et al. 2012). In Taradi et al.’s paper (2012), the prevalence of plagiarism was alarming, with most of the 761 students surveyed admitting to educational dishon- esty. Possible reasons for these high figures were the country’s poor socio-economic structures as it emerged from war and the prevalence of corruption within the wider society. Also, a perceived lack of sanctions for those caught cheating meant that students persisted with the practice.



언어 능력이 부족한 일부 학생에게 복사-붙이기는 외국어로 작문을 하는 것보다 쉽다. Vance의 관점에서 "표절은 문화적으로 구성되는 다양한 인식을 포함하는 실로 복잡한 주제이다"라고 썼다. 또 다른 것으로는 유교의 영향을 받은 사회에서는 어떤 "생각"을 그것을 처음 한 사람이 소유권을 가지는 것으로 보지 않고, 그 사회의 총체적인 지식의 한 부분으로서 보기 때문에, 이러한 타인의 생각을 원문 그대로 사용하는 것은 그것을 소유한 사람에게 존중을 표하는 것으로 인식되며, 그 출처를 밝히는 것은 독자의 지적능력을 모욕하는 것으로 인식되기도 한다(정보를 아는 것은 그 정보의 출처를 아는 것으로 이해되므로) .

For some students with poor language skills, copying and pasting was easier than writing in a foreign language (Taradi et al. 2012). In Vance’s (2009) view, however, ‘‘plagiarism is actually a complex subject that involves many culturally constructed notions’’. In other instances, such as in Confucian- influenced societies, rather than perceiving ideas as the property of the originator, they are seen as being part of the collective knowledge of the society and so reproducing these ideas in the original format is perceived as paying respect to the owner and citing the source might be an insult to the intelligence of the reader as knowing the information is recognised as knowing the source (Vance 2009).



Recommendations




시나리오 4

Scenario 4


Student D was born in a country in Eastern Europe that was previously a part of the Soviet Block. He moved to the UK as a child, to be brought up by his uncle. Unfortunately, he does not secure a place in a medical school in the UK despite good grades. He decides to go to Eastern Europe to study medicine in a school where his father’s friend is a Professor of Medicine. Student D’s father has always been proud of his son and takes an active interest in his medical studies. It is no surprise, therefore, to find that two weeks before his final examinations, his father arrives from his hometown. What surprises Student D, however, is that his father has already presented the Dean with a Rolex watch, thanking him for looking after his son. Even worse, the Dean has accepted the watch! His father has also asked his friend, a professor, to find out the questions to the examination Student D is due to take.




원칙: 호의의 댓가로 선물 받기

Principle: Accepting gifts in return for favours

 


 

Commentary


SES가 낮은 조건에서는 부패가 더 일어나기 쉽고 더 쉽게 받아들여진다. 의사들이 경제적으로 부유하지 못한 일부 개발도상국에서 그러한 비전문직업적 행위의 원인이 될 수 있다. 예컨대, 가난한 에스토니아 의사들 일부는 환자들에게 선물을 받는 것을 당연하게 받아들였다considered acceptable. 남아프리카 연구에서 Rooyen은 의과대학생들은 이타적이 되면서 전문직으로서 경재적으로 우아한 삶을 사는 것의 균형을 잡는 것이 어려움을 표했다.

Low socio-economic conditions make corruption more likely and acceptable in some countries. The relative lack of financial well-being of doctors in some developing countries may contribute to an unprofessional behaviour. For example, amongst poorly paid Estonian doctors, accepting gifts from patients was considered acceptable (Barr 1996). In a South African study, van Rooyen (2004) reported that medical students expressed the opinion that being altruistic and achieving a balance between being professional and making a decent living financially was difficult because of the tension between running the business of medical care and earning a decent living.


Recommendations


Chandratilake M, McAleer S, Gibson J. 2012. Cultural similarities and differences in medical professionalism: A multi-region study. Med Educ 46:257–266.


Cruess SR, Cruess RL, Steinert Y. 2010. Teaching professionalism across cultural and national borders: Lessons learned from an AMEE workshop. Med Teach 32(5):371–374.






 2015 Jan;37(1):74-80. doi: 10.3109/0142159X.2014.920492. Epub 2014 Jul 30.

Medical professionalism across cultures: a challenge for medicine and medical education.

Author information

  • 1University of Liverpool , UK .

Abstract

BACKGROUND:

The recognition of medical professionalism as a complex social construct makes context, geographical location and cultureimportant considerations in any discussion of professional behaviour. Medical students, medical educators and practitioners are now much more on the move globally, exposing them to cultural and social attitudes, values and beliefs that may differ from their own traditional perceptions ofprofessionalism.

AIMS AND METHODS:

This paper uses the model of the intercultural development continuum and the concept of "cultural fit" to discuss what might transpire when a student, teacher or doctor is faced with a new cultural environment. Using our own experiences as medical educators working abroad and supported by evidence in the literature, we have developed four anecdotal scenarios to highlight some of the challenges that different cultural contexts bring to our current (Western) understanding of professionalism.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS:

The scenarios highlight some of the potentially different regional and/or cultural perspectives and nuances of professional behaviours, attitudes or values that many of us either take for granted or find difficult, depending on our training and socio-cultural upbringing. With this paper, we hope to start a long overdue conversation about global professionalism amongst medical educators, identify potential areas for research and highlight a need for medical schools to embrace a "global" approach to how professionalism is embedded in their curricula.

PMID:
 
25073712
 
[PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]


미국 의과대학생의 번아웃과 전문직다운 행실의 관계(JAMA, 2010)

Relationship Between Burnout and Professional Conduct and Attitudes Among US Medical Students 


Liselotte N. Dyrbye, MD, MHPE / F. Stanford Massie Jr, MD / Anne Eacker, MD / William Harper, MD / David Power, MD, MPH / Steven J. Durning, MD / Matthew R. Thomas, MD / Christine Moutier, MD / Daniel Satele, BA / Jeff Sloan, PhD / Tait D. Shanafelt, MD








기존 연구에서 의과대학생들이 사회적으로 전문직에게 요구하는 기대에 부합하는 전문가적 정체성 발달에 실패하고 있음을 지적한다. 이러한 결과가 우려스러운 이유는 의과대학 기간의 일부 비전문직업적 행동이 이후 의사가 된 이후의 비전문직업적 행동을 예측하기 때문이다.

Research suggests that medi- cal students may fail when attempting to develop a professional identity con- sistent with the expectations of soci- ety and the profession.3-9 These find- ings are concerning because evidence suggests that some unprofessional be- haviors during medical school predict subsequent unprofessional conduct once in practice.10


프로페셔널리즘의 중요성은 널리 인정되고 있지만 어떻게 개인적 스트레스(우울, 낮은 QOL)나 전문직으로서의 스트레스(탈진) 이 프로페셔널리즘과 어떻게 연결되는지는 거의 알려진바가 없다. 기존 연구에서 과도한 스트레스(distress)는 공감능력의 저하 및 의료의 질 저하와 관련됨을 보고한 바 있으며, 이는 과도한 스트레스가 비전문직업적 행동과 태도로 귀결된다는 개념적 프레임워크를 상정posit한다.

Despite the widely acknowledged importance of professionalism, how personal distress (such as depression or low mental quality of life [QOL])and professional distress (such as burnout) relate to professionalism is largely unexplored. Previous studies suggest that distress is associated with decreased empathy11-14 and decreased quality of care,13,15-17 which has led to a conceptual framework that posits that distress can lead to unprofes-sional behaviors and attitudes.14 



METHODS


참여자

Participants



자료 수집

Data Collection


all letters indicated that partici- pation was voluntary, responses were confidential, and data would be ano- nymized

Informed consent was im- plied upon return of the survey. No incentive was provided for participa- tion.



연구 척도

Study Measures


탈진, 우울증상, QO

Burnout, Symptoms of Depression, and QOL.


탈진척도: Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI),

Burnout was measured by the Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI),18 which is considered the criterion stan- dard.19 Burnout encompasses 3 do- mains

    • 정서적 탈진 emotional exhaustion [score range 0-54],
    • 비인간화 depersonalization [score range 0-30],
    • 개인적 성취 personal accomplishment [score range 0-48]

which have been confirmed in factor analyses.18


탈진은 자살성 사고/유급에 대한 생각/낮은 공감능력 등과 관련됨

Previously dem- onstrated relationships between burn- out and

    • suicidal ideation,20
    • serious thoughts of dropping out,21 and
    • low em- pathy12 among medical students

pro- vide validity evidence.


 

'정서적 탈진' 혹은 '비인간화' 스케일에서의 높은 점수가 임상적 번아웃을 구분할 수 있어서 이분변수화 함.

Because high scores on either the emotional exhaustion ( 27) or depersonalization( 10) scales can distinguish clinically burned out from non–burned out individuals,22 burnout as a dichotomous variable was defined as having high emotional ex- haustion and/or high depersonalization.


 

우울 평가 척도: Primary Care Evalua- tion of Mental Disorders (PRIME- MD)

The 2-item Primary Care Evalua- tion of Mental Disorders (PRIME- MD) was used to screen for depres- sion.23 A positive depression screen is defined as a positive response to either of the 2 items. The PRIME-MD per- forms similar to longer instruments24 and has a sensitivity of 86%to 96%and a specificity of 57% to 75% for major depressive disorder.23,24


QOL 평가 척도: Medical Outcomes Study Short-Form (SF-8, range 0-100)

Quality of life was measured using the psychometrically sound Medical Outcomes Study Short-Form (SF-8, range 0-100)25 with norm-based scor- ing methods used to calculate mental and physical QOL summary scores.25,26 The mean (SD) mental and physical QOL summary scores for the US popu- lation are 49.2 (9.46) and 49.2 (9.07), respectively.25




전문직적 행위와 태도

Measures of Professional Conduct and Attitudes.


치팅/임상에서의 비정직한 행위 문항: 기존 문헌 바탕

Items inquiring about professional conduct and attitudes rep- resentative of professionalism are shown in eBox (available at http://www.jama.com). The items exploring whether students had engaged in cheating/ dishonest clinical behaviors were de- rived from previous studies of medical students.5-8

 

의사의 책임에 관한 문항: Medical Students’ Atti- tudes Toward Providing Care for the Underserved (MSATU) instrument

The items regarding physi- cians’ responsibility to society were de- rived from the Medical Students’ Atti- tudes Toward Providing Care for the Underserved (MSATU) instrument.3,27


 

의과대학생들은 제약업계의 홍보전략에 상당히 노출되며, 전문직으로서 COI를 관리하는 것은 프로페셔널리즘에 중요하므로, 우리는 학생들이 산업계와 적절한 관계가 무엇인지에 대한 관점을 평가하고자 했다. 이와 관련된 항목등르 AMA의 'Ethi- cal Guidelines of Gifts to Physicians from Industry' 항목으로부터 만들어졌다. 학생들에게 제약업계나 산업체가 스폰서를 하는 행사에서 다양한 선물을 받는 것에 대해서 질문을 했다. 항목들은 AMA policy에서 거의 문자 그대로 따왔다.

Because medical students have sub- stantial exposure to the promotional tactics of the pharmaceutical indus- try4 and managing professional con- flicts of interest is an important aspect of professionalism, we included items assessing students’ views regarding what represented appropriate relationships with industry. These items regarding conflicts of interest in relationships with industry were derived from the Ameri- can Medical Association (AMA) Ethi- cal Guidelines of Gifts to Physicians from Industry.29,30 Students were asked about the appropriateness of accept- ing various gifts from pharmaceutical representatives or attending industry- sponsored events. These items were taken nearly verbatim from the AMA policy.29,30

 

AMA는 다음의 것은 엄격하게 금지하고 있으며, 다만 교재를 제공받거나 작은, 비-교육관련 선물(펜 등)은 허용가능하다

    • Accepting $500 after com-pleting a short survey,
    • attending din- ner at an expensive restaurant, or
    • ac- cepting movie coupons or meals from pharmaceutical representatives

are spe- cifically banned by the AMA policy while accepting textbooks (eg, pocket antimicrobial book) and small, non- educational gifts (eg, pens) are allow- able under the AMA policy.



통계 분석

Statistical Analysis


 

Standard descriptive summary sta- tistics were used to characterize the sample. Differences in a dependent out- come variable by independent vari- ables were evaluated using the Kruskal- Wallis test (continuous variables) or 2 test (categorical variables) as appropri- ate. All tests were 2-sided with type I error rates of .05. Participants were ex- cluded from individual analyses if their data involved in the comparison were missing.

 

 

 

Bivariable logistic regression was per- formed to evaluate the relationship be- tween burnout and individual cheating/ dishonest clinical behaviors, attitudes toward appropriate relationships with industry, and beliefs about physicians’ responsibility to society.

  • For multivari- able analysis, forward stepwise logis- tic regression was performed to evalu- ate associations of all independent demographic and distress variables with engaging in 1 or more cheating/ dishonest clinical behaviors and dis- agreeing with 1 or more of the respon- sibility to society items. 
  • Logistic regression with backward stepping con- firmed results of the initial stepwise re- gression. In both forward and back- ward stepping models, a significance level of .05 was used as an entry thresh- old.
  • Saturated models that included all of the variables confirmed the find- ings of the stepwise models.
  • Because each school has its own culture, method for selecting matriculates, learning en- vironment, and curriculum, we also re- peated the multivariable analysis and controlled for site (school) in the model. All analyses were conducted using Linux SAS 9.2 (SAS Institute Inc, Cary, North Carolina).

RESULTS


 

Professional Conduct, Relationships With Industry, and Views Regarding Physicians’ Responsibility to Society




프로페셔널리즘과 번아웃

Professionalism and Burnout



Table 2. Self-reported Behaviors and Attitudes Among Medical Students With and Without Burnout



프로페셔널리즘과 과도한 스트레스

Professionalism and Personal Distress



 


 

Multivariable Analysis에서 프로페셔널리즘과 관련된 요인

Factors Associated With Professionalism on Multivariable Analysis

 

Table 3. Multivariable Analysis of Factors Independently Associated With Self-reported Cheating/Dishonest Clinical Behaviors and Less Altruistic Professional Values



 


COMMENT



본 대규모의 다기관 연구에서, 자기보고식 cheating and dishonest clinical behaviors 번아웃과 직접적으로 관련이 있음을 보여주었다. 한편 의사의 사회적 책임과 관련한 전문직의 이타적 가치번아웃과 역의 관계에 있었다.

 

번아웃의 ...

  • 비인간화 영역은 AMA의 정책과 부합하지 않는 산업계와의 관계를 맺는 것을 받아들이는 것과 관련되어 잇었다.
  • 반대로 우울 영역이나 정신적/신체적 QOL은 임상에서의 부정행위/부정직행위, 산업계에 대한 태도, 이타적인 전문직으로서의 가치와 관계가 거의 없었다.

 

이러한 결과는 번아웃이 주로 프로페셔널 영역에 영향을 주는 한편 개인 수준의 과도한 스트레스는(낮은 정신적 QOL) 개인적 영역(인간관계의 어려움, 약물 남용)에 보다 더 큰 영향을 미친다는 이론적인 프레임워크와 부합하며, 이 때 프로페셔널 역역의 이차적 효과는 그 만성화 정도chronicity나 심각도severity에 따라 달려 있다.

 

In this large, multi-institutional study, self-reported cheating and dishonest clinical behaviors showed a direct as- sociation with burnout, while altruis- tic professional values regarding phy- sicians’ responsibility to society showed an inverse relationship with burnout. The depersonalization domain of burn- out was also associated with the belief that it is acceptable to engage in rela- tionships with industry that are incon- sistent with the AMA policy state- ment. In contrast, there were few relationships between depression or mental/physical QOL and cheating/ dishonest clinical behaviors, attitudes toward industry, or altruistic profes- sional values. These findings are in keeping with the theoretic frame- work18 that burnout primarily affects the professional domain, whereas per- sonal distress (such as a low mental QOL) often has greater initial effect on personal domains (eg, relationship dif- ficulties or substance abuse), with a sec- ondary effect on the professional do- main depending on chronicity and severity.



학생들이 부정직한 행위에 대해서 그것의 부적절성을 알면서도 그러한 행위를 하는 것은 부정직을 촉진하는 학습 환경의 요소와 관련이 있을 수 있다. 학생들은 신체검진을 충분히 하지 않고도 신체검진 결과를 거짓으로 보고하는 것 등의 상황을 만들 수 있다. 학생들의 평가에 대한 두려움과 팀에 들어맞기fit in 위한 열망에 더하여, 본 연구에서는 번아웃이 전문직답지 못한 행위에 기여하는 중요한 변인일 수 있을 제기한다.

The fact that students fre- quently engage in dishonest behaviors despite knowing they are inappropri- ate may imply that some elements of the learning climate foster dishonesty. This could lead to a situation in which stu- dents are more willing to falsely re- port physical examination findings than admit they performed an incomplete ex- amination. In addition to students’ fear of poor evaluations and a desire to fit in with the team,9 this study suggests that burnout may be another impor- tant variable contributing to unprofes- sional behavior.


번아웃된 학생은 의사의 사회적 책무성에 대해서 이타적 관점을 보다 덜 가지며, 이는 프로페셔널한 태도와 advocacy가 professional distress에 취약할 수 잇음을 보여준다.

Students with burnout were also less likely to hold altruistic views regard- ing physicians’ responsibility to soci- ety, suggesting that professional atti- tudes and advocacy may be vulnerable to professional distress.







 


 


 








 2010 Sep 15;304(11):1173-80. doi: 10.1001/jama.2010.1318.

Relationship between burnout and professional conduct and attitudes among US medical students.

Author information

  • 1Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Rochester, Minnesota, USA. dyrbye.liselotte@mayo.edu

Abstract

CONTEXT:

The relationship between professionalism and distress among medical students is unknown.

OBJECTIVE:

To determine the relationship between measures of professionalism and burnout among US medical students.

DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS:

Cross-sectional survey of all medical students attending 7 US medical schools (overall response rate, 2682/4400 [61%]) in the spring of 2009. The survey included the Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI), the PRIME-MD depression screening instrument, and the SF-8 quality of life (QOL) assessment tool, as well as items exploring students' personal engagement in unprofessional conduct, understanding of appropriate relationships with industry, and attitudes regarding physicians' responsibility to society.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES:

Frequency of self-reported cheating/dishonest behaviors, understanding of appropriate relationships with industry as defined by American Medical Association policy, attitudes about physicians' responsibility to society, and the relationship of these dimensions of professionalism to burnout, symptoms of depression, and QOL.

RESULTS:

Of the students who responded to all the MBI items, 1354 of 2566 (52.8%) had burnout. Cheating/dishonest academic behaviors were rare (endorsed by <10%) in comparison to unprofessional conduct related to patient care (endorsed by up to 43%). Only 14% (362/2531) of studentshad opinions on relationships with industry consistent with guidelines for 6 scenarios. Students with burnout were more likely to report engaging in 1 or more unprofessional behaviors than those without burnout (35.0% vs 21.9%; odds ratio [OR], 1.89; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.59-2.24).Students with burnout were also less likely to report holding altruistic views regarding physicians' responsibility to society. For example, studentswith burnout were less likely to want to provide care for the medically underserved than those without burnout (79.3% vs 85.0%; OR, 0.68; 95% CI, 0.55-0.83). After multivariable analysis adjusting for personal and professional characteristics, burnout was the only aspect of distress independently associated with reporting 1 or more unprofessional behaviors (OR, 1.76; 95% CI, 1.45-2.13) or holding at least 1 less altruistic view regarding physicians' responsibility to society (OR, 1.65; 95% CI, 1.35-2.01).

CONCLUSION:

Burnout was associated with self-reported unprofessional conduct and less altruistic professional values among medical students at 7 US schools.

PMID:
 
20841530
 
[PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]




학업적 비정직성과 윤리적 추론: 뉴질랜드 약대생과 의대생 연구(Med Teach, 2013)

Academic dishonesty and ethical reasoning: Pharmacy and medical school students in New Zealand

MARCUS A. HENNING, SANYA RAM, PHILLIPA MALPAS, BOAZ SHULRUF, FIONA KELLY & SUSAN J. HAWKEN

University of Auckland, New Zealand






학업적 비정직성(Academic dishonesty)는 cheating, fabrication and falsifying, and plagiarism 등을 포함한다. 학업적 비정직행위가 널리 확산되면서 이 현상의 결정인자에 대한 관심이 촉발되고 있다. Jurdi 등은 학업적 비정직행위에 관한 태도가 실제 비정직행위에 가담할지를 결정한다고 주장했으며, 이는 theory of planned behavior와 일관된 것이다. 더 나아가, 그들의 모델에 따르면 학업적 비정직행위에 대한 태도나 그것에 가담할지를 결정하는 것은 인구통계학적/심리사회적/학업적/상황적 요인이 있다고 했다. 추가적으로, 도덕 및 윤리적 발달이 있는데, 비록 이론적이지만 학문적 진실성과 관련된다고 보고된 바 있다.

Academic dishonesty encompasses the areas of cheating, fabrication and falsifying, and plagiarism (Guthrie 2009). The prevalence of academic dishonesty has prompted an increas- ing interest into the determinants of this phenomenon (Jurdi et al. 2011). Jurdi and colleagues (2011) suggested that attitudes with respect to academic honesty determined actual engagement in dishonest behavior; this is consistent with established theories such as the theory of planned behavior (Ajzen 1991). Furthermore, according to their model, the antecedents that predetermine attitude to, and engagement in, academic dishonesty can be considered in terms of demographics, and psychosocial, academic, and situational factors (Jurdi et al. 2011). In addition, the area of moral and ethical development, albeit theoretically, has been linked to academic integrity (Hardigan 2004; Jurdi et al. 2011)


또한 남학생과 여학생 사이에 학업적 비정직 행위에 대한 차이에 대한 근거도 잇으나, 일부 연구에서는 남성과 여성 간 차이가 없다고 한 것도 있다.

There is also evidence suggesting differences with respect to engagement in academic dishon-esty between male and female medical students (Babu et al.2011). However, other studies have not found differences between male and female students in terms of engaging in academic dishonesty (Rennie & Rudland 2003; Bilic-Zulleet al. 2005; Jurdi et al. 2011). 



방법

Method


참가자와 샘플링

Participants and sampling



절차

Procedure


현실적 시나리오를 기반으로 함으로써 학생들이 그들의 professional context를 고려할 수 있고, 그 시나리오에 친숙함을 느끼게끔 했다. 구체적 문장은 다음과 같다.

Distinct from Hauser et al. (2007), this scenario was based on a realistic scenario so that students could consider their professional context and thus be familiar with this case. The wording the scenario was as follows:

스테픈스 의사는....Z라는 약이...

‘‘Dr Stephens is in charge of a patient who is seriously ill. All this patient needs in order to return to his good health is a small dose of drug Z. Unfortunately drug Z is extremely hard to get hold of. However, Dr Stephens knows a source. In order to get the drug she will have to steal it for her patient.’’

 

학생에게 질문은 다음과 같다.

Students were asked,

 

스테픈스 의사가 약을 훔치는 것을 인정할 수 있는가?

‘‘Is it ethically permissible for Dr Stephens to steal the drug for her patient?’’

 

6점 척도로 (절대 동의하지 않음 - 언제나 동의함) 평가하였고, 주관식으로 판단의 이유를 설명할 수 있게 했다.

Students were asked to appraise the case using a six-point Likert scale (from never agree to always agree). A commentary box was state their available below the case to allow students to reasons for their decision.



학업적 비정직행위에 대해서는 문헌에 등장한 구체적인 행동을 가지고 32개의 문항을 만들었다. 학생들은 "전혀 사실이 아님 - 매우 사실임"으로 6점 척도로 응답.

To measure self-reported engagement in academic dishon- esty, students were asked to respond to 32 items regarding specific behaviors often cited in the literature in the area of academic dishonesty Students were asked to rate each of the items in terms of a six-point Likert scale of ‘‘never true’’ to ‘‘very true.’’ For example,

    • ‘‘using abbreviations written on arm during a written examination,’’
    • ‘‘using hidden notes in written examinations,’’ and
    • ‘‘copying from a neighbor during an examination without the person realizing.’’

좀더 해석을 명확하게 하기 위해서 32개 문항으로 EFA 수행

To provide greater clarity to the interpretation, this intial set of 32-items was examined using exploratory factor-analysis.


사회적 바람직성social desirability  척도도 포함되었으며, 구체적으로는 자기기만척도self-deceptive enhancement (SDE) scale 를 사용하였음. Li와 Bagger는 SDE가 "비의도적으로 스스로를 보다 바람직한 방식으로 보여주고자 하는 것, 긍정적인 방향을의 비뚤림이지만, 그것이 스스로의 모습이라고 진정으로 믿는 것"을 보여준다고 설명했다. 이 척도는 잠재적 confounder를 통제하기 위해서 분석에 포함됨.

A social desirability measure was incorporated, specifically the self-deceptive enhancement (SDE) scale of the Balanced Inventory of Desirable Responding (Paulhus 1991). Li and Bagger (2007) stated that SDE aims to elicit information about ‘‘an unintentional propensity to portray oneself in a favorable light, manifested in positively biased but honestly believed self-descriptions (p. 526).’’ This measure was entered into the analysis to control for this potential confounder.


Data analysis


두 단계로 진행됨.

Two phases of data analysis were conducted


Preliminary analyzes.


Incidence of academic dishonesty.


A multiple analysis of covariance model (MANCOVA) was used to appraise the level of association between the dependent variables (incidence of academic dishonesty) and the independent variables case responses, gender and course of study. Several covariates were also entered into the analytical model to control for potential confounding influences (SDE, age, and year of study). Both age and year of study were converted to two sets of dummy variables. For age, two dummy variables were coded, coding over 25 as 1 and all else 0 (older group) and 15–19 age group as 1 and all else 0 (younger group). In addition, to annul any problems with assumptions related to the cumulative effect of year of study we created a similar set of dummy variables. Henceforth, two dummy variables weregenerated: first year two was coded as 1 and all else 0 (younger year) and then year 4 was coded as 1 and all else 0 (older year).




Results


Participants

 

 


 

예비 분석

Preliminary analyzes


EFA에서는 학업적 비정직행위의 구체적 영역이 발견되었다.

The exploratory factor analysis revealed three identifiable factors that relate to specific areas of academic dishonesty.

  • (1) copying relating to items that explicitly probed the notions of copying with or without crediting the source or manipulation of data;
  • (2) cheating referring to items related to intentional engagement in the use of unauthorized material by deceptive or dishonest means; and
  • (3) collusion in reference to items that imply collaborating withor aiding other students or ignoring actions by other studentsin relation to academic dishonesty.

 

이 영역에 따르면, 91% 학생이 copying에, 34%가 cheating에, 60%가 collusion 경험이 있음을 밝혔다.

According to these domains, 91% of students disclosed some form of engagementin copying, 34% in cheating, and 60% in collusion. 



학업적 비정직행위

Incidence of academic dishonesty


허용성permissibility 수준에 따라 고허용 그룹과 저허용 그룹으로 구분함

To explore the possibility of interactions, the responses tothe case scenario were converted to a categorical variable by considering the contrast between higher levels of permissibil-ity (ratings 4–6) versus lower levels of permissibility (1–3).Additionally, an inspection of the right skewed distribution of the response scores to the cases scenarios suggested that it would be sensible to create a dichotomous variable. Genderand course of study were also entered as independent variables. 


 



 

고찰

Discussion



가장 두드러지는 결과는 학생들이 학업적 비정직행위를 한 적이 있다고 밝힌 정도와(copying, collusion) 의사의 비도덕적 행위에 대해서 평가한 수준이 밀접하게 연관되어있었다는 점이다. 더 나아가서 collusion(공모, 결탁)은 성별/학년/전공에 따른 차이가 나타났다.

The foremost findings suggested that the way students disclosed engagement in academic dishonesty,namely copying and collusion, was linked to the way they rated a cases scenario related to a doctor stealing a drug for a patient in need. Moreover, a further aspect of academic dishonesty, collusion, was seen as a differential element with respect to gender, year, and course of study; 


학업적 비정직 행위에 가담Engagement

Engagement in academic dishonesty


전문직으로서의 행동은 지조있는principled 자세를 개발하고, 윤리적, 도덕적 딜레마를 해결하는 방식에 토대를 두고 있음을 시사하는 강력한 근거가 있다. 이 연구에 따르면 학업적 비정직행위에 가담하는 것은(copying, collusion) 학생들이 시나리오 사례에 응답한 것과 관련되어 있었다.

There is a strong argument implying that professional activities are likely grounded in the way people develop principled positions and solve ethical and moral dilemmas (Latif 2000). In reference to this study, engagement in copying and collusion were related to students’ responses to a case scenario


Granitz and Loewry 는 학생들이 다양한 윤리적 frames of reference 에 따라서 행동함을 보여주었다.(예컨대 rational self- interest 혹은 Machiavellianism (ethical egoism)) 내용 분석으로 표절 사례를 분석하여 이들은 대부분의 학생들이 deontology 와 유사한 frame of reference를 적용함을 밝혔다. 그러나 Granitz and Loewry 는 또한 많은 학생들이(18%) 잡힐 가능성이 매우 낮다는 전제 하에서는 다른 사람이 지불하는 비용을 통해 자신의 이익을 강조하는 시스템으로 frame되어 있음을 밝혔다.

Granitz and Loewry (2007) have suggested that students operate from varying ethical frames of reference such as rational self- interest or Machiavellianism (ethical egoism). By appraising plagiarism cases using content analysis, they found most students apply a frame of reference akin to deontology through fundamental considering duty and respect for human rights. However, Granitz and Loewry also determined that many students (18%) were framed according to a system that emphasized self-interest at the expense of others, with the proviso that they have a high probability of not getting caught.


실용적 관점에서, 학생들이 학업적 비정직행위에 가담할 이유는 다양하다. 일부 학생들은 전략적으로 "앞서나가기 위하여" 그럴 수도 있다. Ercegovac and Richardson은 학업적 비정직성을 예측할 수 있는 몇 가지 요인을 제시했다.

From a pragmatic perspective, it is probable that students have different reasons for engaging in academically dishonest behaviors. For example, some students may be strategically motivated to ‘‘get ahead’’ (Simkin & McLeod 2010). Additionally, Ercegovac and Richardson (2004) posited that several factors could predict academic dishonesty, which include

  • a sense of societal skepticism,
  • lack of trust,
  • alienation from educational authority,
  • larger class size,
  • increased com- petition,
  • collaborative work projects,
  • lack of understanding,
  • the need to produce higher grades, and
  • fear of failure.

따라서, 학업적 비정직행위를 하는 학생들도  저마다 서로 다른 frames of reference 를 가지고 있을 수 있고, 따라서 각 학생의 사례들이 각각 그에 따라 고려되어야 한다. 고의적인 학업적 비정직행위로 간주되는 사례에 대해서는 다음의 것들이 적절할 수 있으나, 쉽게 정의되지 않는 사례에 대해서는 적절하지 않을 수 있다.

It is, thus, likely that students engaging in academic dishonesty do have different frames of reference and ratio- nales and as such each student’s case needs to be considered accordingly. The use of a disciplinary tribunal that incurs penalties related to

  • non-credit for courses,
  • a monetary fine,
  • suspension of attendance, and
  • cancellation of enrollment (The University of Auckland 2010),

 

may be appropriate in cases considered as intentional acts of academic dishonesty, but may not be appropriate for cases not so easily defined.




성별과 전공에 따른 차이

Gender and course differences



본 연구의 결과는 성별에 따른 차이도 보여주는데, 남학생에서 collusion형태의 학업적 비정직행위가 더 흔하게 나타났다.

The findings of this study also indicated a gender difference whereby male students disclosed higher levels of academic dishonesty in the form of collusion than female students.

  • 남학생이 동료들과 더 비정직한 학습환경에서 공부하고 있을 가능성
    This implies that male students are more likely to be working with others in a dishonest learning environment whether by engaging ignoring behaviors or in peer-related behaviors.
  • 남학생이 더 tolerant하다는 근거
    This finding supports evidence to suggest that male students are more tolerant towards unacceptable behavior, as noted during group work activities, than female students and this may be related to differences in sensitivity towards context (Underwood 2003).

 

성별 간 차이에 따른 또 다른 설명

Several other explanations for gender differences have also been posed in the literature, including

  • 동기 차이 motivational differences (male students are more extrinsic compared the intrinsic nature of female students) (Hardigan 2004),
  • 여자 비율 높음 female dominance in pharmacy (Aggarwal et al. 2002),
  • 여학생이 더 위험-회피적 female students may be more risk-averse (Baker Jr & Maner 2009; Gupta et al. 2009), and
  • 남학생이 더 사회적 이미지에 쉽게 영향을 받음. 상대적으로 여학생은 독립적 male students are more easily affected by social image compared to the independent nature of female students (Aggarwal et al. 2002).

 

Jurdi 등은 남학생과 여학생 간에 사회적 책무성에 대한 인식이 다르나, 이 차이가 명확히 이해되거나 설명되고 있지는 않다고 하였음. 선택과 고집choice and persistence과 관련한 설명도 있는데, 예컨대 여학생이 선택에 있어서 좀 더 보수적이고, 남학생보다 전통적인 규범을 고집하는 경우가 많다.

Even though they did not find a significant gender result in their study, Jurdi and colleagues (2011) identified that there are different notions of societal responsibility between male and female students and the impact of these differences are not clearly understood or explained in the literature. There may also be an explanation related to choice and persistence (Pintrich & Zusho 2007); for example, female students may be more conservative in their choice and may likely persist with conventional norms than male students (Hardigan 2004).



어린 학생들이 더 비정직한 행위를 할 가능성이 높다는 것을 보여준 다른 연구들도 흥미로우나 이번 연구에서는 그렇지는 않았다.

It was interesting to note that other studies have suggested that younger students may be more predisposed to dishonest behaviors than older students (Hardigan 2004), but in this study no age effects were noted.



결론과 권고

Conclusion and recommendations


Granitz and Loewry 는 학생들은 서로 다른 ethical frames of reference를 가지고 있으며, 따라서 학생들이 어떻게 복잡한 윤리적 딜레마를 풀기 위하여 서로 상호작용work하는지 초기에 발견하는 것은 교육자들이 위험의 소지가 있는 학생들을 찾아내거나 단체상황에서 어떤 행동을 할 것인지 예측gauge할 수 있어서 향후의 행동을 미연에 방지할 수 있기에 중요함. 더 나아가서 케이스 시나리오는 윤리/도덕적 추론 수준을 측정하는데 활용할 수 있어서 대학기간 뿐 아니라 미래 행동의 implication으로서 사용될 수 있다. 학생들이 윤리적 도덕적 딜레마에 공모collude하는 방식은 교육 초기에 다뤄져야 하며, 이를 통해서 학생들이 전문직으로서 행동을 엄격하게 하도록  잘 준비하여야 한다.

A useful study, Granitz and Loewry (2007) suggest that students employ different ethical frames of reference, and therefore, early detection in relation to how students work with each other in solving complex ethical dilemmas may alert educationists to at-risk students or to gauge how students construct behavior in group situations, thus pre-empting later disciplinary action. Moreover, the case scenario approach could be used to gauge levels of ethical and moral reasoning (Kohlberg 1975; Hauser et al. 2007), which can then be discussed in line with professional conduct both at university as well as implications for future practice (Papadakis et al. 2004). The ways in which students collude to address ethical and moral dilemmas need to be discussed early in their training so that they are adequately prepared for the rigors of professional practice whether it is medicine or pharmacy.



 



Granitz N, Loewy D. 2007. Applying ethical theories: Interpreting and responding to student plagiarism. J Bus Ethics 72(3):293–306.


Hauser M, Cushman F, Young L, Jin RK-X, Mikhail J. 2007. A dissociation between moral judgments and justifications. Mind Lang 22(1):1–21.


Simkin MG, McLeod A. 2010. Why do college students cheat? J Bus Ethics 94:1–13.






 2013 Jun;35(6):e1211-7. doi: 10.3109/0142159X.2012.737962. Epub 2012 Nov 12.

Academic dishonesty and ethical reasoningpharmacy and medical school students in New Zealand.

Author information

  • 1Centre for Medical and Health Sciences Education, University of Auckland, Auckland 1142, New Zealand. m.henning@auckland.ac.nz

Abstract

BACKGROUND:

There is ample evidence to suggest that academic dishonesty remains an area of concern and interest for academic and professional bodies. There is also burgeoning research in the area of moral reasoning and its relevance to the teaching of pharmacy and medicine.

AIMS:

To explore the associations between self-reported incidence of academic dishonesty and ethical reasoning in a professional student body.

METHODS:

Responses were elicited from 433 pharmacy and medicine students. A questionnaire eliciting responses about academic dishonesty(copying, cheating, and collusion) and their decisions regarding an ethical dilemma was distributed. Multivariate analysis procedures were conducted.

RESULTS:

The findings suggested that copying and collusion may be linked to the way students make ethical decisions. Students more likely to suggest unlawful solutions to the ethical dilemma were more likely to disclose engagement in copying information and colluding with other students.

CONCLUSIONS:

These findings imply that students engaging in academic dishonesty may be using different ethical frameworks. Therefore, employing ethical dilemmas would likely create a useful learning framework for identifying students employing dishonest strategies when coping with their studies. Increasing understanding through dialog about engagement in academic honesty will likely construct positive learning outcomes in the university with implications for future practice.

PMID:
 
23146078
 
[PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]


학부의학교육에서 EPA의 활용 사례(Acad Med 2015)

The Case for Use of Entrustable Professional Activities in Undergraduate Medical Education

H. Carrie Chen, MD, MSEd, W.E. Sjoukje van den Broek, MD, and Olle ten Cate, PhD






AAMC는 최근 전공의 입학생을 위한 13개의 EPA의 draft set을 발표하였으며, 의과대학들로 하여금 이것을 졸업생들의 성과를 평가하는 기준으로 삼게끔 권고하였다.

The Association of American Medical Colleges (AAMC) recently published a draft set of 13 core entrustable professional activities (EPAs) for entering residency and encouraged medical schools to consider them in determining outcomes for graduating students.1


성과-바탕 접근법을 의학에서의 교육과정 설계와 운영, 학습자 평가와 교육과정 개발에 활용할 것에 대한 제안은 1970년대부터 있어왔으며, 1990년대부터 점차 많은 관심을 받고 있다. 국제적으로 학습자 성과에 대해 점차 더 강조가 되는 이러한 현상은  CBME라고 불리며, 의학에서 수련을 마칠 때 기대되는 수행능력을 좀더 명확히 규정할 것을 강조하는 것이다.

The idea of an outcomes-based approach to curricular design and implementation as well as learner assessment and curriculum development has been proposed in medicine since the 1970s, and it has gained increasing attention since the 1990s.3 This international movement towards greater emphasis on learner outcomes is known more widely as competency-based medical education (CBME) and is compelling the delineation of clearer performance expectations for graduates of medical training.3,4



ACGME의 core competency domain과 같은 CBME 프레임워크를 도입하는 교육자들이 갖는 한 가지 우려는, 이것이 환자를 돌보는데 있어서 실제 수행능력에 대한 성과를 잘 잡아내지 못한다는 것이다. 이들 저자들은, 부분이, 즉 개인이 가지는 개별 역량 영역들의 합이, '진료'라는 전체를 이루지 못한다고 지적한다.

One concern of educators is that the adopted CBME frameworks, such as the Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education core competency domains in the United States, do not fully capture or focus on the actual performance outcome of caring for patients.3–8 These authors argue that the parts, or the abilities within individual competency domains, do not add up to the whole of practice.4


또한, 한 가지 상황에서 환자 진료를 잘 할 수 있다는 것이 다른 상황이나 맥락에 반드시 적용translate되는 것도 아니다.

Also, the capability to provide patient care in one context or clinical circumstance may not necessarily translate to other contexts and circumstances.

 

마지막으로, '객관적으로 측정가능한' 학습자 능력에 대한 평가에 초점을 맞추면서, 오히려 어떻게 학습자가 다양한 임상환경에서 실제로 환자를 보는가에 대해서는 멀어질 수도 있다. 교육자들은 '수행능력 성과performance outcome'란 임상진료가 이뤄지는 맥락 안에서 구성framed 되어야 하며, 전문가로서의 발달과정은 다양한 영역의 역량에 걸친 통합과 보건의료환경에 대한 적용이 요구된다고 주장한다. EPA라는 개념은, CBME관련 프레임워크에서는 비교적 새로운 개념이며, 이러한 우려를 해소하기 위하여 도입되었다.

Lastly, the focus on objective assessment of measurable learner abilities may detract attention from the assessment of how learners actually care for their patients in a variety of clinical contexts. Educators have argued that performance outcomes should be framed in the context of clinical care, recognizing that professional development requires the integration of abilities across multiple competency domains and application within the health care environment.3,6,8–10 The concept of EPAs, a relatively new CBME- related framework, was introduced as a potential solution to these concerns.9,11



EPA란 한 전문직에게 신뢰하고 수행을 맡길 수 있는 전문직으로서의 필수적 활동을 의학교육의 성과로 조작화operationalize하는 것이다. 예를 들어 “care of complicated pregnancies.”라는 EPA가 있다면, 여기에는 다양한 역량영역이 관여되고(지식, 의사소통, 프로페셔널리즘), 이 지식/술기/태도의 통합을 필요로 한다. 전통적 역량 프레임워크에서 개개인의 퀄리티에 초점을 맞췄담ㄴ, EPA는 완수되어야 하는 업무의 퀄리티에 초점을 둔다.

EPAs operationalize medical education outcomes as essential professional activities that one entrusts a professional to perform.12 An example of such an activity is “care of complicated pregnancies.”5 Each EPA is a synthesis of multiple competency domains (e.g., medical knowledge, communication skills, and professionalism) and requires the integration of knowledge, skills, and attitudes.12 Whereas traditional competency frameworks focus on qualities of the person, EPAs focus on qualities of the work to be completed.5


The International CBME Collaborators 는 GME기대역량을 가지고 UME 기대역량을 거꾸로 만들 것을 제안한다. 이 때 등장하는 질문이 이러한 후방적backwards 접근법이 옳은가 하는 것이다.

The International CBME Collaborators have suggested that we work backwards from GME competency expectations to build necessary competency expectations for UME as well.16 The question arises as to whether working backwards is the right approach.


EPA가 UME에 적합한가?

Are EPAs Appropriate for UME?


우리의 답은 '그렇다'이다. EPA는 UME에 나름의 자리가 있고 도움이 될 것이다.

We believe the answer is yes; EPAs do have a place in and can be advantageous for UME.


학습의 지속성과 개발적 발전(developmental progression)

Continuity and developmental progression of learners


현실에서, 의과대학을 졸업하는 것은 의사로서의 수련과정이란 연속체의 한 시점일 뿐이다. 학습자들은 UME부터 GME수련과정까지의 연속체에 걸쳐서 발전을 이룬다. 각 단계에서의 의학교육과정과 학습자에게 기대하는 것은 그 이전 단계를 기반으로 쌓아올라가는 것이며, 이상적으로는 개념과 스킬의 나선형(반복적, 심화적) 발전을 이루어야 하며, 전체적인 포괄적 시스템의 일부와 관련되어 있어야 한다. 동일한 역량 프레임워크를 UME와 GME에 모두 적용하는 것이 이러한 유형의 수직적 통합을 촉진하고, 진정한 CBME을 이루게 한다.

In reality, medical school completion is just one point along the continuum of physician training.17 Learners develop progressive proficiency along the continuum from UME to GME training. Medical education curricula and learner expectations at each level should build progressively upon previous levels, ideally demonstrate spiral (e.g., iterative and increasing) development of concepts and skills, and be related parts of a comprehensive system.16 Application of the same competency framework in both UME and GME training would promote this type of vertical integration across the continuum and foster true CBME.


(역량의) 발전이라는 관점에서, EPA는  UME와 GME 역량 프레임워크를 통합하는 접근이 될 수 있다. ten Cate등이 말한 바와 같이 EPA식의 위탁entrustment 결정은 전문성 개발의 Dreyfus and Dreyfus 모델과 합치하며, medical skill 개발의 developmental curves 와도 맞는다.

From a developmental perspective, the EPA approach can work well as a unifying competency framework for UME and GME. As previously described by ten Cate and colleagues,19 the entrustment decisions as operationalized in the EPA approach align with the Dreyfus and Dreyfus model for the development of expertise and with the developmental curves described in medical skill development.

 

 

 


EPA원칙의 일반화가능성과 적용가능성

Generalizability and applicability of EPA principles


EPA에 깔린 핵심 원칙은 의사 훈련의 연속체에 대해서 '근무지 학습workplace learning과 신뢰trust'를 일반화할 수 있다는 것이다. 두 가지가 모두 UME, GME 모두에 적용될 수 있다.

The key principles that underlie the EPA concept, workplace learning and trust, are generalizable to the continuum of physician training. Both apply to UME as well as GME.



근무지(기반)학습은 근무현장에서의 참여를 통한 경험적 학습으로 정의할 수 있으며, 임상교육의 핵심이다. GME에서는 근무지(기반)학습이 가장 중요한 부분으로 여겨지고 있는데, 우리는 UME에서도 이것이 필수적이라고 주장하고자 한다. 혹자는 전임상시기의 학습은 교실-기반의 지식에 초점이 맞춰져 있어서 ,EPA의 역할이 없을 것이라고 말한다. 그러나, 교육자들은 오래 전부터 다음을 주장해왔으며, 의과대학도 점차 이것들을 반영하고 있다.

Workplace learning, defined as experiential learning through participation in the workplace, is at the heart of clinical education.19,20 While workplace learning has been recognized as the crux of GME, we would argue that it is also essential for UME. One could argue that preclerkship learning is knowledge- focused classroom-based learning in which workplace learning and therefore EPAs (which are workplace activities) do not have a role. However, educators have called for, and medical schools have increasingly incorporated,

  • early/preclerkship workplace-based clinical education to help students in their professional identity formation,
  • provide exposure to aspects of patient and community health, and
  • develop student–patient communication skills.21

 

조기임상노출과 임상에서의 책임을 점진적으로 증가시키는 방식으로 수직적으로 통합된 임상교육과정이 졸업생의 임상역량을 향상시키는 것으로 나타나며, 레지던트로서의 이행을 더 잘 준비하게 해주는 것으로 나타난다. 또한 의과대학 1학년 학생들도 기회가 주어지고, 역할이 명확하고, 적절한 support가 있다면 임상 현장에서 참여하고 기여할 수 있음이 보여진 바 있다.

Vertically integrated clinical curricula with early clinical experiences and increasing clinical responsibilities over time have been shown to improve clinical capabilities in graduates and their preparation for transition to residency.22 In addition, students in even the first year of medical school have demonstrated the ability to participate in and contribute to the clinical workplace when given the opportunity, clear roles, and adequate support.23


임상근무환경에서 신뢰trust는 학습자를 관리감독supervision하는데 있어서 핵심 요소이다. 이 '신뢰'는 다양한 요소(supervisor, learner, supervisor– learner relationship, situational and workplace context, and activity to be performed)에 기반을 둔 판단이다.

In the clinical workplace, trust is a key element of the supervision of learners. This trust is a judgment grounded in multiple factors related to the supervisor, learner, supervisor– learner relationship, situational and workplace context, and activity to be performed.24


 

학생이 맡는 업무에 대한 인정과 질 관리

Recognition and quality assurance of student work


임상근무환경에서의 활동을 중심으로 학생의 능력을 바라보는 것은 장점이 있다.

Attention to student abilities framed around clinical workplace activities has several advantages.


EPA는 학생들의 조기임상참여의 특성을 명확히 해주며, 시간에 걸쳐 책임을 점진적으로 증가시켜준다. 이는 의과대학을 갓 시작하는 시점에서부터 학생들어 어떻게 진료에 기여할 수 있는가를 명확하게 설명해주며, 학생들의 기여와 그들이 진료에 더하는 가치value add to patient care를 볼 수 있게visible해준다. 이와 같이 학생의 역할work에 대해서 '정의'하고 '인정'해주는 것은 교육자들로 하여금 학생들의 성과output을 학생들의 학습목표goals와 동기부여, 기관 차원에서의 기대, 사회적 요구 등과 합치align될 수 있게 해준다. 학생들의 참여 수준을 명시적으로 인정해주고, 학생이 위탁받아entrusted 할 수 있는 활동을 명확하게 해주는 것은 임상근무환경의 quality와 safety를 향상시켜준다 또한 하여금 어떻게 우리가 안전한 진료를 위한 의무를 다하고 있는지 대중들에게 투명하게 보여줄 수 있고, 교육병원에 있어서는 규제사항regulatory needs를 지키는 것에도 도움이 된다.

EPAs can help clarify the nature of students’ early clinical engagement and increasing responsibilities over time. They also allow articulation of how students can contribute to the care of patients from the very beginning of medical school, and make visible these student contributions and the value they add to patient care. This definition and recognition of student work can help educators align student output with student learning goals and motivation, institutional expectations, and societal needs. Explicit recognition of levels of student participation and clarity around activities that can be entrusted promote quality and safety in the clinical workplace. It can increase transparency for the public about how we are addressing our obligation to provide safe care and may even be helpful for teaching hospitals to meet regulatory needs.


병원을 인증하는 기구인 JCI는 학생의 특권student privilege에 대해서 아주 직접적으로 다루고 있다. 이는 학생들이 기대역량을 달성했는가만 보는 것이 아니라, 특정 환자 진료 관련 활동에 있어서 그것을 안전하게 수행할 수 있는 정도로 신뢰받을(신뢰할) 수 있는가에 대한 것이다. 이런 것들이 있다.

The Joint Commission International, which accredits hospitals, places attention squarely on student privileges—not just their achievement of competency expectations but whether they can be trusted to safely perform specific patient care activities. Examples of student privileges or activities recently introduced at the University Medical Center Utrecht include

  • “providing non-therapeutic medical information to patients,”
  • “requesting routine laboratory investigations,” and
  • “placing urine catheters,” among many others.26

 

이 작은 활동들이 합쳐져서 EPA를 이룰 수 있다. 학생이 근무현장에서 위임받거나 참여할 수 있는가에 대한 정보가 담긴 디지털 배지 활용이 제안된 바 있다.

These smaller activities may serve to cluster into EPAs. It has been suggested that digital badges encoded with just this type of information about the individual student can be accessed by others in the workplace (faculty, supervising residents, allied health professionals, etc.) to determine delegation of or student participation in patient care responsibilities.27


추가로, 이해관계자들이 학생들에 의한 기여가 안전하고, 충분한 가치를 더한다고 확신했을 때, 학생들에게 환자 진료에 대한 더 많은 책임과 참여가 주어질 수 있다.

In addition, when stakeholders are able to ensure that the contributions made by students are safe and value-added, students may be allowed to assume greater responsibility and participate even more actively in the provision of patient care.

 


고려사항

Considerations


UME학습의 상당부분이 지식과 기초적 skill-building에 집중되어 있고, 교실에 제한되어 있어, 이에 대해서는 EPA가 직접적 역할을 하지 못함을 인정한다. 그러나 UME의 최종 성과는 EPA로 잘 확인할 수 있다.

We acknowledge that a significant amount of UME learning is focused on knowledge and foundational skill- building and limited to the classroom, where EPAs do not have a direct role. However, the final expected outcomes of UME training can be captured by EPAs


EPA는 Lave and Wenger 가 말한 professional community of practice에 들어온 초기 학습자들을 위한 정당한 주변부 참여legitimate peripheral participation의 핵심이 될 수 있다.

We believe that EPAs may be an excellent key to the legitimate peripheral participation recommended by Lave and Wenger for early learners in a professional community of practice.28



UME EPA는 어떤 모습일까?

What Would UME EPAs Look Like?


의학수련과정은 연속체이기 때문에 UME 수준의 EPA는 GME 수준의 EPA와 align되어있어야 한다. 한 가지 접근법은 동일하거나 유사한 EPA를 사용하는 것이다. 그러나 GME를 위해서 개발된 EPA는 복잡한 고등 기술을 요구하는 복잡한 활동들이 합해진 큰 단위이다.

Because medical training is a continuum, logically, UME-level EPAs should align with GME-level EPAs. One approach would be to use the same or similar EPAs in UME as in GME. However, even with limitations in scope, the EPAs developed for GME are large units of combined complex activities requiring complex high- order skills11



따라서 또 다른 접근법은 UME 특이적 EPA를 개발하는 것이다. 이 EPA는 궁극적으로 서로 통합되어 더 큰 EPA를 구성하거나, 더 큰 EPA내에 nest되어있어서 GME 수준의 활동의 토대가 되는 것들로 이뤄질 수 있다.

Therefore, another approach would be to develop UME- specific EPAs that represent subsets of activities that will eventually integrate together and nest within broader EPAs to provide the foundation for GME- level activities.


대안적으로, GME를 시작하는 모든 의사들은 시작하는 바로 첫 날 특정 활동에 대한 위임enstrusted를 받을 수 있는데, 이것이 UME의 core EPA를 정의하는 시작점이 되고, AAMC의 접근법이기도 하다.

Alternatively, all beginning GME learners are entrusted with certain activities on day one of their training, such as gathering a history and performing a physical examination appropriate to the clinical situation. These can serve as a starting point for defining core EPAs for UME. This is the approach taken by the AAMC.



전공과별로 요구되는 EPA가 다를 수도 있다. 외과 레지던트 vs 정신과 레지던트. 의과대학에서 보다 일반적인generic 준비를 시켜야 하는지, 아니면 보다 특화된specialized 준비를 시켜야 하는가에 대한 토론은 현재진행형이다. 현재로서는 의과대학 졸업새은 초기 단계의 전공과-특이적 skill과 함께 core skill을 갖추어 졸업하게 되며, 전공과-특이적 skill은 의과대학 4학년의 일렉티브를 통해서 습득한다.

For instance, the expectations for a beginning surgical resident are generally different from those for a beginning psychiatry resident. Discussion about whether medical school should prepare graduates in a generic or in a more specialized approach is ongoing.2,17 At the moment, medical students graduate with core skills as well as early specialty-specific skills, mostly gained through electives in their final year of medical school.32


이러한 전공과-특이적 EPA는 GME수준의 EPA와 보다 직접적으로 연결될 수 있으며, level of entrustment의 달성 수준은 학생의 진로에 따라 다를 수도 있다. 조작화가 잘 된다면, 이러한 전공과-특이적 EPA는 다음에 도움이 될 수 있다.

These specialty-specific EPAs would link more directly to GME-level EPAs, and the level of entrustment that should be achieved would differ by student based on career path. If operationalized properly, these specialty- specific EPAs could

  • 4학년 상담에 도움 ease advising during the fourth year,
  • 레지던트 들어가기 위한 준비에 도움 ensure more adequately prepared entering residents, and
  • 정규과목 외의 'boot camps'의 필요성을 낮춰줌 obviate the need for extracurricular “boot camps”33–35 before or during residency.


마지막으로,

  • 모든 학생들에게 요구되는 basic core EPA와
  • 일부 특정과를 지망하는 학생들에게 요구되는 specialty- specific EPAs 외에,
  • 개인의 흥미와 관심에 따라 달성할 수 있는 optional EPAs

를 정의할 수도 있다.

Lastly, in addition to the basic core EPAs mandatory for all students and specialty- specific EPAs mandatory for students preparing for specific GME programs, we could define optional EPAs that individual students could achieve on the basis of their capacities and interest.

 

 



 

UME에서의 위임(Entrustment)

Entrustment in UME


일부 학생들은 다른 학생들보다 더 일찍 core 또는 specialty-specific EPA를 수행할 준비가 될 수도 있다. 이 경우 고려할 수 있는 것은 현재 GME에서 사용되는 위임entrustment 스케일이 UME에도 적용가능한가 이다.

Some students could potentially demonstrate readiness for practice of certain core or specialty-specific EPAs earlier than typically expected in the training continuum. One consideration is whether the entrustment and supervision scale currently in use in GME can be applied to UME.


GME에서 entrustment and supervision scale 는 5단계로 구분된다. 의과대학생은 supervision 없이는 진료를 할 수 없을 것이다. 따라서 GME 스케일을 그대로 쓰면 level 1부터 level 3까지만 가능할지도 모른다. 따라서 UME에서는 더 레벨을 추가하여 세세한 발전granular progression을 볼 수 있게 해야 할 것이다.

The GME entrustment and supervision scale uses five different levels of supervision to define the levels of entrustment, providing few levels of gradation for the beginning learner19 (see Table 2). As noted previously, medical students may never practice without supervision. Under the GME entrustment and supervision scale, students would only progress from level 1 (not allowed to practice EPA) to levels 2 (practice EPA under proactive/full supervision) and 3 (practice EPA under reactive/on-demand supervision) for most activities. Therefore, it may be helpful and more practical for UME to include additional levels resulting in more granular progression in the decrease in supervision.


현재의 entrustment and supervision scale 를 그대로 사용하되, 하위 레벨에서 더 gradation을 두는 것을 권고한다.

We therefore recommend using the current entrustment and supervision scale but expanding the lower levels of the scale to include more gradations of supervision, allowing additional layers of progressive learner autonomy.


 

AAMC가 권고한 바와 같이 UME특이적 EPA를 개발한다면 UME에도 EPA가 작동할 수 있을 것이다. 그러나 AAMC의 권고안을 넘어서는 것이 필요하며, 여기에는 전공과-특이적, 그리고 일렉티브 EPA를 포함하고, entrustment scale을 확장하여 추가적 gradations of supervision을 넣어야 한다.

We believe EPAs can be operationalized for UME if we develop UME-specific EPAs, as suggested by the AAMC. However, we should expand beyond the AAMC recommendations to include EPAs that represent specialty- specific and elective professional activities and further refine and expand the entrustment scale to include additional gradations of supervision.






1 Association of American Medical Colleges. Core Entrustable Professional Activities for Entering Residency (CEPAER). AAMC CAPAER Drafting Panel Report. Washington, DC: Association of American Medical Colleges; 2014. https://www.mededportal. org/icollaborative/resource/887. Accessed September 30, 2014.




 


 




 2015 Apr;90(4):431-6. doi: 10.1097/ACM.0000000000000586.

The case for use of entrustable professional activities in undergraduate medical education.

Author information

  • 1Dr. Chen is professor of clinical pediatrics, Department of Pediatrics, University of California, San Francisco, School of Medicine, San Francisco, California. Dr. van den Broek is a PhD candidate in medical education, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, the Netherlands. Dr. ten Cate is professor of medical education and director, Center for Research and Development of Education, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, the Netherlands, and adjunct professor of medicine, Department of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, School of Medicine, San Francisco, California.

Abstract

Many graduate medical education (GME) programs have started to consider and adopt entrustable professional activities (EPAs) in their competency frameworks. Do EPAs also have a place in undergraduate medical education (UME)? In this Perspective article, the authors discuss arguments in favor of the use of EPAs in UME. A competency framework that aligns UME and GME outcome expectations would allow for better integration across the educational continuum. The EPA approach would be consistent with what is known about progressive skill development. The key principles underlying EPAs, workplace learning and trust, are generalizable and would also be applicable to UME learners. Lastly, EPAs could increase transparency in the workplace regarding student abilities and help ensure safe and quality patient care. The authors also outline what UME EPAs might look like, suggesting core, specialty-specific, and elective EPAs related to core clinical residency entry expectations and learner interest. UME EPAs would be defined as essential health care activities with which one would expect to entrust a resident at the beginning of residency to perform without direct supervision. Finally, the authors recommend a refinement and expansion of the entrustment and supervision scale previously developed for GME to better incorporate the supervision expectations for UME learners. They suggest that EPAs could be operationalized for UME if UME-specific EPAs were developed and the entrustment scale were expanded.

PMID:
 
25470310
 
[PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]


의학교육의 차 우려내기 또는 아이-닥터 모델(Acad Med, 2010)

A Tea-Steeping or i-Doc Model for Medical Education?

Brian David Hodges, MD, PhD





중요한 보고서들 Appendix 1

(In the Appendix, I have listed some of the recent reports that I think are particularly important.)


현재, 역량개발과 관련하여 두 가지의 영향력 있는 모델이 서로 조화하지 못하는 살태로 존재하고 있다. 전통적인 모델은 시간-기반 모델로서 입학이나 교육과정 설계와 같은 프로세스에 초점을 둔다. 더 새롭게 등장한 모델은 성과-기반 모델로서, 최종 산출물product의 기능적 역량에 더 초점을 둔다.

Currently, two powerful models of competence development are operating at odds with one another. The traditional one is time-based and directs attention to processes such as admissions and curriculum design. The newer one is outcomes-based and focuses more on the functional capabilities of the end product (the graduate student, resident or practicing physician).


플렉스너의 유산

The Flexner Legacy



플렉스너가 전례없는 범위의 프로젝트를 수행하고, 20세기 초 대규모의 개혁을 불러온 보고서를 쓴 것은 맞지만, 그의 보고서를 유심히 보면 플렉스너가 권고한 것 중 일부만 실제로 도입되었음을 알 수 있다.

While there is no question that Flexner carried out a project of unprecedented scope and wrote a compelling report that led to large-scale reform in the early twentieth century, a careful read of his report reveals that only some of his recommendations were actually adopted.


여전히 2010년 플렉스너의 유산은 몇 개자 핵심적 요소로 축소되어 있다; 의과대학이 대학의 한 부분으로서 운영되고 있으며, 과학에 초점을 두고, 전임상 기초과학과 임상수련의 이분 구조로 되어있는 것이다. 그러나 그의 보고서에서 의료전문직에 대한 사회적 요구와  기대에 대한 여러 이슈를 다뤘다. Whitehead는 예를 들어, 플렉스너의 1910년 주장에 대해서 "의사의 기능은 빠르게 (개인적, 치료적인 것으로부터) 사회적, 예방적으로 바뀌고 있다." 라고 재발견하면서 1925년에는 심지어 플렉스너 그 자신조차 지나치게 의학의 "실증주의적, 과학적 측면"만 강조되는 것에 그다지 만족하지 못한다고 하면서 의사들이 "슬프게도 문화적, 철학적 background가 부족하다" 라고 말했다. 플렉스너의 진단이 과학적으로 rigor하진 않고 그가 과학에 굳건한 토대를 둘 것을 권고했지만, 의사 교육에 관한 그의비전은 그 외에도 다른 많은 영역을 포함하고 있다.

Yet in 2010, the Flexner legacy is often reduced to a few core elements: the move of medical schools to universities and the focus on science and the binary structure of preclinical basic science study followed by clinical training. However, in his report he discussed many issues related to societal needs and expectations of the medical profession. Whitehead,2 for example, uncovered Flexner’s 1910 argument that “the physician’s function is fast becoming social and preventative, rather than individual and curative”1 and points out that by 1925 even Flexner himself was unhappy with the way an overemphasis on the “positivist and scientific aspects” of medicine had become completely dominant, rendering doctors “sadly deficient in cultural and philosophic background.”3 While Flexner’s diagnosis was a lack of scientific rigor, and his prescription was a strong grounding in science, his vision for physician education included many other dimensions.



예를 들어서, 플렉스너 시기에 이미 의학과 관련하여 과학에 대한 담론이 진행중이었고, 의학교육과 과학을 합치시켜야할 필요성이 주장되고 있었다. 따라서 이러한 측면에서 플렉스너의 권고는 비교적 쉽게 시행되었다.

For example, it has been argued that scientific medical discourse was already prominent by the time Flexner articulated the need to align medical education with science.4 Thus his recommendations in this regard were adopted with relative ease.


African American이나 여성 의사 교육에 특화된 의과대학의 문을 닫게 한 결정도 있다. 21세기에는 놀랄 일이지만, 페미니스트 역사학자들은 1910년 당시 여성이 지적으로 열등하고 과학 공부에 부적절하며 의학교육과 의료에서 요구되는 것을 감당하지 못한다는 주장이 있었다. 평등한 입학을 지지하는 주장은 1970년대에 이르기 전까지는 등장하지 않았다. 따라서 뉴욕타임즈가 1910년 "카네기 재단의 전국적으로 다수의 저질 의사가 양성되고 있음을 보고함"이라는 제목을 단 것도 놀랍지 않은데, 왜냐하면 문제있는inferior 의과대학을 닫는다는 말에는 , 적어도 일부분은 , AA나 여성을 교육하는 기관을 닫는다는 것을 포함했기 때문이다. 마지막으로, inferior 학교들이 기준을 올리도록 하는 대신 그것들을 폐쇄시킨다는 것은 20세기 초반 기관의 개혁과 대중의 통제가 '향상' 보다는 '폐쇄'에 더 관심이 있었던 것을 반영한다. 100년이 지난 후, 우리는 '평등'과 'CQI/인증'을 논하고 있다.

One such outcome was the closing of medical schools specializing in the education of African American or women doctors.5 Though shocking in the 21st century, feminist historians have documented the arguments of 1910 that women were intellectually inferior, inadequately adapted to the study of science, and unable to cope with the demands of medical education and practice.5 A discourse that supported more equitable admission to medical schools did not fully emerge until the 1970s.6 So when a New York Times 1910 headline screamed “Carnegie Foundation’s Startling Report [shows] That Incompetent Physicians are Manufactured Wholesale in This Country,” it is not surprising (though no less tragic) that closing inferior medical schools meant, at least in part, closing those educating African Americans or women. Finally, the fact that inferior schools were be closed, rather than helped to raise their standards, is also reflective of an early 20th-century discourse about institutional reform and public regulation that was more about closure than improvement. One hundred years later, we use new discourses about equity and continuous quality improvement/ accreditation that would make responses to a Flexner-like report much different.


역량 개발 관련 모델

Models of Competence Development



의학에서 '역량'이란 용어를 꺼내는 것은 그렇게 단순하지 않은데, 왜냐하면 역량이라는 용어가 '만능god term'으로 사용되기 때문이다. "레토릭상으로 최고 패trump card이다. 어떻게 의료전문직 교육이 작동해야 하는가에 대한 토론에서 맨 마지막 용어로 정기적으로 등장한다". 이 용어는 무수히 다양한 의미로 어찌나 널리 사용되는지, 거의 아무것도 의미하지 않는 위험에 있을 지경이다. 다른 곳에서 나는 어떻게 역량에 관한 담화가 언어/행위/역할/기관에 따라 다를 수 있는지를 지적한 바 있다. 이러한 담화는 지식으로서/수행능력으로서/성찰로서/psychometric하게 신뢰도있는 시험점수로서/산출물로서의 역량 등이 포함된다.

Simply broaching the subject of medical competence is a challenge because the term competence has become what Lingard has called, after Burke, a god term: “a rhetorical trump card, regularly played as the last word in debates about how health professions education should function.”7 The termis so widely employed, with so many different meanings, that it risks meaning nothing at all. Elsewhere I have characterized how different discourses of competence make possible specific language, practices, roles, and institutions. These discourses include competence as knowledge,as performance,as reflection,as a psychometrically reliable test score, and as a product.8,9



역량에 관한 다양한 담론은 역량개발에 대한 다양한 모델이 등장하게 했다.

Various discourses about competence also lead to different models of competence development.


전통적인 시간-기반 모델에서, 역량의 담화는 '지식'과 뗄 수 없는 것이었으나, 이것은 1970년대에 '수행능력'으로서의 역량으로 진화하였으며, 최근에는 '성찰'로서의 역량이라는 아이디어가 도입되었다. 대조적으로 성과-기반 모델은 psychometric 담화에 토대를 두고 있으며, 최근에는 효율성과 표준화의 개념을 강조하는 '제품생산production' 담화를 들여오고 있다.

The traditional time-based model, originally tied to a discourse of competence as knowledge, evolved to competence as performance in the 1970s and more recently incorporated the idea of competence as reflection. The outcomes- based model, by contrast, has roots in psychometric discourse and has recently incorporated a production discourse that emphasizes notions of efficiency and standardization.



우리가 오늘날 해결하려는 문제는 무엇인가?

What Problems are We Trying to Solve Today?



미국에서 카네기 재단과 Cooke, Irby, and O’Brien 연구진은 최근 'Educating Physicians: A Call for Reformof Medical School and Residency' 보고서를 발표했다. 이 보고서는 현재 의학교육을 심층적으로 분석하고 있다.

  • In the United States, the Carnegie Foundation and a team led by Cooke, Irby, and O’Brien recently released Educating Physicians: A Call for Reformof Medical School and Residency.6 The report contains an in-depth analysis of the current state of medical education based on literature reviews and extensive consultation, including visits to American medical schools.

 

The Future of Medical Education in Canada Project 보고서는 최근 1차 보고서를 완료했다.(UME)

  • The Future of Medical Education in Canada Project has recently completed phase one (undergraduate education), including literature reviews, key informant interviews, and focus groups held across the country. A postgraduate phase is under way and will be followed by a third phase on continuing education.10



미국 보고서의 네 영역

The U.S. report describes four key areas for reform:

  • standardizing outcomes and individualizing training,
  • integrating knowledge and clinical skills,
  • developing “habits of mind” that include inquiry and innovation, and
  • putting an emphasis on professional identity formation.

 

캐나다 보고서에서 제안하는 변화영역

The Canadian report also calls for substantial changes in medical education, including

  • revisiting the social responsibility of medical schools,
  • adapting admission processes,
  • integrating basic and clinical sciences,
  • addressing the hidden curriculum,
  • fostering inter- and intraprofessional collaboration,
  • encouraging generalism and community focus, and
  • moving toward outcomes-based education.


둘 모두 다음의 것들을 요구한다.

Both reports call for

  • new and innovative pedagogy,
  • learning in context,
  • mentoring/ coaching models that involve extensive feedback, personal reflection, and a continuum of learning based on a flexible and developmental approach.


이 새로운 보고서들은 의사들의 adaptability, flexibility, and alignment with social need 부족을 지적하고 있다.

These new reports appear to focus more on physicians’ lack of adaptability, flexibility, and alignment with social need.


두 보고서 모두 CME를 깊이 다루고 있지는 않지만, CME 관련 교육자들은 사회적 요구에 부응하기 위해서 더 장차 큰 역할을 하게 될 CME의 중요성을 설명하기 위해노력하고 있다. 두 가지 모델 사이에서 고군분투중이다.

While neither report dealt with continuing education in depth, educators working in that domain are also elaborating priorities for a future in which there will be a much greater role for lifelong learning that responds to social need.11 Continuing educators are also struggling with a tension between a vision of competence that is

  • 자기주도/자기평가/자기조절 self- directed and based on internal self- assessment/self-regulation and
  • 제3기관의 평가에 기반한 외부평가(재인증) a model of external assessment (including recertification) that is based on third-party assessment of knowledge and skills.12

이에 따라 '과도한 외부시험'과 '자기평가의 오류와 한계'를 조화시킨 guided self-assessment의 개념이 떠오르고 있다.

Thus a concept of guided self-assessment is emerging in continuing education as an attempt to reconcile the distorting effects of too much external testing with an honest appraisal of the limits and fallibility of self-assessment.13


의학의 과학적 기초를 강화하고자 했던 플렉스너가 그렸던 비전과 달리, 오늘날의 개혁은 context, culture, professional socialization에 관한 것이다.

Unlike the reforms that Flexner envisioned to bolster the scientific basis of medicine, the reforms proposed today are about context, culture, and professional socialization.


미국의 보고서에서 '학습성과의 표준화'와 '학습과정의 개별화'라는 것을 모두 찾을 수 있다. 아래에서 말할 것이지만, '성과의 표준화'는 도입될 것이 거의 확실한데, 왜냐하면 '성과모델'과 '제품생산'담화가 지배적이기 때문이다. 그러나 두 번째인 '과정의 개별화'는 전혀 다른 것이다.

In the U.S. report’s recommendations we find “standardization of learning outcomes” and “individualization of the learning process” bundled together. As I will argue below, it seems almost certain that the first—standardization of outcomes—will be adopted, because it is aligned with both the outcomes model and a dominant production discourse. But the second— individualization of the learning process—is something else entirely.


플렉스너 보고서의 아주 특정 요소만 도입되고 나머지는 그러지 않았던 겻과 같이, 향후 몇 년간 우리는 미국/캐나다 보고서의 일부만 도입되는 것을 목도할 것이다.

Just as particular elements of the Flexner Report were adopted but not others, in the next few years we will see the uptake of only some of the recommendations of the U.S. and Canadian reports. This phenomenon is already visible in the Canadian project.


역량개발의 두 가지 대립되는 모델

Two Competing Models of Competence Development


시간-기반 모델: 티백 담그기

A time-based model of competence development: Tea-steeping



플렉스너가 의학교육이 강력한 과학적 토대를 갖춰야 한다고 주장하던 시절, 제멋대로였던 길드를 엘리트 의과대학으로 들여오는 것은 어렵지 않았다. 그러나 한 번 그렇게 들어온 이후, 의과대학은 사실적 지식의 축적과 학생의 정보 재생산능력을 시험함으로써 역량을 개념화 오랜 전통을 가진 기관에 들어온 것이 되었다.

By the time Flexner argued that medical education should have a strong basis in science, Bringing an unruly guild into elite universities was certainly not without its difficulties.16 But once there, medicine joined an institution with a long tradition of conceptualizing competence as the accumulation of factual knowledge and of examining students’ ability to reproduce information.


대학에 자리를 잡은 이후 UME는 기초과학을 일정 기간 학습(전통적인 대학 모델과 잘 맞음)한 뒤 임상경험을 일정 기간 쌓는(보건의료기관 및 다른 비학문세팅과의 파트너십을 요구하는 약간은 어색한 학문적 arrangement) 식으로 구성되게 되었다. 연속된 이 두 가지의 교육훈련 기간은 약간씩 변해왔는데 20세기 중반 북미에서는 3:1이었던 반면, 이제는 2:2로 변화하였고, 유럽에서는 나라마자 조금씩 다르나 대략 4:2정도 된다. 이러한 변화에도 불구하고 본질적으로 이분화된 UME는 거의 100년간 그대로 유지되어왔다.

When it found a home in universities, undergraduate medical education came to consist of a fixed period of training in foundational and basic sciences (something that fit well with a traditional university model) followed by a fixed period of clinical experience (a slightly more awkward academic arrangement that required partnerships with health care institutions and other nonacademic settings). The duration of these two sequential training periods has varied slightly over time and place: 3 1 until the mid 20th century in North America, moving to 2 2 in most schools; roughly 4 2 in Europe with variations by country. Despite these changes, the essential binary nature of undergraduate medical curricula has remained largely the same for a century.


PGME는 일정 기간의 훈련을 거친다는 면에서 비슷하나, 대체로 대학과는 약간 거리를 둔arms-length 병원affiliated health care institutions에서 진행된다.

Postgraduate education similarly is organized around a fixed number of years of training (two to six years depending on specialty) but has remained largely at arms-length from universities by creating a series of clinical rotations in affiliated health care institutions.


UME와 PGME 모두 어떤 고정된 시간이 요구된다는 지속적인 신념을 드러내고 있으며, 그리고 실제로 그러한 고정된 시간이 전반적 역량을 개발하는데 충분하다고 믿는다. 비유하자면, 우리는 티백(학생)을 뜨거운 물(의대)에 어떤 시간동안 담궈둔 뒤, '어때, 됐지?' 라고 하는 식이다. 

The organization of education at both undergraduate and postgraduate levels today reveals a continuing belief that a fixed interval of time is required, and indeed sufficient, to develop global competence. To use a metaphor, we put the student (tea) in medical school (hot water) for a fixed period of time and, voila`!


한편, 복잡성의 증가와 지식의 폭발적 증가, 혹은 연구에 대한 요구 등에 대한 추상적 주장들이 교육훈련기간을 더 늘여야 한다는 것의 토대가 되고 있다. 대조적으로, 학생과 정부는 정기적으로 이 교육훈련기간을 재검토할 것을 요구하고 있으며, 왜 의학교육기간이 그렇게 오래 걸려야 하는지, 더 짧은 기간에 될 수는 없는지 계속 묻고 있다.

Rather, vague arguments about increasing complexity, the explosion of knowledge, or the requirement for research become the basis for lengthening training. By contrast, students and governments regularly call for a reexamination of length of training, asking why it takes so long to complete medical studies and whether they could not be accomplished in a shorter period of time.


이러한 티백 모델은 거의 100년간 변화가 없을 정도로 내구성이 강하다. 다음과 같은 변화들이 있었다.

The tea-steeping model has proved enormously durable and, very few modifications in 100 years.


  • early clinical exposure,
  • problem-based learning schools
  • integrate basic sciences into clinical clerkship and residency rotations.



그러나, 여전히 졸업을 할지 말지 결정하는 일차적 요인은 (거의 100%의 경우에) 교육훈련 프로그램에 소비한 시간이다.

However, the primary determination of graduation (almost 100%of the time) remains the length of time spent in the training program.


지난 수십년간, 시간-기반 모델은 두 가지 요소에 초점을 맞춰왔다. 하나는 입학기준이고 다른 하나는 교육과정 내용이다. 이 두가지 접근법 모두, 앞의 비유를 확장하자면, 어떻게 차 우려내는지에 대한 방법을 바꾸는것이다. 처음에 '입학'은 찻잎을 바꾸는 것이다.

Over the past few decades, changes in time-based models have focused on two elements: admission criteria and curriculum content. Both of these approaches, to extend the metaphor, relate to changing the way the tea is made. The first – admission – is about changing the tea leaves.


이러한 논란의 극단적 사례는 프랑스인데, 의과대학 입학에 있어서 매우 rigorous한 평가를 시행한다. premed과정을 마친 학생 중 17%만이 의학교육을 이어서 받게 되며, 졸업시험/인증/면허시험 등은 존재하지 않는다. 따라서 거의 모든 관심의 초점은 입학기준과 premed학생의 좋은right 자질에 맞춰져 있다.

An extreme example of this debate goes on in France, a country with a very rigorous assessment process for admission to medical school. Only 17%of those who complete the first premedical year continue studies, and there is no exit assessment, certification, or licensure examination. Thus a great deal of attention is focused on the criteria for admission and the right qualities of a premedical student.17


또 다른 방식인 교육과정 내용을 바꾸는 것은, 찻잎이 담겨지는 물의 특성과 온도를 바꾸는 것이다. '찻잎은 따뜻한 물을 부을 때까지는 그들의 진짜 향을 드러내지 않는다'라는 오랜 격언이 있다. 여기에는 잠재적 교육과정과 의과대학에서 이뤄지는 다양한 사회화 프로세스 등도 포함된다.

The other popular thrust – changing curricular content – is about adjusting the nature and temperature of the water, the environment into which the tea leaves are immersed. An old adage has it that tea leaves do not reveal their true flavor until put into hot water. This includes attention to the hidden curriculum18 and the various socialization processes that take place.


역량을 평가하는 것은 시간-기반 모델에서 언제나 문제였다.

Assessment of competence has always been a problem in the time-based models.


고부담 결정은 항상 로테이션이 끝나는 시점, 학년이 끝나는 시점, 심지어는 의과대학 졸업시점으로 미뤄졌다. 이러한 접근법의 문제는 이러한 고부담 시험에서는 의미있는 피드백이 거의 완전히 결여된다는 점이다.

hard decisions are often deferred to end-of-rotation, end-of- year, or even end-of-program high-stakes examinations. The problem with this approach is the near complete lack of meaningful feedback fromhigh-stakes exams.


그러나 평가 전문가들은 의과대학의 모든 단계에 걸쳐서 고부담 최종시험을 제한하고, 임상근무현장에서의 지속적 역량 평가를 더 강조할 것을 요구한다. 

But assessment experts around the world are calling for a limit to high-stakes final examinations at all levels and a greater emphasis on continuous assessment of skills in the clinical workplace.19



어떻게 시간-기반 모델이 현재의 의과대학 개혁과 관련된 권고에 들어맞을 수 있을까? 적어도 개념적으로는 시간-기반 모델에서 많은 졸업생들이 역량 개발을 충분히 이루지 못한다underdeveloped.

How well does the time-based model fit with current recommendations for medical education reform? At least conceptually, many of the qualities thought to be underdeveloped in graduates


그러나 대부분의 교육자들이 인정하는 것은, 학생들은 서로 다른 속도로 능력을 개발해나간다는 것이며, 교육 프로그램의 길이는 가장 잘해봐야 대부분의 학생들이 특정 능력을 습득하는데 필요한 평균적인 기간밖에 대변하지 못한다는 것이다. 잘 정의된, 평가가능한 성과가 없이는 우리는 그들이 실제로 그 역량을 습득했는가 알 길이 없다.

However, while most educators would admit that students acquire these abilities at different rates, and that the length of training programs at best represents some sort of average period of time during which most students will probably acquire them, without defined and assessable outcomes, we cannot really know if they do acquire them.



UME와 PGME 프로그램이 시간-기반 모델을 따라온 많은 이유가 있다. UME에서는 한 가지 주된 이유는 기초과학을 강조하는 전통이었다.

There are many reasons that undergraduate and postgraduate programs have clung to time-based models. In the undergraduate domain, one of the main reasons is the traditional emphasis on basic sciences.


개념적으로/과학적으로/조직적으로 어떻게 지식-기반 과학이 유능한 임상진료에 요구되는 스킬이나 퀄리티 개발에 구체적으로 기여할 수 있는지를 알기란 매우 어렵고, 이 때 교육과정의 길이가 그 전통의 토대가 되어왔다.

Because it is very difficult conceptually, scientifically, and organizationally to define clearly what these knowledge-based sciences specifically contribute to the development of the skills and qualities needed for competent practice, the lengths of their curriculum times are often based on tradition.


그 결과 대부분의 의과대학생은 지식을 유지retention하는데 문제를 겪어왔으며, 나중에 임상상황에서 필요한 지식을 활성화하는 것이 불가능해졌다. 연구를 통해서 기초과학은 그것이 임상에서 적용되는 시점과 매우 근접해서 교육되어야 함이 명백해졌다.

The result is that most medical students have knowledge- retention problems and later are unable to activate their knowledge in clinical settings. Research is clear that the teaching of basic sciences should occur very close in time to application at the bedside.21


변화는 왜 이렇게 어려울까? 한 가지는, 한 편에서는 기초과학만 가르치고, 다른 편에서는 임상실습만 돌리던(기초과학과 사회과학이 전혀 없이) 아주 오랜기간이 그 이유이다. 이러한 상황에서는 전통/여러 교실의 job security등과 관련한 레토릭적, 정치적 포지셔닝이 뒤죽박죽으로 섞이게 된다.

Why is change so difficult? One explanation is that in the rather thin soup of evidence for long years of sequestered basic biological science teaching on one hand, and clinical rotations devoid of recourse to the underlying basic and social sciences on the other, there is a thick admixture of rhetorical and political positioning that relates to tradition, job security for various professionals and departments, and the struggles for legitimacy of various biological, social science, and clinical domains.22


전 세계의 모든 학장들은 지속적으로 교육과정에 무언가를 더 넣으라는 요구를 받는다. 그러나 한 번도 무언가를 빼라는 요청을 받는 적은 없다. 따라서 어떤 구조와 고정된 시간을 요구하는 현재 교육과정에 근본적ㅇ니 변화가 있지 않는 한 변화는 매우 천천히, 소극적으로 일어날 것이다.

Deans everywhere complain about the constant pressure to add to the curriculum– ethics, communications, scientific method, genetics, population health, social science – but never about a proposal to remove anything, since such proposals seldom occur. So without a fundamental change to the architecture and fixed time requirements of current curricula, change will likely be incremental and modest.



전통적으로, 든 의과대학과 전공의 교육과정 위원회에게는 한 가지 불가침 영역이 있는데, 바로 교육훈련 기간에 간섭할 수가 없다는 것이다. 이러한 제약으로 인한 좌절은 지속적으로 성과-기반 모델에 대한 요구를 더 강화할 것이다.

Traditionally, curriculum committees in every medical school and residency program have had one inviolable constraint: they cannot tamper with the number of years of training. Frustration with these constraints will continue to enhance the appeal of an outcomes-based model.


역량개발의 성과-기반 모델

An outcomes-based model of competence development


Whitehead 는 '성과기반교육에서는 만약 기대하는 제품이 정의되기만 하면, 적절한 평가법이 등장할 것이고 이를 통해 피훈련자들이 이 역량을 달성하게 될 것이며, 그러면 문제는 다 끝난 것이다' 라고 말했다.

Whitehead has remarked that “outcomes-based education hypothesizes that if the desired product can be defined, and appropriate assessment tools developed to ensure that trainees have achieved these competencies, then the job will be done.”2


플렉스너의 시기에, 역량은 거의 전적으로 '지식축적'으로 이해되어왔고, 졸업한다는 것은 의료행위를 하는데 적함함을 의미했다. 따라서 대부분의 교육과 모든 평가는 학생들에게 '그들이 누군지'에 대해서는 거의 묻지 않고 그들이 아는 것이 무엇인가를 평가하는데 집중되었다. 역량에 관한 지배적인 담화는 지식에 관한 것이었다. 1960년대 중반부터 역량의 개념은 여러 요소에 의해서 변화하기 시작했다. 그리고 20세기 후반부에 점차 의사소통/협력 등을 포함하였으며 스킬과 같은 것을 더 강조하게 되었다. 이 시기는 Miller의 피라미드의 형태로 특징지을 수 있으며, '수행능력'이 순수한 '지식'보다 더 높은 것으로 인정된다. 20세기 말, 미국과 캐나다는 지식과 스킬을 '역할roles'에 박아 넣는embed 행동주의적 접근법을 새로운 프레임워크로 채택했다.

In Flexner’s time, competence was understood almost entirely as the accumulation of knowledge, though graduating also meant showing oneself to be suitable to practice medicine. Thus most teaching and all assessment targeted what students knew with a little dab of who they were. The dominant discourse was one of competence as knowledge. Beginning in the mid-1960s, conceptions of competence were shifted by a number of factors: In the latter half of the 20th century competence gradually came to include communication, collaboration, and a greater focus on skills. The era was marked by the appearance of Miller’s Pyramid,23 in which performance was considered to be of a higher order than pure knowledge. Toward the end of the 20th century, in the United States and Canada, new frameworks for competence were developed that took the behaviourist approach further by embedding knowledge and skills into roles.



성과-기반 교육의 사례

Case Studies of Outcomes-Based Education


아래의 세 가지 사례. 이들은 사회적 요구를 밀접하게 반영하는 교육과정/구체적 스킬 훈련의 모듈화/평가빈도 증가/순차적 발전/시작시 스킬과 이후 스킬 습득에 따른 교육훈련의 기간 다변화 등을 반영한다.

The three cases discussed below illustrate some common features of outcomes-based education. These include

  • curricula closely related to social need,
  • modularized training of specific skills,
  • frequent assessment,
  • stepwise progression, and
  • variable length of training depending on entry skills and rate of skill attainment.

Case 1: Curriculum adapted to social need: nurse practitioner training in Ontario, Canada


Case 2: Modularized endoscopic training programs in London, United Kingdom


Case 3: Modularized, outcomes-based medical education: The University of Toronto Orthopedics Residency ProgramExperiment





이 사례까 보여주는 것

What the three cases show


성과-기반 교육은 교육적 특성때문에 도입된 것도 있지만, 그 외에도 교육의 효율성을 높이고 보건의료와 교육훈련의 비용을 줄여줄 가능성도 보여주고 있다.  그러나 다른 고려사항보다 효율성과 비용절감에 초점을 두면 다음과 같은 부정적인 less positive한 것도 우려된다.

As we see in these examples, outcomes- based education is being adopted not only because of its pedagogical properties but also for its potential to improve efficiency and reduce the costs of health care and of training. However, as we shall see in the next section, something a little less positive can arise when educational reform elevates efficiency and cost savings above other considerations.


제품생산 담화에 따른 성과-기반 모델: 아이-닥터 생산

The Outcomes-Based Model Meets the Production Discourse: Manufacturing i-Docs


성과에 대해서 말하고 쓰는 사람들은 종종 '제품생산manufacturing'의 언어와 개념을 가져다쓴다.

Individuals who speak and write about outcomes sometimes draw on language and concepts from manufacturing.9


제품생산의 핵심 요소를 잡아내기 위해서 나는 '아이-닥터'라는 용어를 사용하고자 한다.

To capture the essence of production discourse in relation to medical education I have coined the term i-Doc.


이 용어는 1990년대 이후의 의학교육 문헌들이 사업business과 제조에서 가져온 용어와 개념들로 가득차있다는 점에서 매력적이다.

It is so attractive, in fact, that medical education literature after the 1990s is full of words and concepts taken from business and manufacturing.9


의학교육에 제품생산 모델 담화를 적용한다는 것은 어떤 이ㅡ미일까? 

What does it mean to apply manufacturing models and a production discourse to medical education?

  • 어플리케이션으로 돌아가는 의사를 상상할 수 있는가?
    Can we think of doctors as running applications with which they have been programmed during training (e.g., algorithms, practice guidelines), to solve particular problems?
  • 소비자end-user의 요구와 욕망에 적응하는adaptable하는 교육(제조)프로세스를 상상할 수 있는가?
    Can we imagine that the education (manufacturing) process is something adaptable to needs and desires of end- users (consumers)?
  • 질관리quality assurance 프로세스의 개념을 도입해서 생산하는 제품의 퀄리티 뿐만 아니라, 그 과정을 더 효율적으로, 비용을 절감하게 할 수 있는가?
    Should we adopt the idea that quality assurance processes are there not only to ensure the quality of the product but also to render its production more efficient and less costly?

 

이러한 묘사에 대해서 Frederic Taylor in his Principles of Scientific Management를 떠올릴지도 모르겠다.

In this description some may recognize concepts popularized by Frederic Taylor in his Principles of Scientific Management.33


2004년  “Medical Education as a Process Management Problem.” 논문에서 저자들은 대부분의 교육과정 개혁이 전체 교육과정 시스템이 아니라 시스템의 일부 조각조각을 타켓으로 하고 있다고 지적했다. 또한 "제조업계를 지배하는 법칙이 의학교육개혁을 이끄는 원칙의 강력한 시스템이 될 것이다" 라고 했다.

in an article that appeared in 2004, entitled “Medical Education as a Process Management Problem.”34 authors note that most curriculum reform efforts target fragments of the system and not the overall process, proposing that “the rules that govern the manufacturing industry provide a compelling system of guiding principles for medical education reform.”


첫째로, 그들은 학생이 교육을 마쳤을 때 competently and professionally 보여줄 수 있는 지식과 스킬을 정의해야 한다고 했다.

First and foremost, they argue, it is necessary to define the skills and knowledge that a student should be able to competently and professionally demonstrate on completion of his or her education.


흔하게 사용되는 비유는 transformation of individuals이다. 즉, 의과대학생들은 원자재이며, 공정(교육)과정을 통해서 원하는 제품으로 transform될 수 있다. 

A frequently used metaphor in articles such as theirs is the transformation of individuals. That is, medical students are the raw materials to be transformed through the manufacturing (education) process into a desired product.


다른 말로는, 아이-닥터 생산을 위한 제조모델을 사용하자면, 더 나은 제품을 더 낮은 가격으로 만들 수 있을지도 모른다.

In other words, by using manufacturing concepts to produce i-Docs, we might hope to get a better product at a lower cost.


도요타의 사례가 보여주듯, 효율성을 추구하고 비용을 절감하는 것은 퀄리티와 관련하여 더 많은 문제들을 야기할 수도 있다. 의과대학이 불량품의 '리콜'요청에 직면하게 될까?

As the Toyota example so clearly illustrates, finding efficiencies and cutting costs in the context of a manufacturing model may be the source of more problems with quality. Might medical schools be faced with recalls if their products were defective?


우리가 보아온 바와 같이, 미국과 캐나다의 명확한 성과기준을 만드라는 explicit한 요구가 있다. 그러나 그러한 역량을 서로 다른 속도로 개발할 수 있게끔 하는 유연하고 개별화된 교육 프로그램에 대한 요구는 어떨까?

As we have seen, recommendations from the United States and Canada both explicitly call for clear outcomes standards. But what of the call for flexible, individually tailored programs that can adapt to variable rates of competence attainment?


제품생산 담화와 제조업에서 얻은 교훈이 우리에게 교육의 일부 영역에 대해 생각하는데 도움을 줄지는 몰라도 flexible 한 프로세스, 그리고 개개 학생에 맞춰져야 하는 프로세스에 대한 비유로는 그다지 도움이 되지 않을 것 같다.

While production discourse and lessons from manufacturing might help us think about some dimensions of education, it is not a very helpful metaphor for processes that must flexible and adapted to each student.


맞춤형 성과-기반 교육: 수영 레인 헤엄치기

Outcomes-Based Education Adapted to Individuals: Swimming the Length of the Pool


맞춤형 성과-기반 교육은 어떤 모습일까? 특정 역량을 달성하기 전까지는 그 모듈에 머물러 있어야 한다.

What would an individually adapted outcomes-based model look like in medical education?

  • For communication skills, if a desired outcome were taking a complete and accurate history from a wide range of patients with different problems, students would stay in the communication module until they could do so.
  • For a diagnostic decision making outcome of regularly arriving at a correct diagnosis in a range of clinical situations, students would receive training and practice until they could.

이러한 사례가 보여주듯, 맞춤형 성과란 '무엇을 할 수 있는 잠재력'에 대한 것이 아니라 '실제로 그것을 할 수 있는 것'에 대한 것이다. 이러한 형태의 역량은 ten Cate가 EPA라고 부른 것으로, 실제상황에서의 수행능력에 대한 근거를 요구한다. OSCE와 같은 시험이 수행역량의 잠재력을 보여줄 수는 있지만, 이는 대리지표일 뿐이다.

As these examples illustrate, the notion of outcomes tailored to individuals is not simply about the potential to do things but rather about actually doing them. This formof competence, what ten Cate has called entrustable professional acts,35 requires evidence of performance in real settings. While performance in a test such as an OSCE might indicate the potential for competent performance in real settings, it is but a proxy


 

실제 상황authentic setting에서의 성과를 문서화하는 것에 있어서 한 가지 어려움은, '성과'를 한 개인의 특성이나 능력으로서 인식하는 개념과 맞닿아 있기 때문이다. 반면 대부분의 보건의료성과는 실제로 어떤 팀워크의 결과물이다. Reeves 등은 다양한 유형효과적인 팀들이 보이는 특징을 묘사한 바 있으며36, 이는 개개인의 역량과 상당히 달랐다. Lingard는...

One particular challenge to documenting outcomes in authentic settings is that medical education remains wedded to the notion that outcomes are individual traits or abilities,7 while most health care outcomes are actually a result of teamwork. Reeves et al. have described the elements that characterize various kinds of effective teams, features that are quite different from individual competence.36 And as Lingard has written,



우리의 개인주의적 보건의료시스템과 교육문화는 개별 학습자들과 그들의 머리/손/심장에 있는 지식/능력/가치에 초점을 맞춰 왔다. "역량을 갖춘 전문직 개인들이 합해져서 역량이 없는incompetent 팀을 구성할 수 있고, 실제로 그런 모습을 자주 보여준다. 전통적인 역량의 '개인주의적 담화'는 더 이상 현실과 맞지 않는다.

Our individualist health care system and education culture [focuses] attention on the individual learner and the knowledge, abilities and values they possess in their heads, hands and hearts” [but] “competent individual professionals can—and do, with some regularity—combine to create an incompetent team. The conventional [individualist] discourse of competence doesn’t really help us grapple with this reality.7


결과는 우리가 현재 목도하고 있는 여전히 개인의 역량이 우선이라고 잠정적으로 가정하고 있는 시스템에 전문직간interprofessional 교육성과를 이식하고자 하는 우스꽝스러운 시도이다. 개인-맞춤형 성과-기반 교육의 완전한 패러다임 변화가 필요하며, 따라서 팀-기반 성과와 평가의 도입이 기다리고 있다.

The result is that we are currently witnessing a rather awkward attempt to graft new interprofessional outcomes onto a system that still assumes the primacy of individual competence. A complete paradigmshift to individually adapted outcomes-based education therefore must also await the adoption of team-based outcomes and methods of assessment.


요약하자면, 여전히 다수가 제품생산 담화에 기반하고 Taylorist적 효율성 개념에 근거하여 성과를 생각한다. 대조적으로, 의학교육개혁에 대한 제안들은 유연하고 개별화된 교육훈련을 요구한다. 이러한 교육은 우리의 현재 교육모델에서 뛰쳐나와서 개혁적 변화를 요구하며, 시간이 걸리고 많은 비용이 들 것이다. 따라서 '표준화된 성과'가 적용되는 것은 거의 확실해보이지만, 동시에 '유연하고 개별화된 교육훈련'은 그렇지 않을 것이다. 후자가 진정으로 성과-기반 교육에 중요한 것이라면, 의학교육자들은 효율성과 비용절감에 반하는 모델을 지지하기 위한 주장을 잘 다듬어야 할 것이다.

In summary, there is a popular way of thinking about outcomes that is based on production discourse and Taylorist concepts of efficiency. By contrast, the outcomes envisioned in proposals for medical education reform appear to require flexible, individualized training. Such pedagogy would be an innovative departure from our current model of education, but it might also be time-consuming and expensive. Thus while the adoption of “standardized outcomes” is almost a certainty, the concurrent implementation of “flexible, individualize training” is not. If the latter element is an important dimension of meaningful outcomes-based education, medical educators will need to be clever in crafting arguments to support models that run counter to the imperatives of efficiency and cost savings.



성과기반모델이 널리 도입될까?

Will Outcomes-Based Models be Widely Implemented?


 

  • For licensure and certification organizations, a move to outcomes-based models, and particularly ones tailored to individuals, would require themto become more involved in ensuring the attainment of competencies in training,
  • For faculty teachers, an outcomes-based model that required coaching, feedback, and repeated practice would be labor- intensive. There could be no more “see one, do one, teach one.”37 Rather the phrase would have to be updated to something like “watch until you are ready to try, then practice in simulation until you are ready to performwith real patients, thenperformrepeatedly under supervision until you are ready to practice independently.”
  • Individualized, variable length programs could be a nightmare for institutions that rely on a steady supply of medical students and residents to provide service delivery in predictable rotations.
  • For international medical graduates, issues of compatibility/comparability to domestic graduates would become increasingly difficult if some countries adopted outcomes-based models and others did not.


성과 기준은 개발될 것이다. 그리고 많은 techinical procedure 교육이 모듈화될 것이다. 교육훈련 기간의 단축도 곧 이뤄질 수 있다. 그러나 개별화된 맞춤형 성과-기반 모델과 피드백을 충분히 제공하는 코칭 모델이 도입될지는 그리 확실하지 않다.

I predict that the development of outcomes standards will occur, as will a move toward modularizing many technical procedures. Shortening of training times may also come about. But whether individually tailored outcomes-based model of training and feedback-rich coaching models evolve is much less certain.


의학교육자들은 무엇을 해야 하는가? 시간-기반 모델에 무비판적으로 매달리는 것은 분명 문제가 있다. 우리가 본 바와 같이, 중요한 것은 어떤 성과-기반 모델을 도입하느냐이다. 과도하게 경쟁적으로 평가에서 제품생산 담화를 도입하는 것overzealous adoption of production discourse in assessment의 문제를 지적한 바 있다.

What should we medical educators do? There seems little doubt that clinging uncritically to a time-based approach is problematic. As we have seen, it is the kind of outcomes-based model that matters. Elsewhere I have described the adverse effects of an overzealous adoption of production discourse in assessment.9



아마 가장 중요한 것은, 우리는 시간에 대해서 잊어서는 안된다. Whitehead 는 이렇게 말했다. "성과-기반 모델로 나아가고 그러한 용어를 쓰는데 있어서 핵심적 변화는 시간과 프로세스의 가치를 평가절하하는 것이다" '시간'과 '성과'를 대체하는 것에 초점을 두고 있는 지금, 일부 교육자들은 달성하는데 실제로 시간을 필요로 하는 역량이 무엇인지에 대해 고민하고 있다.

Perhaps most importantly, we should not forget about time. Whitehead has written that “a key shift in the language and approach of outcomes-based models of education is devaluing of time and process”2 It is only now, with the focus on replacing time with outcomes, that some educators are questioning which elements of competence indeed require time to attain.


시간은 개인의 개발과 관련되어 있다. Whitehead가 제안한 바와 같이 '제품생산 담화'는 "개인을 프로세스에서 제거remove한다. 제품생산 담화를 성과기반 언어와 합하면서 개인과 시간, 그리고 모든  sense of journey가 사라진다"

Time has a relationship to personal development, and as Whitehead has suggested, the production discourse “removes the person fromthe process. By combining the production discourse with outcomes- based language, both person and time, and hence any sense of journey, vanish.”2










Appendix Selected Recent Key Reports and Articles on the Future of Medical Education 

1. The Medical School Objectives Writing Group. Learning objectives for medical student education: Guidelines for medical schools: Report I of the Medical School Objectives Project. Acad Med. 1999;74:13–18.

2. American Medical Association. Initiative to Transform Medical Education. Recommendations for Change in the System of Medical Education. Chicago: AMA; June 2007. 

3. The Future of Medical Education in Canada. A Collective Vision of MD Education. Ottawa: The Association of Faculties of Medicine of Canada; 2010. 

4. Awasthi S, Beardmore J, Clark J et al. The Future of Academic Medicine: Five Scenarios to 2025. The International Campaign to Revitalise Academic Medicine. New York: The Millbank Memorial Fund; 2005. 

5. Cooke M, Irby D, Sullivan W, Ludmerer KM. American medical education 100 years after the Flexner Report. NEJM. 2006; 355:1,399–1344. 

6. Cooke M, Irby D, O’Brien B. Educating Physicians: A Call for Reform of Medical School and Residency. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass; 2010. 

7. Cooke M, Irby D, O’Brien B. Future Directions for Medical Education: Educating Physicians: Professional Formation and Insistence on Excellence. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass; 2009. 

8. Flegel KM, He´ bert PC, MacDonald N. Is it time for another medical curriculum revolution? CMAJ. 2008; 178:11. 

9. Fundacio´ n Educacio´nMe´ dica. The Physician of the Future. Me´ dica, Spain: Fundacio´n Educacio´ n, 2009. 10. General Medical Council. Tomorrow’s Doctors: Outcomes and Standards for Medical Education. London: United Kingdom, 2009.



 2010 Sep;85(9 Suppl):S34-44. doi: 10.1097/ACM.0b013e3181f12f32.

tea-steeping or i-Doc model for medical education?

Author information

  • 1Wilson Centre for Research in Education, Richard and Elizabeth Currie Chair in Health Professions Education Research, University of Toronto, Faculty of Medicine, Toronto, Ontario, Canada. brian.hodges@utoronto.ca

Abstract

One hundred years after Abraham Flexner released his report Medical Education in the United States and Canada, the spirit of reform is alive again. Reports in the United States and Canada have called for significant changes to medical education that will allow doctors to adapt to complex environments, work in teams, and meet a wide range of social needs. These reports call for clear educational outcomes but also for a flexible, individualized approach to learning. Whether or not change will result has much to do with the alignment between what is proposed and the nature of current societal discourses about how medical education should be conducted. Currently, two powerful and competing models of competence development are operating at odds with one another. The traditional one is time-based (a "tea-steepingmodel, in which the student "steeps" in an educational program for a historically determined fixed time period to become a successful practitioner). This model directs attention to processes such as admission and curriculum design. The newer one is outcomes-based (an "i-Docmodel, a name suggested by the Apple i-Pod that infers that medical schools and residencies, like factories, can produce highly desirable products adapted to user needs and desires). This model focuses more on the functional capabilities of the end product (the graduate student, resident, or practicing physician). The author explores the implications of both time-based and outcomes-based models for medical education reform and proposes an integration of their best features.

PMID:
 
20736582
 
[PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]







학부의 CBME에서 학생의 지식습득/임상수행능력/진료준비도인식의 차이: 비교 연구(BMC Med Educ. 2013)

The effect of implementing undergraduate competency-based medical education on students’ knowledge acquisition, clinical performance and perceived preparedness for practice: a comparative study

Wouter Kerdijk1*, Jos W Snoek2, Elisabeth A van Hell2 and Janke Cohen-Schotanus1







Background


현대 의학에서 의사의 역할에 대한 사회적 우려에 대하여, CBME는 점차 전 세계적인 관심을 받고 있다. 여기에 깔린 전제는 BME가 의료에 더 잘 준비된 의사를 만들 것이라는 기대이다.

In response to societal concerns about the role of doctors in contemporary healthcare, competency-based medical education is receiving increasing attention worldwide [1-9]. Its underlying assumption is that competency-based medical education results in doctors who are better prepared for medical practice [10].

  • 캐나다와 미국 PGME 프로그램 In Canada and the United States, the national accreditation councils have implemented competency-based criteria for postgraduate medical education [1,11].
  • 학부 CBME Additionally, a competency framework has been proposed and guidelines have been developed for undergraduate competency-based medical education [5,12,13].
  • EU, 볼로냐 프로세서의 일부로서 모든 의과대학 학부 교육과정은 명확하게 정의된 역량에 기반해야 함.
    In the European Union, as part of the Bologna process, all medical schools are required to base their undergraduate curricula on a clear and well-defined set of competencies [14].

 

CB교육과정의 주된 관점은 학생의 역량 개발을 촉진하는 것이며, 지식/술기/전문직적 자세로 구성된 능력을 보여줄 수 있게 하는 것이다. 그 결과 CBME를 도입할 때, 학생들의 역량개발competency development를 위한 교육시간을 따로 잡아놓게 된다. 이는 기존 교육과정을 가르칠 시간이 줄어든다는 것을 의미하고, 따라서 그러한 시간의 재분배가 역량개발을 촉진하는 결과와 더불어 다른 분야에서의 학생의 발전에 손상을 줄 수 있다.

A major focus of competency- based curricula is to facilitate students’ development of competencies, demonstrable abilities consisting of know- ledge, skills and professional behaviour. Consequently, when implementing competency-based medical education, curriculum time has to be reserved for students’ compe- tency development [2,15]. This means there will be less time available for existing activities of preceding curricula. Therefore, such a reallocation of time may not only result in the facilitation of competency development but may also impair students’ development in other areas.


CBAL과 AL 교육과정을 비교함(지식 습득, 임상 수행, 진료준비도인식)

Therefore, we examined undergraduate medical students’ knowledge acquisition, clinical perform- ance and perceived preparedness for medical practice for – two curricula a competency-based active learning (CBAL) curriculum and its predecessor, a regular active learning (AL) curriculum.


학부 교육과증은 정해진 기간이 있다. CBME를 도입할 때, 학생들이 역량을 개발시킬 수 있는 시간을 따로 잡아놓게 된다 역량개발을 목적으로 하는 여러 활동에 쓰이는 시간은 결국 예전에 지식 습득에 쓰였던 시간을 비용으로 하게 된다. 이러한 시간의 재배분은 학생의 지식습득에 안좋은 방향으로 영향을 줄 수 있다. 비록 학생의 지식이 임상수행능력의 즉각적 예측인자는 아니지만 간접적으로 임상수행능력에 영향을 줄 수 있다.

Undergraduate medical curricula usually have a set duration. When implementing competency-based educa- tion, curriculum time has to be reserved so students can develop their competencies. The time reserved for activ- ities aimed at competency development will usually come at the expense of time previously reserved for knowledge acquisition [15]. This reallocation of time may negatively affect students’ knowledge acquisition in a competency-based curriculum. Although medical stu- dents’ knowledge has not been found to be an immedi- ate predictor of clinical performance, it does impact clinical performance indirectly [16].


CBME를 이끄는 한 가지 힘은 대중들이 의과대학 교육과정이 현대의 진료와 관련된 needs를 반영하기 원하는 것이다.

One of the key forces behind competency-based medical education is the public call for medical curricula to reflect the needs of contemporary medical practice [1,15,17,18].


CBME에 걸쳐서 여러 역량과 그것들의 진료행위와의 관련성이 지속적으로 강조되며, 학생들은 의과대학 기간에, 그리고 나중에 진료를 할 때 무엇이 그들에게 기대되는가를 이해하게 된다.

Throughout competency-based curricula, relevant competencies and their relation with practice are continuously emphasized which helps students to under- stand what is expected of them during medical training and in medical practice [3,12].







Methods



맥락

Context


University of Groningen에서 수행

The AL and the CBAL curriculum were developed and implemented at the University of Groningen,


CBAL은 2003년 9월 도입, 7개 역량에 촛점

The CBAL curriculum was implemented in September 2003 and focuses on seven areas of competence:

  • communication,
  • clinical problem-solving,
  • using basic knowledge and science,
  • patient investigation,
  • patient man- agement,
  • social and community contexts of health care and
  • reflection [22]. 



CBAL과 AL모두에서 active learning principles 이 적용되었다. 학생들은 지식을 소그룹에서 배우고, 동료들과 협동하면서 자기주도학습을 한다. 교사와 튜터는 코칭과 촉진자 역할을 한다.

In both curricula, active learning principles are applied to facilitate acquisition. Students learn in knowledge small groups, collaborate with their peers and engage in self-directed learning. Teachers and tutors fulfil a coaching and facilitating role [23].


학습법과 스킬 훈련에 배정된 시간은 비슷하다. 5주의 스킬훈련이 5주 임상실습 로테이션과 번갈아가면서 있다. 이러한 alteration의 목적은 학생들에게 딱 필요한 시기에 스킬을 개발하게 하고, 실제로 활용할 수 있게 하고, 지식 및 전문가적 태도와 통합시킬 수 있게 함으로써 전임상 과정에서 임상과정으로의 이행을 부드럽게 하기 위함이다.

Learning methods and the amount of time reserved for skills training are similar in both curricula. During this year, five-week periods of skills training in the clin- ical training centre are alternated with five-week clerk- ship rotations. The purpose of this alternation is to ease the transition from the preclinical to the clinical phase by helping students develop their skills, just in time, to apply them in practice and to further integrate them with knowledge and professional behaviour [24].


두 교육과정의 주된 차이는 역량개발competency development의 강조에 있다. CBAL에서는 과목 내내 각 과목과 역량과의 관련성을 명확히 소통하며, 15%의 CBAL 교육과정의 시간은 역량개발을 위한 소그룹 세션으로 배정되어 있다. 이 세션의 시간은 원래 AL에서 지식습득에 배정되어 있던 소그룹 세션을 없애서 만들었다. 총 시간은 동일.

The main difference between the two curricula lies in the emphasis on competency development. In the CBAL curriculum, the link between the purpose of each course and relevant competencies are clearly communicated throughout the course. This is not the case in the AL curriculum. Furthermore, 15% of the total CBAL cur- riculum time is reserved specifically for small group ses- sions aimed at competency development. Time for these sessions is created by diminishing the number of small group sessions originally aimed at knowledge acquisition in the AL curriculum. The total curriculum time re- mains the same.


CBAL의 전임상 시기동안 역량개발을 위한 소그룹세션은 학생들이 practice 경험과 그 영량과 관련된 영역의 과제를 바탕으로 이뤄진다.

Throughout the preclinical phase of the CBAL cur- riculum, small group sessions for competency develop- ment are based on students’ experiences in practice and assignments related to each area of competence. An ex- ample of such an assignment is that

  • 1학년: 좋은 의사란?
    first-year students, unfamiliar with medical practice, have to describe the qualities of a good doctor.
  • 3학년: 동일 과제를 반복하면서 그동안 무엇을 배우고 경험했는지 성찰
    In their third study year the students have to repeat this assignment, and reflect on what they have learnt and experienced in the meantime.

임상교육시기에 역량개발 세션은 1년에 24회. 이 세션에서 자신의 경험을 토론하고 자신의 개발과 관련된 특정 주제를 이야기함. 추가로 포트폴리오에 자기개발플랜 personal development plan 을 꾸준히 기록하고 여기에는 학습목표를 설정한다. 시니어 교수와 1년에 2회 포트폴리오를 바탕으로 면담하여 평가

During the clinical phase, sessions aimed at compe- tency development are scheduled 24 times a year. During these sessions students discuss their own experi- ences and certain themes in relation to their develop- ment (for example cultural diversity or dealing with death). In addition to assignments related to these meet- ings, students have to keep track of a personal develop- ment plan in their portfolio in which they formulate learning goals based on the areas of competence. During the clinical phase the portfolio is evaluated twice a year in an interview with a senior staff member.


CBAL 교육과정을 설계할 때 임상실습의 목적을 최대한 다양한 임상과를 경험하는 것으로부터 학생의 역량개발을 도울 수 있는 다양하고 안정적 환경의 균형을 맞추는 쪽으로 옮겨갔다. 그 결과 최소 로테이션이 4주로 늘어남. 

When designing the CBAL curriculum we felt that the aim of clerkships shifted from experiencing as many disciplines as possible towards a balance between diversity and the stability of surroundings to support students’ competency develop- ment. Consequently, in the CBAL curriculum, the mini- mum duration for clerkship rotations was extended to 4 weeks to allow sufficient time for students to work on their competencies.



Participants


Ethical statement



도구

Instruments


두 개의 다른 네덜란드 의과대학과 함께 치르는 interuniversity progress test (IPT) 로 평가. 1년에 4회, 6년간 총 24회. Dutch National Blueprint for the Medical Curriculum에 기반하여 출제되며 평가 목적은  “the end objectives of undergraduate medical training as far as knowledge is concerned” . 200개 객관식 문항. 특정 의과대학의 교육과정과 관련된 시험 아님. 이 연구가 이뤄질 당시, 네덜란드 의과대학 입학은 여전히 추첨 시스템으로 결정되고 있었기 때문에 교육과정의 효과를 비교하기에 유용함. 이 추천 시스템은 의과대학마다 1학년 입학생의 그룹이 매우 비슷해지는 결과(학업성취, 연령, 성별, 입학동기 등)을 가져왔음.

Knowledge acquisition was assessed by benchmarking our cohorts’ scores on the Dutch interuniversity progress test (IPT) against those of parallel cohorts from two other Dutch medical schools with similar cohort sizes (approximately 250 students per cohort). All cohorts sat the IPT four times per year at the same time, i.e. 24 tests per cohort. The IPT is based on the Dutch National Blueprint for the Medical Curriculum, and is designed to asses “the end objectives of undergraduate medical training as far as knowledge is concerned” [29,30]. Each progress test contains 200 multiple choice questions and is constructed to reflect the entire domain of medical knowledge. The IPT is not related to the cur- riculum of one particular institution [30]. The reason for benchmarking against two other medical schools was that all students sat exactly the same tests at the same point in their education. IPT benchmarking is especially suitable for analysing effects of curriculum changes be- cause, at the time of our study, admittance to medical schools in the Netherlands was still primarily deter- mined by a national lottery system [31]. This system guarantees an intake of first-year students which is very similar across medical schools with regard to past per- formance, age, gender and motivation to study medicine [32]. Over the period of our study the medical schools used for comparison had not changed their curricula.

 


 

Analysis


A Bonferroni correction was used to compensate for the high number of tests and effect sizes were calculated.



 


Results


Knowledge acquisition


Clinical performance


Perceived preparedness for medical practice


 

 

 

 


 

고찰

Discussion

 


연구의 목적은 CBAL의 도입의 효과를 보는 것이다. IPT결과에 따라 우리는 상대적으로 1학년에서 지식 습득이 떨어짐을 발견했다. 그러나 최종 졸업생에서 차이는 없었다. CBAL 교육과정 졸업생은 임상수행능력과 진료준비도인식에서도 차이가 없었다.

The aim of our study was to analyse the effects of the implementation of a competency-based active learning curriculum (CBAL) as compared to the previous active learning curriculum (AL). Using progress test results, we found relatively less knowledge acquisition in the first years of the CBAL curriculum than in the first years of the AL curriculum. However, we did not find such dif- ference in the final year. Graduates who had been trained in a CBAL curriculum did not score higher on clinical performance nor did they feel better prepared for medical practice.


역량개발에 시간이 더 들어갈수록, 다른 교육활동에 시간이 덜 들어가고, 그 결과 CBAL 교육과정은 지식 손실의 위험이 있다.

As more time is allocated to the development of competencies, less time will be devoted to other curricular activities. As a consequence, implementing a CBAL cur- riculum bears the risk of knowledge loss.


지식습득에 대한 시간을 빼서 역량개발을 위한 시간을 따로 두는 것은 (장기적으로는 아니나) 단기적으로는 낮은 지식습득의 결과로 이어졌다.

Reserv- ing time for competency development at the expense of time reserved for knowledge acquisition, seems to lead to lower knowledge acquisition in the short term, but not in the long term.


CBAL학생군이 종종 더 낮은 점수를 받았으나, 장기적으로는 차이가 없었다는 결과로부터, CBME가 영속적인 부정적 효과가 있을 가능성은 낮다고 판단된다. 이러한 결과는 임상환경이 학생이 스스로 학습을 조절regulate하게 장려했다는 것으로 설명될 수 있다. 임상실습동안 학생들은 반복적으로 부족한 의학지식 영역에 대한 remedy를 하게끔 stimulate된다. 이전 지식의 부족은 임상실습기간에 극복될 수 있다.

As the CBAL cohorts seldom scored lower than the comparison cohorts and no long-term differences were found, we consider a permanent negative impact of implementing competency-based education on student learning and expertise development unlikely. An explan- ation for this finding might be that the clinical environ- ment encourages students to regulate their own learning [37]. During clerkships students are repeatedly stimu- lated to remedy deficiencies in medical knowledge. Undergraduate students’ prior knowledge deficiencies appear to be overcome during their clerkships.


우리는 CBAL학생이 임상에서 더 잘할 것을 기대했으나, 유의한 차이는 발견하지 못했다.

We expected CBAL students to perform better in clin- ical practice than AL students. However, we did not find a significant difference, which may indicate that imple- mentation of competency-based education has no effect on clinical performance.


우리는 CBAL학생이 진료에 더 잘 준비되었다고 느끼길 바랐으나, 'put a patient problem in a broad context of political, sociological, cul- tural and economic factors, '에서만 그렇게 응답하였다.

We expected the CBAL students to feel better pre- pared for medical practice. Students from the CBAL curriculum felt better prepared to put a patient problem in a broad context of political, sociological, cul- tural and economic factors, which is in line with the aim to educate medical professionals who are sufficiently re- sponsive to societal needs [1,15,17,18]. However, we were unable to demonstrate any other effects of the implementation of competency- based education on students’ perceived preparedness.



학생들의 진료준비도인식에 전반적인 향상이 없었던 것은 역량개발을 위하여 도입한 교육도구(포트폴리오와 역량 및 underlying framework에 대한 명쾌한 의사소통)의 영향일 수 있다.

The fact that we did not find a general increase in stu- dent’s perceived preparedness for medical practice may be related to the educational tools we implemented to facilitate competency development: portfolio use and ex- plicit communication of competencies and their under- lying framework.


Sargeant 등에 의한 최근 연구에서 역량에 대한 명쾌한explicit 의사소통과 포트폴리오 활용이 학생들이 informed self-assessent를 하게 도와준다고 하였다. CBAL교육과정 학생들은 그들에게 기대되는 바가 무엇이에 대한 정보를 계속 알 수 있었고, 스스로의 수행능력을 explicitly 성찰하고, 부족한 부분을 보충remedy하고 개선점을 찾도록 하였다. 이러한 활동으로 인해서 학생들은 스스로의 부족함을 더 인식하게 되었을 것이다. 아마도 CBAL학생들은 AL학생보다 자신의 역량이 무엇이 있고 무엇이 부족한지 더 잘 인식하고 있었을 것이며, 역량개발에 있어서 이는 중요한 단계이다.

A recent study by Sargeant et al. revealed that explicit communication of competencies and the use of portfolios help students to achieve in- formed self-assessment [39]. Students in the CBAL cur- riculum are frequently informed of what is expected of them and they are explicitly stimulated to reflect on their performance, to remedy their deficiencies and to formulate points of improvement. The awareness that follows from these activities may help students to be- come increasingly conscious of their deficiencies. Possibly, CBAL students were more aware of their com- petencies and incompetencies than AL students, which is an important step in the development of competence [40].




 


 


 





 2013 May 27;13:76. doi: 10.1186/1472-6920-13-76.

The effect of implementing undergraduate competency-based medical education on students' knowledgeacquisitionclinical performance and perceived preparedness for practice: a comparative study.

Author information

  • 1Center for Research and Innovation in Medical Education, University of Groningen and University Medical Center Groningen, Ant, Deusinglaan 1, FC40, 9713 AV, Groningen, The Netherlands. w.kerdijk@umcg.nl

Abstract

BACKGROUND:

Little is known about the gains and losses associated with the implementation of undergraduate competency-based medicaleducation. Therefore, we compared knowledge acquisitionclinical performance and perceived preparedness for practice of students from acompetency-based active learning (CBAL) curriculum and a prior active learning (AL) curriculum.

METHODS:

We included two cohorts of both the AL curriculum (n=453) and the CBAL curriculum (n=372). Knowledge acquisition was determined by benchmarking each cohort on 24 interuniversity progress tests against parallel cohorts of two other medical schools. Differences in knowledgeacquisition were determined comparing the number of times CBAL and AL cohorts scored significantly higher or lower on progress tests. Clinicalperformance was operationalized as students' mean clerkship grade. Perceived preparedness for practice was assessed using a survey.

RESULTS:

The CBAL cohorts demonstrated relatively lower knowledge acquisition than the AL cohorts during the first study years, but not at the end of their studies. We found no significant differences in clinical performance. Concerning perceived preparedness for practice we found no significant differences except that students from the CBAL curriculum felt better prepared for 'putting a patient problem in a broad context of political, sociological, cultural and economic factors' than students from the AL curriculum.

CONCLUSIONS:

Our data do not support the assumption that competency-based education results in graduates who are better prepared for medicalpractice. More research is needed before we can draw generalizable conclusions on the potential of undergraduate competency-based medicaleducation.

PMID:
 
23711403
 
[PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE] 
PMCID:
 
PMC3668236
 
Free PMC Article


의예과-의전원에서 학업성취에 학습스타일과 학업접근법 중 무엇이 더 중요할까? (Teach Learn Med. 2015)

Exam Success at Undergraduate and Graduate-Entry Medical Schools: Is Learning Style or Learning Approach More Important? A Critical Review Exploring Links Between Academic Success, Learning Styles, and Learning Approaches Among School-Leaver Entry (“Traditional”) and Graduate- Entry (“Nontraditional”) Medical Students

Anne-Marie Feeley

Education and Development: MB ChB Team, Warwick Medical School, The University of Warwick, Coventry, UK

Deborah L. Biggerstaff

Division of Mental Health and Wellbeing, Warwick Medical School, The University of Warwick, Coventry, UK






INTRODUCTION


앞서서 영국에서의 의과대학생 선발은 고등학교 학업성취도가 얼마나 높은가에 따라서 결정되어왔고, 이는 상대적으로 동질한 학생 그룹으로 이어졌다. 특히, 이러한 방법의 선발은 사교육으로 성공한 학생과 가난한 학생을 차별하는 것으로 나타났다. 예컨대, BMA는 2003년 보고서에서 영국에서 의과대학에 입학한 학생의 39.2%가 최상위 SES에 속하는데, 이 그룹은 근로자 연령층의 11.1%에 불과하다.

Previously, selection for medical school in the United King- dom has been based on high academic attainment at school, resulting in relatively homogeneous student groups.1 In partic- ular, this method of selection has been found to discriminate in favor of privately educated students and against students from poorer backgrounds. For example, a British Medical Association study reported that, in 2003, 39.2% of UK suc- cessful medical school applicants came from the highest socio- economic group (higher professional/managerial), even though this group accounted for just 11.1%of the working age population.2


이제 의과대학 선발은 더 다양한 입학생을 받는 방향으로 바뀌어가고 있다. 영국 정부는 Widening Access 정책을 펼치며, 비전통적(다양한 인종/문화 그룹으로부터, 취약계층으로부터, 더 성숙한(mature), 그리고 장애가 있는) 학생을 고등교육으로 들어오게끔 했다.

Now, medical selection is changing as the need to encour- age more diverse entrants has become imperative. The UK government has adopted a “Widening Access” policy that aims to encourage “nontraditional” students (i.e., those from different ethnic/cultural groups, those from disadvantaged backgrounds, mature students, and those with disabilities) into higher education.3


영국의 8009명의 medical trainee중 Graduate student는 865명으로 10.8%를 차지하여 유의미한 소수를 구성하고 있다.

Graduate students now make up a significant minority of the 8,009 existing medical trainees in the United Kingdom: 10.8%, or 865 students.3


과거 연구에서는 '전통적' 의과대학생의 학습스타일과 학업접근법에 대해 다룬 바 있으나, '비전통적'학생들은 이들과 다르다는 것을 제기한다.

Past research has explored the learning styles and learning approaches among “traditional” medical students;5 however, some researchers suggest that nontraditional medical students differ in the way they learn from their traditional counterparts.6




주된 학습스타일과 학습접근법은 무엇인가?

WHICH ARE THE MAIN LEARNING STYLES AND LEARNING APPROACHES RELEVANT TO MEDICAL STUDENTS?


학습스타일, 학습접근법 설문은 학생들은 학습에 관련하여 중요해 보이는 다양한 요소에 따라 그룹지으려고 시도한다. 학생에게 학습 동기부여를 하는 요인은 무엇인지, 정보가 어떻게 제시되는 것을 선호하는지, 정보가 어떻게 통합되는지 등등이다.

 Learning styles questionnaires and learning approaches questionnaires attempt to sort students into groups according to various factors deemed important for learning: They explore factors such as what motivates students to learn,7 preferences for how information is presented (e.g., by visual or experiential - means),8 and the different ways that data may be assimilated.9


VARK 학습스타일

VARK (Visual/Auditory/Read-Write/Kinaesthetic) Model—Learning Styles8


일반 학생 연령 그룹에서, Johnson에 따르자면, "비전통적" 의과대학생들은 A 와 K 가 주를 이룬다. 그러나 학습스타일 설문의 신뢰도와 타당도, 그리고 이것을 교육법 결정에 사용할 때의 유용성 등에 문제를 제기하곤 한다. 현재 다양한 학습스타일이 과연 어떤 식으로든 유의미한 차이를 일으키는가에 대한 논쟁이 있다.
Among general student populations and, according to Johnson,6 “nontraditional” medical students, auditory and kin- aesthetic modes are believed to predominate. It should be noted, however, that the validity and reliability of this and other learning styles questionnaires, and their usefulness in deciding on teaching methods, have been challenged: There is currently considerable debate in the literature as to whether different learning styles actually exist in any meaningful way.10–12



 

3부 모델(심화/전략/표면) - 학습접근법

Tripartite Model (Deep/Strategic/Surface)—Learning Approaches7


이 모델에서는 학습자가 학습과제에 접근하는 동기를 바탕으로 학습을 세 가지 카테고리로 나눈다.

This model divides learning into three categories based upon learning approaches, that is, the motivation with which a learner approaches a learning task.

  • “Deep” learning occurs when students approach a learning event with intrinsic motiva- tion and personal interest in the educational material. These students tend to search for meaning and general principles in the learning materials presented and make links with previous knowledge.
  • “Strategic” learning occurs when students are moti- vated to be successful. Students favoring this approach tend to focus on examinable material, and thus their knowledge may be somewhat patchy.
  • “Surface” learning, in contrast, occurs when students are motivated by a fear of failure. This is an approach that tends to result in rote learning and poorer under- standing.


 

이미 알려진 것들

WHAT IS ALREADY KNOWN


10년 전, Ferguson, James, and Madeley 의 review는 2000년도까지의 의과대학생들의 학습접근법에 대한 문헌을 정리한 바 있다(Widening Access 시행 전)

Over a decade ago, a systematic review by Ferguson, James, and Madeley summarized the literature on learning approaches in relation to medical students up to the year 2000 (i.e., prior to the introduction of the Widening Access pro- gram).5




방법

METHODS


Inclusion/Exclusion Criteria


Databases Searched


Search Terms Used


Method of Critical Appraisal


결과

RESULTS



의과대학생의 구성이 바뀐 2000년도 이후에, 학습접근법이 학업성취도와 연관된다는 근거가 나왔는가?

Question 1: Have Changes in Medical Student Populations Since 2000 Altered the Evidence With Regard to Learning Approaches (According to the Tripartite Model) and Academic Success?



전략적 접근법이 시험을 잘 보는 것과 연관되어 있었으며, 심화 접근법은 연구에 따라 달랐다. 모든 연구에서 표면 접근법이 시험을 잘 보는 것과 negative 상관을 보였다. 이러한 상관관계는 다양한 나라의 다양한 학생그룹, 다양한 문화권 걸쳐 나타난다.

A strategic approach was identified as being positively correlated with exam success in all five studies that explored this issue,19–23 whereas a deep approach showed positive correlation in two studies21,24 and no effect in two others.23,25 All studies that examined surface learn- ing found that it correlated negatively with exam success.22,23,26 These correlations were found to hold true across different stu- dent groups in different countries and cultures worldwide.



전통적인 고등학교 졸업자 의과대학생의 학습스타일이나 학습접근법이 대학졸업자 의과대학생과 비교하여 다른가?

Question 2: Do Traditional Students With Higher School- Leaving Results Differ in Their Learning Styles or Learning Approaches Compared With Alternate/Graduate Entry Medical Students? If So, What Are the Implications for Educators?



VARK model.


비전통적 학생들이 VARK 스타일에서 차이가 있는지에 대한 근거는 일관되지 않지만, 만약 차이가 존재한다고 해도 이러한 차이가 학업성취와 연결된다는 근거가 없다.

There is conflicting evidence as to whether nontraditional students differ in their VARK learning preferen- ces from traditional-entry medical students; however, if differ- ences do exist, no evidence was found that these differences correlate with academic performance. Three studies were Of importance, in the studies that reported on exam results,6,30 no correlation was found between VARK learning style and academic achievement amongst either traditional or nontraditional students.


Tripartite model (surface, strategic, deep).


학업성취도에 대한 보다 일반적인 연구결과들에 따르면, 비록 GE(graduate entry) 학생이 고등학교 성적은 더 낮지만, 의과대학에서의 최종시험의 수행능력은 UE 학생을 넘어선다. 이에 대한 한 가지 가능한 설명은 이 그룹에서의 심화/전략 학습법과 관련된다. 추가적으로, 이 GE그룹은 더 집요한 특성이 있고, 전문직으로서 더 성공적인 훈련을 받고자 단단히 결심하는 경향이 있는데, 이는 낮은 유급률retention rate 로 보여진다.

When it comes to academic success more generally, emerging evidence shows that although graduate entry students tend to have lower school-leaving results than traditional students, they can equal6,35 or even exceed36 their traditional counterparts’ per- formance in final medical examinations, despite a shortened pro- gram of study. One possible explanatory factor for this is the preceding tentative evidence regarding a preponderance of deep and strategic learning in this group. In addition, this student group is perhaps more likely to exhibit tenacious qualities and be determined to succeed in training for their profession, as evi- denced by higher retention rates among graduate entrants.37


과목 설계를 통해 모든 학생들의 학습을 더 강화하고 Adaptive Learning 을 촉진하는 방향으로 바뀔 수 있을까?

Question 3: Can Courses Be Designed to Enhance Learning or Promote More Adaptive Learning Approaches Among Medical Students to Increase the Chances of Success for All?


학습스타일: 교육방법을 학생이 선호하는 학습스타일과 일치시키기

Learning styles: Matching teaching methods to students’ preferred learning style.


VARK 스타일 그 자체 뿐 아니라, 교육법을 VARK 스타일에 맞추려는 것도 의과대학생 학업성취를 향상시키진 못했다.

Thus, neither VARK learning styles alone nor matching teaching to preferred VARK learning styles was found to improve academic performance among medical students.


학습의 '심화' 접근법 강화하기

Enhancing “deep” learning approaches to learning.


의과대학에서 공부해야 할 양이 많고 그 시간은 제한적인 상황이 심화학습을 못하게 하고, 딱히 도움이 되지 않는 표면 학습을 하게 하는 방향으로 영향을 미친다.

These findings suggest that the sheer vol- ume of material to be learned at medical school in a limited time frame may militate against deep learning approaches and toward less helpful surface approaches.



앞선 연구들에서 교육방법이나 교육과정 설계를 바꿔서 학생들의 학습을 촉진하고자 했으나, 그 결과는 제한적이거나 성공적이지 못했다. Carol Dweck 등의 연구에 따르면, 교육방법이나 교육과정에 초점을 맞추지 말고, 개개 학생들의 마음가짐mind-set에 더 초점을 맞추는 것이 좋다. 그녀는, Tripartite 모델과 유사하게, 학습자들의 학습에 대한 동기부여에 초점을 맞추었으며, 학생들이 더 adaptive approach로 학습할 수 있으며, 그에 따라 학습이 강화된다는 근거를 보여주었다. 학생들은 "성장형 마음가짐growth mindset"을 가질 수 있게 지지받아야 하며, 이를 통해 학업성취를 내재한 지능이나 능력이 아니라 '노력'과 연관된 것으로 바라볼 수 있어야 한다. 이러한 마음가짐은 학습에 있어서 회복탄력성을 촉진시켜주며, 학습 도전과제에 긍정적으로 다가가게 하며, 실패의 두려움을 줄여준다. 이러한 접근법은 의과대학의 성공과 관련되어 있다고 나타난 심화/전략 접근법과 유사한 것이다.

The aforementioned studies seek to find ways to alter teaching methods or curricular design to promote learning among students, and the results show that their efforts have met with limited or no success. The work of Carol Dweck and colleagues,47,48 in contrast, places less focus on teaching or curricula and more focus on the mind-set of each individual student. Her work, similar to the Tripartite model (deep, strategic, and surface learning approaches), focuses on motivation for learning and importantly pro- vides robust evidence that students can learn more adaptive approaches and are able to enhance their learning as a result. Students can be supported to adopt a “growth mind- set” learning to view academic success as an outcome that results more from their own efforts than from intrinsic intelligence or ability. Such a mind-set promotes resilience in learning, a positive approach to learning challenges, and a reduced fear of failure. This approach, where the goal is to develop one’s learning or to achieve a particular learn- ing outcome such as exam success, is akin to the deep/stra- tegic approaches to learning that have been shown to correlate with medical school success.



현재까지의 근거를 보면, 상호작용하는 두 가지 요인이 있다. 하나는 학생 개개인의 학습에 대한 접근법이고(변화 가능한 것), 다른 하나는 주어진 학습과제에서의 도전particular challenges으로서 조정하기 쉽지 않은 것이다. 학습에 대한 명확한 목표가 있는 학생들, 그리고 성장형 마음가짐을 가지고 회복탄력성이 높은 학생은 도전적인 학습환경에서도 학업적으로 성공할 가능성이 높다. 교육과정 설계를 바꾸거나 adaptive learning approach를 촉진하려는 시도가 대체로 실망스러웠음을 고려하면, 우리의 노력을 학생의 성장형 마음가짐을 개발하는 것에 초점을 두는 것이 더 나을 수 있으며, 이를 통해 학생들은 더 도전적인 환경에서조차 학습할 수 있을 것이다. 

The current evidence suggests that two interacting factors may be at play: the student’s individual approach to learning, which is potentially modifiable, and the particular challenges of the learning task at hand, which may or may not be easy to adapt. Those students who have clear goals for learning, and who have the resilience of a growth mind-set in the face of the sometimes challenging learning environment of a medical training, seem to be best placed for academic success. Given the disappointing results of attempts to alter curricular design and delivery to foster adaptive learning approaches, it may be more fruitful to focus our efforts on developing a growth mind-set among our students, which can then help them learn even in challenging environments.


다양한 학습선호 유형에 대한 학생들의 인식과 관련한 연구도 있다. 따라서 아직 초기 단계지만, 학습 프로세스 그 자체에 대해 흥미를 갖는 것이 학업성취 그 이상에 대한 긍정적 효과가 있을 수 있다.

Some further interesting findings with respect to students’ awareness of different learning preferences emerged. So there is at least preliminary evidence that fostering an interest in the process of learning itself can have positive effects for stu- dents beyond academic performance alone.



고찰, 결론

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION


임상교육을 위한 함의

Implications of Findings for Clinical Educational Practice: A Critique and Implications for Future Research


이 새로운 review에서 배울 점은?

What can we take from this new review on the topic of learning approaches and learning styles?



첫째, 학습스타일 차원에서 학습스타일 설문의 신뢰도와 타당도에 대한 근거를 찾지 못했으며, 과연 그런 것이 존재하는지에 대한 논란이 지속됨만 확인했다. 따라서 VARK와 시험 성적의 관계가 전통적/비전통적 그룹 모두에서 나타나지 않은 것도 놀랍지 않다. 추가적으로 비록 교육전략과 학습스타일을 맞춰야 한다는 제안을 한 바 있지만, 이를 시도한 연구는 2000 이래로 거의 없었으며, 그러한 매칭이 학업성과에 효과가 있다는 근거도 찾지 못하였다. 게다가 학습자가 명확한 선호도를 가진다고 해도, 매우 다양한 학습자료/매우 다양한 사람들/매우 다양한 세팅에서 학습해야 하는 의과대학생들에게 그들이 선호하는 방식으로만 제시하는 것은 이론적으로나 가능한 것이다.

First, in terms of learning styles, reviewing the literature revealed no evidence for an emergent consensus over the past decade as to the reliability or validity of learning styles ques- tionnaires, whereas ongoing controversy continues as to whether learning styles exist at all. In this context, it is perhaps no surprise that our review found no correlation between VARK learning styles and exam results for either “traditional entry” or graduate entry medical students. In addition, although previous writers have proposed that teachers should match their teaching strategies to their students’ preferred learning styles (e.g., providing primarily visually based teach- ing to visual learners), few researched attempts have been made to do this since 2000, and we found no evidence that matching has any effect on academic outcomes. Even if learn- ers have clear preferences as to how material is presented to them, it is theoretically possible that exposure only to one’s preferred mode of learning could stunt one’s development as much as enhance it, particularly for medical students who need to work in a variety of different settings, with a variety of different people, and with a variety of different learning mate- rials.

 

실험적 연구가 부족한 상황에서, 우리의 결론은 의과대학 교육과정을 학생의 학업선호에 맞춰서 바꿀 근거가 없다는 것이다. 반대로, 학습스타일로 인해 불이익harm이 발생했다는 근거도 찾지 못하였다. 오히려, 학습스타일에 대해서 배운 경험이 있는 경우에 자기-자신감이 높아지고, 다른 사람들의 학습 선호에 대한 인식도 높아짐을 보여주는 일부 연구가 있다. 학습스타일 설문을 사용하여 의과대학생들이 스스로와 타인의 학습에 대해서 생각해보게 만드는 방향으로 사용하는 것이 나을 것이다.

In the absence of further empirical research, the conclu- sion we propose, therefore, is that no evidence currently exists to support a change in medical school curricula to explicitly address individual students’ learning preferences during teach- ing activities. Conversely, no evidence emerged to suggest that exploring students’ learning styles resulted in harm. Rather, there is tentative evidence that students who learn about learning styles experience increased self-confidence and an enhanced awareness of others’ learning preferences. Pend- ing further research, it may be reasonable to use learning style questionnaires in a formative way at medical schools with the aim of helping students think about their learning and that of others51 rather than promoting them as evidence-based learn- ing tools.




둘째로, Tripartite 모델과 관련한 학습접근법에 있어서, 전략적 접근법이 -심화 접근법보다도- 가장 의과대학 성적과 관련이 있다. 이 연관성에서 눈에 띄는 것은 비의학nonmedical 전공과 차이이다. 비의학전공에서는 심화학습이 더 강력한 상관관계를 보인다. 왜 그럴까? 아마 그 이유의 일부는 의과대학생들이 경험하는 훈련의 강도 때문일 것이다. 심화 학습은 다수의 요인과 상호작용하는 것으로 나타난다.

Second, with respect to learning approaches according to the Tripartite model, the evidence is clear that a strategic approach to learning focused on exam performance is most highly correlated with academic success in medical school— even more so than a deep approach. It is notable that this asso- ciation between medical school success and strategic learning differs from that for nonmedical courses, where deep learning has a more robust correlation with performance.34 Why might this be the case? There has been little exploration of this find- ing in the literature, but the answer may lie, at least partly, in the intensity of the medical training experience for our stu- dents. Deep learning among medical students was found to be related to a number of interacting factors:

    • the way content is presented,
    • the learning environment, and
    • psychological factors such as ease of understanding, enjoyment and low anxiety levels.25,52

 

심화학습은 학생들이 특정 주제를 마스터하기 위한 충분한 시간이 있고 그 주제를 즐길 때 촉진될 수 있다. 열정, 공감, 실제상황의 묘사 등을 활용한 교육 스타일이 학생들의 deeper engagement를 촉진한다. 그러나 의과대학생들은 학습할 양이 너무 많아서 더 표면접 접근법과 '교수자-주도적' 스타일로 향해가게 된다. 우리가 보는 의과대학생에서 전략적 학습접근법의 성공의 이유는 다음과 같다. 의학지식은 계속 늘어나고 바뀌며, 무수한 fact 중에서 핵심 학습요점을 걸러낼 수 있는 사람만이 학업과 임상의 성공을 이룰 수 있다. 확실한 학습동기, 발전동기와 더불어 성장형 마음가짐을 갖는 것이 학생들이 표면접근법으로 끌리지 않게 해줄 것이다.

Deep learning may be facilitated when students feel they have enough time to master and enjoy the topic at hand. Teaching styles that demonstrate enthusiasm, empathy and give real-life illustrations may also promote deeper engagement among our students.11,53 However, the very high workload that medical students face throughout their training seems to push some students toward a more surface approach and thus toward a more “teacher-directed” style of learning. We propose that the success of a strategic learning approach in medicine can be explained thus: medical knowledge is growing and changing at such a rate that those who can sift the vital learning points from the mass of facts and opinion may be well placed for academic and clinical success. A growth mind-set with a clear motivation to learn and develop may be a factor in helping students resist the pull to adopt more sur- face approaches when faced with challenging learning tasks.



어떻게 교육자들이 의과대학생의 학습접근법을 더 adaptive way로 바꿔줄 수 있을까?

How can educators help medical students approach their learning in more adaptive ways to enhance their academic suc- cess?


우선, 교육과정 설계가 모든 학생들에게 "최고의" 학습 접근법을 촉진할 수 있다는 근거가 없다. 교육과정 변화에 초점을 두는 것보다 학생들이 스스로 의과대학과 의과대학 이후의 성공까지와도 관련된 나름의 학습동기를 찾게 도와줘야 한다. 이를 위해서 학생들은 성장형 마음가짐을 갖추어야 하며, 노력의 가치를 알고 실패를 두려워하기보다 지속적인 발전의 유용성을 인식해야 한다. 이러한 접근법은 학생들로 하여금 전략적(그리고 심화) 접근법을 익히게 해줄 것이다.

First, there is no evidence that curricular design can pro- mote the “best” learning approach for all students. Rather than focusing on curricular change, therefore, the current evidence suggests we can best help our students by encouraging each individual to find his or her own unique learning motivation to succeed at medical school and beyond. To this end, the evi- dence is that helping students adopt a growth mind-set, valuing effort and emphasizing the utility of continuous development rather than fearing failure, is achievable. This approach may help students adopt the strategic (and deep) learning approaches that have been shown to consistently correlate with medical school examsuccess.



마지막으로, GE 의대생들이 (비록 의과대학 재학 기간은 더 짧아도) 졸업시에 UE 학생들만큼 잘한다는 것을 찾았다. 비록 정확한 이유는 알기 힘들고, 연구 수가 제한되어 있지만, 전략적/심화 학습 접근법이 한 요인일 것이다. medical trainer에 있어서 중요한 함의는 우선 선발과 관련된 장벽을 넘어서면 비전통적 배경을 가진 학생들도 동등한 의과대학 성취를 이룰 수 있다는 점이다. Widening access 강화의 근거가 됨.

Finally, this literature review found that nontraditional medical students perform just as well as their traditional coun- terparts by the end of their training, in spite of shortened time at medical school. Although the research reviewed was unable to pinpoint exactly why this is the case, and was based on a limited number of studies (a combined total of 446 graduate- entry students), we suggest that the preponderance of strate- gic/deep learning approaches among this group may be a fac- tor here. The important implication for medical trainers is that, on current evidence, once the selection process barrier is over- come, students from nontraditional backgrounds can achieve equal medical school success with their traditional counter- parts. This strengthens the case for widening access to medical training and suggests that our graduate entry students may have something to teach our traditional students in terms of learning approaches and determination to succeed.


학습스타일은 영향이 없으나, 학습 접근법은 중요하다.

So, to return to our original question: Which matters more for medical school exam success—learning styles or learning approaches? Our review offers a clear answer. When it comes to medical school exam success, learning styles do not appear to matter, but students’ learning approaches matter a great deal.








 2015;27(3):237-44. doi: 10.1080/10401334.2015.1046734.

Exam Success at Undergraduate and Graduate-Entry Medical Schools: Is Learning Style or Learning ApproachMore Important? A Critical Review Exploring Links Between Academic SuccessLearning Styles, and LearningApproaches Among School-Leaver Entry ("Traditional") and Graduate-Entry ("Nontraditional") Medical Students.

Author information

  • 1a Education and Development: MB ChB Team, Warwick Medical School, The University of Warwick , Coventry , UK.

Abstract

PHENOMENON: The literature on learning styles over many years has been replete with debate and disagreement. Researchers have yet to elucidate exactly which underlying constructs are measured by the many learning styles questionnaires available. Some academics question whether learning styles exist at all. When it comes to establishing the value of learning styles for medical students, a further issue emerges. The demographics of medical students in the United Kingdom have changed in recent years, so past studies may not be applicable to students today. We wanted to answer a very simple, practical question: what can the literature on learning styles tell us that we can use to help today's medicalstudents succeed academically at medical school?

APPROACH:

We conducted a literature review to synthesise the available evidence on how two different aspects of learning-the way in whichstudents like to receive information in a learning environment (termed learning "styles") and the motivations that drive their learning (termed learning"approaches")-can impact on medical studentsacademic achievement.

FINDINGS:

Our review confirms that although learning "styles" do not correlate with exam performance, learning "approaches" do: those with "strategic" and "deep" approaches to learning (i.e., motivated to do well and motivated to learn deeply respectively) perform consistently better inmedical school examinations. Changes in medical school entrant demographics in the past decade have not altered these correlations. Optimistically, our review reveals that studentslearning approaches can change and more adaptive approaches may be learned. Insights: For educators wishing to help medical students succeed academically, current evidence demonstrates that helping students develop their own positivelearning approach using "growth mind-set" is a more effective (and more feasible) than attempting to alter studentslearning styles. This conclusion holds true for both "traditional" and graduate-entry medical students.

KEYWORDS:

examinations; graduate entrylearninglearning approacheslearning styles; motivation

PMID:
 
26158325
 
[PubMed - in process]


의사로서의 발전 - 전문직 되기 (NEJM, 2006)

The Developing Physician — Becoming a Professional

David T. Stern, M.D., Ph.D., and Maxine Papadakis, M.D.






학생들에게 우리의 핵심 가치를 가르칠 때, 학생들이 근무하고 휴실을 취할 실제 세계를 고려해야 한다. "가르치는 것"의 개념은 교실에서의 강의/소그룹 토론/실험실 실습/클리닉에서의 환자돌봄 뿐 아니라 복도에서 오가는대화/카페테리아에서의 농담/"위대한 사례"에 대한 스토리 등도 포함된다.

When teaching students our core values, we must consider the real world in which they will work and relax.1-4 The concept of “teaching” must include not only lectures in the classroom, small group discussions, exercises in the laboratory, and care for patients in clinic but also conversations held in the hallway, jokes told in the cafeteria, and stories exchanged about a “great case” on our way to the parking lot.




기대치 설정

Setting Expectations


3학년의 첫 임상실습날을 떠올려보면, 여전히 그 불안감과 불확실성을 느낄 수 있을 것이다. 각 로테이션은 새로운 규칙을 설정하고, 새로운 행동규범을 설정하며, 새로운 의사와 의료전문직 커뮤니티를 설정한다.

Remembering back to your own first day on the wards as a third-year medical stu- dent, you can probably still feel the anxiety and uncertainty. Each rotation brought a new set of rules, a new set of behavioral norms, and a new community of physi- cians and health care professionals with whom to engage.


불행하게도, 이러한 규칙이 쓰여진 곳은 어디에도 없고, 실수를 했을 때에만 그 규칙이 무엇인지 드러난다.

Unfortunately, the rules were unwritten and often discovered only when you made a mistake.


AMA의 의료윤리헌장과 Charter on Medical Professionalism은 이러한 원칙과 기대에 대한 것이다.

The Code of Medical Eth- ics from the American Medical Association and the Charter on Medical Professionalism12 serve to advance these principles and expectations.



경험 제공

Providing Experiences


1970년대 후반까지만 해도, 윤리/프로페셔널리즘/인문학의 공식적 교육은 의과대학의 교육과정이 아니었다. 이후로 교육자들은 혁신적 교육과정 경험을 개발하였고, 이를 통해 학생들이 프로페셔널리즘에 대한 이슈에 노출되고, 윤리적 원칙에 대한 지식을 쌓고, 도덕적 추론 기술을 익히고, 인간적 태도를 개발하게끔 했다

Until the late 1970s, the formal teaching of eth- ics, professionalism, and humanism was not part of the medical school curriculum.13 Since then, educators have developed innovative curricular experiences to expose students to issues of pro- fessionalism and promote knowledge of ethical principles,14 skills of moral reasoning,15 and the development of humanistic attitudes.


  • problem-based learning
  • formal ethics course.14 
  • doctor–patient relationship17
  • experience in underserved communities and international settings 

이러한 접근법의 안면타당도는 높지만, 이러한 요소를 교육과정에 추가한 것의 효과성은 아직 공식적으로 검증되지 않았다.
Although the face validity of such approaches is high, the effectiveness of these additions to the curriculum has not been formally tested.


이러한 공식 교육과정의 요소보다 더 중요한 것은 비공식적 경험이다.

Potentially more important than these formal elements of the curriculum are the informal ex- periences


초등학교 교육에 대한 연구는 이러한 유형의 경험을 "잠재 교육과정"이라고 처음 명명하였다.

A study of primary-school education was the first to label this sort of experience as part of the “hidden curriculum” —

“the curriculum of rules, regulations and routines, of things teachers and students must learn if they are to make their way with minimum pain in the social institution called the school.”20


교수들은 스스로를 학생들의 롤 모델로 인식하며, 이것이 프로페셔널리즘을 가르치는 주된 수단이라고 주장한다. 그러나 롤모델은 "어떤 여행을 수행함에 있어서, 다른 사람의 모델로서 받아들여지는 사람"이다. 롤모델은 그것을 받아들이는 사람의 관점, 즉 교사가 아니라 학생에 달린 것이다"멘토로서 인식되어지는 개인들은 아마 그들 스스로는 프로페셔널의 가치를 가르치고 있음을 느끼지 못할 수도 있다. 반대로 멘토라고 인정받지 못하는 사람들은 자신들이 그러한 가치를 가르치고 있다고 믿는다"

Faculty often per- ceive themselves as role models for students and claim that this is one of the primary means through which they teach professionalism. But a role model is “someone who, in the performance of a role, is taken as a model by others.”23 Role modeling is in the eye of the beholder — the stu- dent, not the teacher. “Individuals who are seen as mentors may not realize that they are teach- ing professional values, and those not seen as mentors may believe that they are.”24


롤모델이 프로페셔널리즘 교육이 되려면 반드시 reflection on action과 합해져야 한다. 주치의는 단순히 그/그녀가 환자에게 옳은 약을 처방한다면 별 토론 없이 학생들을 남겨놓고 떠나더라도 그것을 학생들이 보고 잘 배울 것이라는 건방진 생각을 해서는 안된다.

Role modeling must be combined with reflection on the action27,28 to truly teach professionalism. Attending physicians are not presumptuous enough to believe that if they simply prescribe the correct medication to a patient and leave the room without discussion that the students who are observing will learn to treat the disease.


우화parable은 문화를 전수하는 강력한 수단이다. 전문직으로서 행동의 규범은 의미가 담인 스토리를 통해 아래 세대로 전수된다.

Parables are a powerful means of transmission of cultural values; the norms of professional be- havior have been handed down through genera- tions of doctors using stories with meaning.29-31


의학에서 우화는 종종 "이런 대단한 일이 있었지" 혹은 "내가 인턴일 때는 말이야" 등으로 시작한다. 뒤이어 '의사가 된다는 것은 무엇을 의미하는가'에 관한 도덕moral이 가미된 흥미로운 사례가 따라온다. (William Carlos Wil- liams, Jerome Groopman, Atul Gawande)

In medicine, parables often start with “I had this great case” or “When I was an intern.”32 What ensues is a story about a fascinating medical case with a moral about what it means to be a doctor. The published writings of William Carlos Wil- liams, Jerome Groopman, Atul Gawande, and oth- ers take this process to its highest form.


헬스케어 환경도 프로페셔널 가치에 스며들어 영향을 미친다.

The health care environment itself can also have a pervasive effect on professional values.


마우스 클릭 몇 번으로 모든 사람의 건강관련정보를 알 수 있다는 기밀에 대한 우려가 잇으나, 이러한 환경은 교육에 미치는 영향이 더 크다. 환자의 수가 과도하고, 의료진대 환자 비율이 낮은 것은 레지던트 사이에 "환자를 치워버리는 것"이 그들의 임무라는 생각을 갖게 한다. 최근의 레지던트 근무시간 규제는 긍정적/부정적 영향이 모두 있다. 예컨대, 스스로를 더 잘 돌볼 시간을 주었지만, 환자와의 신뢰관계를 발전시키는데는 제약이 된다.

Although there is ample reason for concern about confidentiality in a world where almost anyone’s personal health information is only a few mouse-clicks away,34 the environment itself actually does much of the teaching. An envi- ronment with high patient volumes and low staff- to-patient ratios has been shown to foster an at- titude among residents that their job is to “get rid of patients.”35 Recent changes in residents’ duty hours may have both positive and negative con- sequences for professional behavior.36 For exam- ple, limiting duty hours may give residents time to take better care of themselves but may also limit the development of a trusting relationship with patients.



성과 평가

Evaluating Outcomes


기대를 명확하게 하고, 최선의 경험을 제공해도 프로페셔널 발전을 장담할 수 없다. 교사들은 반드시 학생들이 가르친 내용을 제대로 학습하였는지, 그리고 중요한 것을 학습할 동기부여가 되엇는지 평가해야 한다.

Even the clearest of expectations and the best of experiences will not guarantee professional de- velopment. Teachers must evaluate students both to determine whether the lessons were learned and to motivate students to learn what is impor- tant.


그러나 프로페셔널리즘을 측정하기 위한 충분히 엄중한 평가법이 부족하다면 학생과 레지던트는 스스로의 전문직으로서의 행실을 구성하는 것에 대한 스스로의 도덕적 잣대를 상담할 곳이 없게 된다.

However, the absence of equally stringent methods for measur- ing professionalism leaves students and residents to consult their own moral compasses about what constitutes professional behavior.37


프로페셔널리즘 평가는 더 이상 주관적인 것이 아니다.

Measures of professionalism are no longer subjective



프로페셔널리즘 가르치기

Teaching Professionalism


비록 우리가 학생들이 환자와 온 종일 시간을 보내고 병력청취와 신체검진을 하기를 바라지만, 바쁜 의사들은 그러한 사치를 누리지 못한다. 우리가 가르치는 것과 학생들이 실제 현장에서 보는 것 사이의 갈등이 내재되어 있다면 프로페셔널리즘이 발달하지 않을 것이다. 적어도, 그러한 갈등이 있을 경우 학생들에게 설명되어야 한다. 이상적인 프로페셔널리즘을 가르치기 위한 노력은 잠재 교육과정의 강력한 메시지에 의해서 아주 쉽게 전복될 수 있다.

Although we allow students to spend a full hour with a patient to take a history and perform a physical examina- tion, busy physicians do not have that luxury. In- herent conflicts between what we teach and what students see in real-life settings will not promote professionalism.22,51 At a minimum, such conflicts must be explained to students. Efforts to teach the ideals of professionalism can be easily over- whelmed by the powerful messages in the hid- den curriculum.7,52


전문직으로서의 발달과정은 복잡하고, 개개인의 교사가 문제를 인식하고 적절히 대응하는 것은 매우 부담스러운 과제이다.

Profes- sional development is complex1,2; it is a daunt- ing challenge for individual teachers to both rec- ognize the problem53 and respond effectively.54


해답은 교사로서 우리 자신의 스킬을 개발하는 것 뿐만 아니라, 우리가 가르치는 환경 자체를 개선하는 것에 있다. 학생들은 프로페셔널리즘이 그들이 근무하고 배우는 시스템 전체에 결쳐서 이뤄지고 있는 것을 봐야 한다. 우리의 academic medical center에서 이것은 의과대학 뿐 아니라 모든 system of care에 있어서 일관되고 명확한 프로페셔널을 제시하는 것을 뜻한다. 이러한 과제는 다기관에 걸쳐서 프로페셔널리즘 자세를 도입하고자 할 경우에 더 어려운 문제가 된다.

The solutions rest not only with developing our skills as teachers25-28 but also with improv- ing the environment in which we teach.55 Students need to see that professionalism is articulated throughout the system in which they work and learn. In our academic medical centers, this means providing an environment that is consistently and clearly professional not only in medical school but throughout the entire system of care. The chal- lenge becomes even more daunting when the goal is to institute an attitude of professionalism in multiple organizations.56



우리가 학생에게 더 큰 프로페셔널리즘을 기대할수록 우리는 교사들과 조직의 리더들에게도 같은 것을 기대해야 한다. 그렇지 않다면 솔직하지 못한 것이다.

As we expect greater professionalism from our students, we need to expect the same from teachers and organizational leaders. Anything else is disingenuous.



의료전문직 조직은 전문직으로서 우리의 정체성을 옹호해야 하며, 의사가 합당하게 자신의 이익-추구가 가능함을 인정함과 동시에 환자의 이익을 자신의 이익보다 우선해야 한다. 우리의 전문직은 비지니스가 아니며, 환자를 “managed care lives” or “consumers.”로 재정의하는 것에 저항해야 한다.

Professional organizations must advocate for our identity as a profession that celebrates the primacy of patients’ interests over self-interest12,59 while acknowledging that physicians do have legitimate self-interests. Our profession is not a business, and we must resist redefining our pa- tients as “managed care lives” or “consumers.”


AAMC의 명예대표인 Jordan J. Cohen는 이렇게 말했다.

Jordan J. Cohen, president emeritus of the Association of American Medical Colleges, writes,

 

“Failing to deliver on these expectations . . . fall- ing short on the responsibilities of profession- alism, will surely result in a withdrawal of the tremendous advantages that now accompany our profession’s status.”60



12. Medical Professionalism Project. Medi- cal professionalism in the new millenni- um: a physician charter. Ann Intern Med 2002;136:243-6.










 2006 Oct 26;355(17):1794-9.

The developing physician--becoming a professional.

Author information

  • 1Department of Internal Medicine, University of Michigan Medical School and the Veterans Affairs Ann Arbor Healthcare System, Ann Arbor 48109, USA. dstern@umich.edu

Comment in


미래의 보건의료 리더 선발을 위한 MMI의 신뢰도 향상 (Acad Med, 2011)

Enhancing the Reliability of the Multiple Mini-Interview for Selecting Prospective Health Care Leaders

Sebastian Uijtdehaage, PhD, Lawrence “Hy” Doyle, EdD, and Neil Parker, MD





미국에서 효과적이고 접근가능한 의료 제공과 관련한 현재의 위기는 미국 의과대학 학부 프로그램에 듀얼-학위 리더십 프로그램을 낳았다. Program in Medical Education (PRIME), David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, UCLA-PRIME

The current crisis in providing effective and accessible health care in the United States has spawned a number of dual- degree leadership programs for medical undergraduates.1

  • In 2005, the University of California (UC) initiated an ambitious initiative, the Program in Medical Education (PRIME), to increase enrollment in its medical schools in order to address the needs of California’s disadvantaged populations.2,3
  • In 2007, at the David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, UCLA-PRIME was developed as a five-year dual-degree program focused on the development of leadership skills in 18 medical students per year whose career goals would be to improve health care for the disadvantaged and medically underserved.


미래의 의사를 선발하는 것은 종종 몇 가지 이유로 실패하곤 한다.

The selection of future physicians, however, often fails on several accounts.4

  • GPA나 MCAT같은 인지적 성취기록이 비인지적 특성을 무시하게끔 한다.
    First, the cognitive record of the applicant, that is, grade point average (GPA) and Medical College Admission Test (MCAT) scores, commonly overrides any consideration of noncognitive attributes in decisions to admit.5
  • 지원자들로부터 확인하고자 하는 비인지적 특징들이 불명확하고, Implicit하고 합의되지 않았다.
    Second, the noncognitive qualities sought in applicants are unclear, remain implicit, and are not necessarily agreed on by stakeholders.
  • 합의되고 명확한 경우에도 신뢰도와 타당도를 갖춘 평가법이 적다
    Third, even if a set of desirable noncognitive qualities for candidates is clear and agreed on, reliable and valid assessment methods are scarce. This is particularly true for characteristics such as altruism, empathy, and leadership.
  • 전체 입학 프로세스가 투명하거나 uniformly 적용되는 경우가 적다.
    Furthermore, the entire admissions process is rarely transparent or uniformly applied.


불행하게도, 입학 면접은 맥락-특이적이다. 지원자의 응답이 면접관, 질문, 그 외 요인 등에 따라 달라질 수 있다는 것이다. Kreiter 등은 입학면접의 variance component에 대해서 지원자들로부터 기인하는 변인성분이 지원자-상황 상호작용 성분보다 작다고 보고했다. 이런 유사한 결과가 전통적 면접의 신뢰도가 부적절하며, 따라서 타당도도 의문을 가지게 됨을 시사한다.

Unfortunately, admissions interviews are, like many other assessments, prone to “context specificity.”7 That is, the performance of an applicant during the interview may depend to an important extent on the particular interviewer, the specific questions asked, or other factors irrelevant to the applicant’s suitability. Indeed, Kreiter and colleagues8 studied the variance components of admissions interview scores and found that the variance component attributable to applicants was smaller than variance component attributable to the applicant- by-occasion interaction. These and similar findings imply that traditional interviews may have inadequate reliability and, thus, questionable validity.


Eva 등이 최초로 연구한 MMI는 학부졸업생을 대상으로, 의과대학 지원자들이라는 상대적으로 이질적진 집단에서 연구되었다. 이는 신뢰도 결과를 부풀리는 결과를 가져왔을 수 있다. Eva 등이 이후 연구에서 밝힌 바와 같이 "어떤 평가의 신뢰도와 타당도는 그 전략이 적용되는 맥락이나 평가의 내용에 따라 달라진다"라고 하였고, 다른 말로는 MMI의 우수한 psychometric properties는 더 균질한 집단에서는 보장되지 않을 수 있는 것이다.

The initial MMI study by Eva and colleagues12 was conducted on graduate students, a relatively heterogeneous group compared with a pool of medical school applicants. This may have inflated their reliability results. As Eva and colleagues22 put forth in a subsequent article, “the reliability and validity of any assessment strategy is dependent on the context in which the strategy is applied and the content of the assessment.” In other words, the promising psychometric properties of the MMI may not necessarily hold up for a more homogenous pool of applicants who have been selected for consideration on the basis of a more specific set of attributes.



방법

Method


우리는 우선 델파이 접근을 통해서 리더십과 취약계층에 대한 헌신에 초점을 둔 UCLA-PRIME 지원자가 갖추어야 할 바람직한 특성의 인벤토리를 만들었다. 

First, we generated an inventory of the desirable characteristics of UCLA-PRIME candidates with a focus on leadership and commitment to disadvantaged populations using a Delphi approach among stakeholders (program administrators, deans, faculty members, and community leaders). We described the details of the Delphi study elsewhere.23 Characteristics that were deemed essential for the PRIME program included

  • 헌신 commitment to and experience with underserved populations,
  • 문화적 민감성 cultural sensitivity,
  • 리더십 잠재력 leadership potential,
  • 성숙 maturity, and
  • 효과적인 팀 구성원 되기 being an effective team member.


연구 1

Study 1 (2009)



In 2009, we created a panel of 28 interviewers consisting of 18 faculty members, 6 medical students, and 4 community members.


  • On the day of the MMI, we handed out the scenarios and a list of applicants to the interviewers.
  • The interviewers practiced the scenarios with each other before the applicants arrived.
  • We instructed the interviewers to rate the overall performance of the applicant using a seven-point Likert scale (1 unsatisfactory; 7 outstanding).
  • Specifically, we asked themto “consider the applicant’s communication skills, strength of the argument, and suitability for the medical profession.
  • We strongly encouraged the interviewers to use the full rating scale, recognizing that interviewees had been selected from a very large pool of applicants and exceeded all other admissions requirements. Interviewers scored the applicants immediately after each interview.
  • They could adjust their scoring after they completed interviewing the entire cohort.
  • A total score was calculated for each applicant by summing the scores for individual stations. Thus, total scores could range from12 through 84.




연구 2

Study 2 (2010)

 

몇 가지 변화

  • 장소 변화 First, we moved the MMI venue to our education building and used adjacent rooms typically used for small-group teaching of medical students. The applicants could familiarize themselves with the layout of the facility before commencing the MMI. 
  • 쉬운 문항을 어려운 문항으로 Second, we replaced an easy station (Station 9, “How did you prepare for this interview?”) with a perhaps more challenging task in which applicants were asked to describe student characteristics desirable for the PRIME program. Difficulty level was not assessed formally but was suggested by the fact that interviewers had difficulty differentiating performance of the applicants in the original station. The remaining 11 stations were the same as in 2009. 
  • Normative scoring rubric으로 Third, we asked the interviewers to rate the performance of an applicant relative to the pool of all applicants. Accordingly, we changed the seven-point Likert-scale anchors to a normative scoring rubric (1 bottom15%; 4 middle 50%; 7 top 15%). 
  • 워딩 수정 Finally, we changed the wording of two stations that previously led to confusion among some applicants. In 2009, one station asked the applicants to discuss “surgeons’ mortality rates.” A few applicants proceeded to discuss the mortality rate of surgeons and not their patients. In 2010, we changed the prompt to “surgeons’ patient mortality rates.” In another station, we replaced the term “SARS epidemic” with the more recent “H1N1 epidemic” but left the crux of the station the same.





결과

Results


연구 1

Study 1 (2009)


분포가 최대치 점수쪽으로 치우쳐져 있음

The distribution of the total MMI scores, however, was skewed toward the maximum score, suggesting that interviewers had difficulty using the lower range of the rating rubric (Figure 1).

 

 


 

연구 2

Study 2 (2010)

 

 





 


고찰

Discussion


MMI가 균일한 지원자 집단에 대해서도 효과적으로 사용가능하다.

Our study showed that the MMI can be effectively used to assess a homogeneous group of applicants and that its reliability can be enhanced with minor changes in protocol.


처음 2009년에 도입된 MMI의 신뢰도는 0.58이었고 다른 연구의 보고된 결과보다 낮았다. 1차와 2차 지원 정보를 통해서 취약계층에 대한 강한 헌신을 보이는 학생을 일차적으로 스크리닝했기에 상대적으로 균일한 지원자 집단이었다. 이러한 균일성과 작은 표본크기가 variability를 작게 만들었을 수 있다.

Reliability of the first MMI implementation in 2009 was 0.58—lower than reported elsewhere. Our interviewees were a relatively homogenous group of applicants because initial screening considered primary and secondary application information that demonstrated a strong commitment to disadvantaged populations. This homogeneity and the smaller sample size may have resulted in comparatively less variability among the interviewees and could have suppressed the reliability of the overall MMI assessment as estimated by the generalizability coefficient.


2010년에는 몇 가지 변화를 가져왔고 이것들이 신뢰도에 기여한 것으로 보인다. 하나는 쉬운 스테이션을 어렵게 바꾼 것인데, 지원자 간 구분discrimination을 촉진하기 위해서는 적절한 수준의 난이도를 유지해야 한다. IRT에서는 중간 난이도가 가장 변별력이 있다고 제안한다.

We made a few changes in the 2010 implementation of the MMI process that, all taken together, seemed to have contributed to a substantial improvement of the reliability. One such change was the replacement of a seemingly “easy” station (determined at face value) with a more challenging one. To facilitate discrimination between applicants, the stations must have an optimal level of difficulty. Item response theory suggests that items of median difficulty best discriminate between groups with either high or low magnitude of a latent trait.28


실제로, 우리의 결과를 보면 쉬운 스테이션은 단순히 '시그널에 노이즈만 더한' 결과를 가져왔다. 우리가 쉬운 스테이션을 제외하고 신뢰도를 분석하면 신뢰도가 상승하였고, 이는 한 평가 포인트를 제외했을 때 신뢰도가 감소할 것이라는 일반적 기대와 다른 결과이다.

And, indeed, our analysis showed that an easy station simply “added noise to the signal.” When we recalculated the reliability excluding Station 9, the reliability improved; it did not decrease, as one would expect when taking away one assessment point.


2010년 연구에서 평가자들은 채점 anchor를 하위 15%, 하위 30%, 중위 50% 등으로 바꿨을 때 더 전체 평가 스케일을 사용할 수 있었던 것으로 드러난다. 이러한 채점방법을 통해서 우리는 지원자들의 순위를 매길 것을 권장한 것이다. 면접관들은 13명의 지원자를 본 이후에 점수를 보정할 수 있게 하였으며 2009년에도 이는 동일하였다.

In our 2010 study, the interviewers seemed better able to use the full range of the rating scale after we changed its anchors to “bottom15%,” “bottom30%,” “middle 50%,” etc., and asked interviewers to rate an applicant’s performance relative to the pool of all applicants. Thus, we encouraged rank- ordering of candidates with a more normative approach of scoring. Interviewers could adjust their scoring after having seen a cohort of 13 applicants (and this was allowed in the 2009 study as well).



MMI를 도입하는 것은 가능하긴 하지만, 여전히 부담스러운 일이다.

We found that implementing MMIs was feasible but a daunting task nonetheless.


 

인적자원이 많이 들어간다. 준비할 것이 많다(securing space, identifying appropriate interview questions, interviewer training, etc.). 그러나 이러한 비용은 각 평가자가 지원자 풀을 평가하는데 들어가는 시간이 덜 들어가는 것으로 보상된다. 면접관이 보고서를 작성거나 위원회 회의에 들어가는 시간 등을 고려하면 시간의 절감 효과는 더 크다.

Clearly, the MMI requires extensive human resources. In a recent cost- efficiency analysis, Rosenfeld et al29 found that MMI requires more upfront preparation (securing space, identifying appropriate interview questions, interviewer training, etc.) compared with the traditional interview process. This cost, however, was offset by considerably fewer hours required of each person to assess a pool of applicants. We would note that the time saving is even more considerable if the time spent by interviewers in writing reports and attending committee meetings in which applicants are discussed is taken into account. 



한계점. Validity를 평가하지 않았음.

Our study has several limitations. First, we did not assess the validity of the MMI process even though one could argue that blueprinting the MMI stations based on our Delphi study provided an acceptable level of content validity.


이 영역의 연구는 널리 사용되나 여전히 잘 정의되지 않는 용어인 '비인지적 특성'이라는 용어로 인해서 제약을 받는다. Norman이 지적한 바와 같이 'noncognitive skills'라는 용어는 MCAT점수나 GAP점수가 반영하지 않는 특성을 의미하며, 여기에는 tacit knowledge, communication skills, emotional intelligence, and stable personality traits 등이 포함된다. 입학위원회는 의사로서의 진로와 의료행위, 그리고 기관의 철학과 목적에 맞춰 이러한 특성이 무엇인지 명확히 정의해야 할 것이다.

Research in this area is hampered by the ubiquitous but ill-defined term “noncognitive characteristics.” As Norman32 pointed out, the umbrella term“noncognitive skills” is used to describe those characteristics that MCAT score or GPA do not reflect, such as tacit knowledge, communication skills, emotional intelligence, and stable personality traits. We feel that admissions committees must explicitly define those qualities they deem essential for a successful medical school career and subsequent practice and that are in concordance with the institution’s philosophy and goals.




 




 

 



1 Crites GE, Ebert JR, Schuster RJ. Beyond the dual degree: Development of a five-year programin leadership for medical undergraduates. Acad Med. 2008;83:52–58. http://journals.lww.com/academicmedicine/ Fulltext/2008/01000/Beyond_the_Dual_ Degree__Development_of_a_Five_Year.8. aspx. Accessed April 28, 2011.



26 Crossley J, Russell J, Jolly B, et al. ‘I’mpickin’ up good regressions’: The governance of generalisability analyses. Med Educ. 2007;41: 926–934.



34 Ko M, Edelstein RA, Heslin KC, et al. Impact of the University of California, Los Angeles/ Charles R. Drew University Medical Education Programon medical students’ intentions to practice in underserved areas. Acad Med. 2005;80:803–808. http://journals. lww.com/academicmedicine/Fulltext/2005/ 09000/Impact_of_the_University_of_ California,_Los.4.aspx. Accessed April 28, 2011.








 2011 Aug;86(8):1032-9. doi: 10.1097/ACM.0b013e3182223ab7.

Enhancing the reliability of the multiple mini-interview for selecting prospective health care leaders.

Author information

  • 1Center for Educational Development and Research, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, USA. bas@mednet.ucla.edu

Abstract

PURPOSE:

The David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA Program in Medical Education (UCLA-PRIME) used a 12-station multiple mini-interview(MMI) circuit to assess applicants. The authors sought to determine the reliability of the MMI, potential bias in scores, and the degree of acceptance by interviewers and applicants.

METHOD:

In 2009, 28 interviewers interviewed a cohort of 76 applicants. An anonymous survey assessed interviewers' and applicants' satisfaction with the MMI process and perceived bias. Psychometric properties were determined with generalizability and decision theory. The process was repeated the following year with a new cohort of 78 applicants and minor modifications aimed at improving reliability.

RESULTS:

The MMI format was well received by both applicants and interviewers. No bias based on gender or disadvantaged status was found. The preliminary reliability of the MMI in 2009 was 0.58-lower than reported in previous studies-but improved in 2010 to 0.71 after an easy station was replaced with a more challenging one and a new scoring rubric was introduced.

CONCLUSIONS:

This interview technique proved to be reliable and was seen as transparent, uniform, and fair. The predictive validity of this process remains to be determined.

PMID:
 
21694560
 
[PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]


의과대학 입학도구에 지역사회, 교수, 학생의 가치 반영하기 (Teach Learn Med. 2005)

Reflecting the Relative Values of Community, Faculty, and Students in the Admissions Tools of Medical School

Harold I. Reiter Kevin W. Eva 

McMaster University Department of Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics Hamilton, Ontario, Canada






두 번째 천년을 마무리지으며, 미국과 캐나다에서는 의사에게 요구되는 특질attribute을 정의했을 뿐 아니라, 이 특질들을 postgraduate와 practice 수준까지 강화하기 위한 교육과정과 평가 프로세스를 강화하였다. ACGME의 six competencies, 캐나다의 “Educating Future Physicians of Ontario,” , Core Committee of the Institute for International Medical Education 의 일곱개 역량 영역.

In the concluding years of the second millennium, efforts were under way in both the United States and Canada not only to define the attributes desirable in our physicians but also to foster curricular and evaluative processes to enhance those attributes at the postgradu- ate and practice levels.

  • In the United States, efforts by the American Board of Medical Specialties and by the Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Educa- tion produced a document describing the six compe- tencies expected of physicians.1
  • A parallel movement in Canada, arising from the project “Educating Future Physicians of Ontario,”2 led to the creation of CanMEDS 2000 and its seven roles of the physician.3
  • From a global perspective, the Core Committee of the Institute for International Medical Education has grouped the essentials that physicians must have under seven competence domains.4


인지적 역량과 대비되는 개인 역량, 개인 인성에 대한 강조는 우연의 일치가 아니다. 전통적으로 인지적 능력을 평가하기 위한 도구들은 비교적 성공적이었지만, 인성 역량을 평가하기 위한 도구는 아주 드문 예외를 제외하고는 신뢰도와 타당도가 떨어진다.

The emphasis on personal, as opposed to cognitive, qualities in that reviewis no accident. As clearly dem- onstrated in an earlier, separate literature review6 of ad- missions tools to health professional schools, tradi- tional tools for the evaluation of cognitive qualities have largely succeeded, although those evaluating per- sonal qualities, with rare exception, have failed to dem- onstrate reliability and validity.


MMI는 이러한 측면에서 상당한 진전이었다.

A significant step in the development of those tools was taken with the advent of the Multiple Mini-Interview (MMI).7


방법

Methods


학부 입학시에 중요한(관련된) 일곱 개의 인적 특성에 대한 리스트를 만들었다. 이 정의는 comprehensive하지는 않지만, 가이드로 사용될 수 있을 것이다.

Adapting the roles, competencies, and competence domains outlined in Table 1 in conjunction with the lit- erature on admissions and local discussion, we created a list of seven personal characteristics that could be conceived to be relevant in an undergraduate admis- sions context. These characteristics, along with the definitions provided to participants, are illustrated in Table 2. Participants were told that these definitions were not comprehensive but that they should serve as a guide.


paired comparison approach에 따라서, 7개를 서로 비교하는 21개 문항을 만들었다. 아래와 같은 instruction

Following the paired comparison approach,12 a questionnaire was created by listing all pairs of these 7 characteristics (e.g., collaborative versus ethical) and randomizing the order in which the items were presented. Participants were given the following instruction.


더 중요하다고 생각하는 것을 선택해주세요

For each pair of characteristics outlined below, please circle the characteristic that you consider more important in determining who should be admitted to the Undergraduate MD Program at McMaster University. You must choose one characteristic from each pair, or your responses will not be analyzed. Definitions for each char- acteristic are provided on the preceding page.


약 10분정도 소요. z score 계산.

Participants responded to 21 pairings; the task re- quired approximately 10 min to complete. From these data, the probability of each item being selected was determined and converted to z scores to determine the relative importance of each of the seven characteris- tics on an interval level scale.

  • Negative z scores do not indicate that the characteristic is viewed as in- unimportant—undoubtedly each of the items cluded are valued to some extent.
  • Rather, negative z scores simply indicate that the characteristic is less important relative to the other options provided.
  • For example, imagine only two items, A and B, were in- cluded in the study, both of which are considered im- portant characteristics. If item A was selected as more important than item B 60% of the time, the probability of selecting item A (0.6) would convert to a z score of 0.26 for item A and the probability of se- lecting item B (0.4) would convert to a z score of –0.26 for item B (see Streiner & Norman13 for an ac- cessible description of the analyses).





Results


그룹을 어떤 식으로 구분하든 z score 결과는 매우 유사했다.

The resultant z score comparisons were remarkably uniform regardless of whether the group under consid- eration was from community, faculty, or the student body. Similarly, homogeneity was observed on com- paring those with more or less intimate administrative level of involvement.

 


 

Discussion



입학 단계에서 실수가 있을 경우 그 결과는 드라마틱하다. 사회적으로 촉발될 수 있는 잠재적 피해 뿐 아니라, 학부의학교육에 들어가는 학생당 비용은 9만달러에 달한다. 균질하게 성공적인 의사결정에 대한 합당한 사회적 기대와 높은 교육 비용을 고려하면 입학과 선발의 판단에서 생겨난 오류를 교정하기 위해 추가적으로 시간, 재정, 노력을 들이는 것은 용납할 수 없다.

The cost of a mis- step in admissions is dramatic. Aside from the poten- tial damage unleashed on society, the financial cost of undergraduate medical education approximates $90,000 (US) annually per student.14,15 Given the rea- sonable expectation of uniformly successful decision making and the high cost of education, any further sig- nificant expenditure of time, money, and effort to remediate errors of judgment by the admissions office is unacceptable.



지난 50년동안 지역사회, 교수, 학생 간 관점에 차이가 유의미하게 다를 것이라는 기대가 있었고, 이는 입학위원회의 구성에 엄청난 변화를 가져왔다. 1957년과 1971년 사이에 입학위원회에 학생이 포함되는 비율은 거의 0%에서 56%까지 늘어났다. 이는 1982년에는 74%까지 늘어났다. 지역사회 인사의 비중이 늘어나는 것은 조금 더 느렸지만 확실히 다가오고 있다. 1971년까지는 3%에서만 포함되어 있었으나 1982년에는 27%까지 늘어났다.

Over the last 50 years, the expectation of significant differences in perspective between community, faculty, and students has promulgated a seismic shift in representation on admissions committees. Between 1957 and 1971, the presence of students on admissions committees of schools affiliated with the Association of American Medical Colleges swung sharply upward, from near nonexistence to 56% (41/73) of committees responding to the survey indicating a student presence.16 This presence continued to rise to 74%(64/86) by the time a similar survey was conducted in 1982.17 The rise of community influence was more delayed, but nevertheless forthcoming. Even by the time of the 1971 survey, only 3% (2/73) of committees reported a community stakeholder presence, although this appears to have risen by the 1982 survey (27% of responding committee memberships arose from non medical–nonprofessional backgrounds in that survey).


이러한 변화를 지지해주는 관점의 차이는 덜 명확하다. 특정 영역에 대한 상대적 중요도 순서를 비교한 연구에서 지역사회 인사와 입학위원회 사이에 공통점이 많았다라는 연구도 있다.

The existence of differences in perspective to warrant these shifts is less clear. A comparison of rank order of the relative importance of particular defined domains was conducted between community members versus members of the Admissions Committee of the University of Massachusetts Medical School (UMMS).18 The study reported that the “results of the rank-ordering of criteria indicate commonalities in outlook and approach between the [community member] conferees and the UMMS Admissions Committee despite the fact that the ranking of the characteristics was done independently” (p. 640). The methodology used by UMMS was, in contrast to the paired comparison analysis described here, far more resource intensive and included a much smaller sample size of stakeholders (n = 20).


이 결과를 바탕으로 윤리적의사결정과 의사소통을 강조하는 MMI스테이션을 만들어야 할 것이다.

These results can now be used to guide the develop- ment of admissions protocols, particularly the MMI, ensuring that the stations are designed to preferentially emphasize ethical decision-making and communica- tion skills.

 






 2005 Winter;17(1):4-8.

Reflecting the relative values of communityfaculty, and students in the admissions tools of medical school.

Author information

  • 1McMaster University, Department of Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Hamilton, Ontario L8N 325, Canada.

Abstract

BACKGROUND:

In defining the characteristics of medical students that society and the medical profession find desirable, little effort has been spent assessing the relative value of the dozens of characteristics that have been identified. Furthermore, many institutions go to great lengths to ensure equal representation across stakeholder groups in an effort to maximize the heterogeneity of the pool of students accepted to study medicine; however, the extent to which different stakeholders value different characteristics has yet to be determined.

PURPOSE:

This study was an attempt to assess the relative value of the characteristics of medical students that society and the medicalprofession find desirable.

METHODS:

Using documents created internationally to identify the core competencies of medical personnel, a series of 7 characteristics were generated for inclusion in a study that adopted the paired comparison technique. Of 347 surveyed, 292 respondents indicated the rank ordering they would assign to each characteristic by circling the more important characteristic in all possible pairings.

RESULTS:

Overwhelmingly, "ethical" was deemed to be the most important characteristic on which selection tools should be based. Surprisingly, the pattern of responses was highly consistent regardless of stakeholder group and degree of affiliation with the undergraduate medical program.

CONCLUSIONS:

The generalizable features of this study not only include the empirical findings but also demonstrate useful survey protocol that can be adapted by any admission committee to guide the generation of an institution-specific admissions blueprint. A novel protocol that provides the necessary flexibility is discussed.

PMID:
 
15691807
 
[PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]


의학사의 교육과 멘토링: 오슬러리안 관점(Acad Med, 2013)

Perspective: Teaching and Mentoring the History of Medicine: An Oslerian Perspective

Charles S. Bryan, MD, and Lawrence D. Longo, MD



 


여기서 우리는 의학사 교육을 의-프로페셔널리즘을 발전시키기 위한 한 가지 방법으로서 초점을 맞추고자 한다. 우리가 기본적으로 가지고 있는 관점은, 전문직의 한 사람이라면 - 의료업계의 의사가 아닌 - 자신의 유산을 알고 존경해야 한다는 것이다. professional virtues and values의 한 근원으로서 우리는 Sir William Osler 가 가르치고 멘토 역할을 한 의학의 역사로부터의 교훈을 강조하고자 한다.

In this essay, we focus on the teaching of medical history as one way to foster medical professionalism. Our underlying perspective is that members of a profession, as opposed to practitioners of a trade, should know and honor their heritage. In the discussion that follows, we emphasize one source of professional virtues and values: lessons from the history of medicine as taught and mentored by Sir William Osler (1849–1919).


오늘날 의-프로페셔널리즘을 향상시키는 것은 그 의미가 무엇이든 벅찬 일이다. 우리가 볼 수 있듯 자본주의(with its emphasis on profit)와 정부(with its emphasis on regulation and control)가 추구하는 가치가 프로페셔널리즘(with its emphasis on service to the individual patient and client)의 가치를 손상시키고 있다. 실제로, 어떤 사람들은 프로페셔널리즘을 향상foster하는 것이 그 이유를 상실했다고 말한다. 예를 들어서 '의학을 가르치는 것(“the teaching of medicine” )'이라는 에세이에서 Lancet은 프랑스의 의사학자인 Danielle Gourevitch를 선택했다. Danielle Gourevitch는 "오늘날의 기술중심적technical 그리고 비인간적dehumanized 의학은 전례없는 것이다"라고 말하고, 의과대학생들에게 인문학을 가르치는 것(의사학을 포함하여)은 무의미한 것이며, 왜냐하면 의사의 역할이 곧 헬스케어 기술자health care technician들에 의해서 대체될 것이기 때문이다 라고 하였다. Swick 과 Simpson, 그리고 Krause는 이와 관련하여 '정부와 자본주의가 서구민주주의제국Western democracies을 통틀어서 전문직의 자율성, 가치, 통제를 손상시키고 있다'고 하였다.

Fostering medical professionalism, by whatever means, is a daunting task today. As we see it, the values of capitalism (with its emphasis on profit) and of government (with its emphasis on regulation and control) now undermine the values of professionalism (with its emphasis on service to the individual patient and client). In fact, some imply that fostering professionalism is now a lost cause. For example, for an essay on “the teaching of medicine” to greet the new millennium, The Lancet chose the French medical historian Danielle Gourevitch. Gourevitch1 opined that “today’s technical and dehumanized medicine has no past” and that it is pointless to teach humanities (including, we assume, the history of medicine) to medical students because there will soon be widespread replacement of doctors by health care technicians. Swick and Simpson2 and Krause3 express related views, including the idea that governments and capitalism now undermine professional autonomy, values, and control throughout the Western democracies.


의료전문직이 마주하고 있는 위협에는 다음과 같은 것이 있다.

Current threats to medical profession­ alism include

  • (1)의사의 자율성의 손상  damage to physicians’ autonomy by employment models of practice, by government regulations, and by the stipulations of third ­party payers,
  • (2)지식에 대한 접근이 어렵다는 의사들의 주장의 침식erosion erosion of physicians’ claims to a difficult­ to­ access body of knowledge by the widespread availability of medical information on the Internet,
  • (3)가이드라인이나 표준화된 세트오더로 인한 의사의 개인성individuality의 상실 downplaying of physicians’ individuality by practice guidelines and standardized order sets, and
  • (4)기술 발전이 불확실성을 줄여주는 것으로 인하여 야기된 임상판단의 중요성 저하 declining importance of clinical judgment as technological advances reduce uncertainty.

 

일부 사람들은 이전 세대가 알고 있던 의-프로페셔널리즘이 21세기에도 여전히 가능할지 의문을 제기한다. 의료윤리학자 Albert Jonsen이 말한 바와 같이 "노블리스 오블리제의 윤리는 'noble'의 파워가 공격당할 때 흔들리게 된다"

Some observers question whether medical professionalism as known by previous generations will remain possible as the 21st century unfolds. As the medical ethicist Albert Jonsen4 put it, “the ethic of noblesse oblige falters when the power of the noble is attacked.”


윌리엄 오슬러

Sir William Osler


Gourevitch는 SWO를 "고귀함을 가진 의학 일반의 최후의 사상적 거장master thinkier"라고 불렀다. 오슬러는 그의 세대가 "오래된 인문학과 새로운 과학" 사이에서 나타난 긴장을 조화시킬 수 있게 도와주었다. 의학의 역사에 대한 그의 열정을 폭넓은 청중들에게 전달하였고, 의학교육을 향상시켰고, 특히 bedside teaching을 향상시켰다.

Gourevitch1 called Sir William Osler (1849–1919) “the last maître à penser [master thinker] for a noble­minded general medicine.” Osler helped reconcile for his generation the perceived tension between “the old humanities and the new science,”5 conveyed his enthusiasm for medical history to a wide audience, and enhanced medical education, especially by promoting bedside teaching.6


오슬러는 의과대학생들에게 “start at once a bed­side library and spend the last half hour of the day in communion with the saints of humanity.”  라고 말했다. 오슬러의 이러한 말은 광범위한 인간의 우려에 관한 탁월한 사상가들에게 지속적으로 노출됨으로서 “the silent influence of character on character” 를 촉진하기 위한 것이었다. 또한 오슬러는 학생들에게 다음을 강조했다. "우리의 소명의 꽃인 cultivated general practitioner가 되어라. 이것이 당신네들 대부분의 운명이 되기를!" “develop into that flower of our calling—the cultivated general practitioner. May this be the destiny of a large majority of you!”

Osler7 advised medical students to “start at once a bed­side library and spend the last half hour of the day in communion with the saints of humanity.” He sought to promote “the silent influence of character on character” through exposure to eminent thinkers who have addressed a range of human concerns.8 He encouraged students to “develop into that flower of our calling—the cultivated general practitioner. May this be the destiny of a large majority of you!”9


그러나 오슬러는 의과대학 공식 교육과정에 인문학을 넣기 위한 노력을 기울이지는 않았다. 그는 학생들에게 인문학을 스스로 공부하기를 권했다. 아마도 그는 아브라함 플렉스너가 1910년 그랬던 것처럼, premedical 교육이 인문학에 대한 충분한 노출 기회를 제공했다고 생각했을 것이다. 또한 그는 의사학을 포함시키는 것을 지지하지도 않았다. 비록 오슬러가 성공한 의사-역사학자이지만, 1902년 "지금처럼 교육과정이 과포화된 상태에서는 '의사학'을 강제로 필수 과목에 넣는 것이 바람직해 보이지 않는다"라고 했다.

Yet he made no effort to insert the humanities into the formal medical school curriculum. He encouraged students to study the humanities on their own. He probably presumed, as did Abraham Flexner in 1910,10 that premedical education afforded ample exposure to the humanities. Nor did he advocate inserting the history of medicine; although Osler was an accomplished physician–historian, he asserted in 1902, “In the present crowded state of the curriculum, it does not seem

desirable to add ‘the History of Medicine’ as a compulsory subject.”11




의-프로페셔널리즘 촉진을 위한 의사학 교육

Teaching Medical History to Promote Medical Professionalism


어떻게 프로페셔널리즘이 진화해왔는가

How professionalism is evolving


Hafferty and Castellani의 의-프로페셔널리즘 분류법은 오늘날의 젊은 의사들, 소위 X세대와 Y세대 및 그 이후 세대 의사들이(“Generation X” (born between 1965 and 1979), “Generation Y” (born between 1980 and 1994), and beyond) 의사의 고용모델, 기능적 역할functional roles, 라이프스타일 선택에 있어서 점차 더 다양해질 것이라는 가능성을 고려한 것이다.

A proposed typology of medical professionalism by Hafferty and Castellani13 takes into account the likelihood that medical practice for today’s young physicians—members of so ­called “Generation X” (born between 1965 and 1979), “Generation Y” (born between 1980 and 1994), and beyond—will become increasingly pluralistic as physicians’ employment models, functional roles, and lifestyle choices continue to diversify. The terms employment models, functional roles, and lifestyle choices are our brief way of capturing the following ideas:


  • 많은 의사들은 점차 더 좁은 전공과 세부전공으로 나누어저 발전할 것이다.
    Many physicians will develop increasingly narrow areas of practice as specialties and subspecialties continue to divide. 
  • 많은 의사들은 generalist가 될 것이나, 고용 모델employment model은 무척 다양할 것이다.
    Many physicians will be generalists, but their employment models will vary considerably. 
  • 더 많은 의사들이 교대근무shift worker로 일할 것이나, 일부는 선대의 의사들과 마찬가지로 끝이 없는 헌신open ­ended commitments을 유지할 것이다.
    A growing number of physicians will be shift workers, but others will retain open ­ended commitments similar to those of their predecessors. 
  • 많은, 아마도 대부분의, 의사들은 헬스케어시스템에 고용될 것이지만, 나머지는 저항할 것이다.
    Many, perhaps most, physicians will be employees of health care systems, but others will resist. 
  • 파트타임으로 근무하는 의사들의 숫자가 늘어날 것이다.
    Growing numbers of physicians (especially physician couples with children) will be part­time workers.



프로페셔널리즘의 유형

Types of professionalism


Hafferty and Castellani는 의료-근무의 10가지 핵심 특징을 도출했다. 

Hafferty and Castellani13 identified 10 key aspects of medical work. These are, in alphabetical order,

  • altruism,
  • autonomy,
  • commercialism,
  • interpersonal competence,
  • lifestyle,
  • personal morality,
  • professional dominance,
  • social contract,
  • social justice, and
  • technical competence.

 

이 근무의 여러 특징들을 각각의 클러스터로 나눠보자면 일곱 가지 유형의 프로페셔널리즘으로 구분된다.

Arranging these aspects of work within separate clusters, they identified seven types of professionalism:

  • nostalgic,
  • entrepreneurial,
  • academic,
  • lifestyle,
  • empirical,
  • unreflective, and
  • activist.

 

일부 선행 연구에 따라서 우리는 의사학을 가르치는 것이 이 일곱가지 중 두 가지 타입의 프로페셔널리즘을 향상시키는데 유용할 것으로 제안한다.

Building on some previous work,14,15 we suggest that teaching the history of medicine may be useful for enhancing two of these types:

  • nostalgic professionalism, 전문직의 한 구성원으로서 소속감과 유대감을 강화시키는 것
    which fosters a sense of belonging and solidarity as members of a profession, not a trade, and
  • activist professionalism, 과도한 상업화에 저항하는 사회적 책임을 강화시키는 것
    which fosters civic responsibility and opposes excessive commercialization.

 

 



nostalgic professionalism을 향상시키기 위한 의사학 교육

Teaching medical history to promote nostalgic professionalism


과거 세대는 매력적이지만, 누구도 그 세대로 돌아가고 싶지 않을 것이다. 상류층 의사 한 번 만나기 힘들었던 Victorian England 시대의 노동자들의 가혹한 현실.

Previous eras have their attractions, but nobody would want to return to a previous era for their own health care. Consider, for example, Sir Luke Fildes’ iconic painting, The Doctor (1891), in which a well­dressed physician presides over the death of a young girl in a poor fisherman’s cottage. Who could possibly prefer that caring, attentive physician to the gruffest physician on the planet today who brings ceftriaxone to cure the child’s streptococcal septicemia? Also, those who eulogize Fildes’ painting as depicting the quintessential physician– patient relationship—and certainly there is much to be commended in the physician’s bedside body language— overlook the harsh reality that the working classes in Victorian England seldom enjoyed access to upper­class physicians willing to give so freely of their time.17

 



이러한 우려reservation에도 nostalgic professionalism을 발전시켜야 하는 세 가지 이유가 있다.

Despite these reservations, there are at least three reasons to promote nostalgic professionalism.

 

첫째, 학습자는 단순히 헬스케어 테크니션 이상이 되기 위해서는 전문직의 핵심적 이상향, 원칙, 덕목, 특징을 내면화시킬 필요가 있다.

First, and as emphasized by Hafferty18 in his deconstruction of nostalgia, learners need to internalize certain core ideals, principles, virtues, and character traits that are essential if they are to become more than just health care technicians. Osler19 wrote, for example,


시간은 변하였고, 진료 환경은 빠르게 달라지고 있지만, 우리의 선조들에게 영감을 주었던 그 이상향은 여전히 우리의 것이기도 하다. 늘 오래된 것이지만, 동시에 언제나 신선하고 새로운 것이다

The times have changed, conditions of practice have altered and are altering rapidly, but … we find the ideals which inspired them [our predecessors] are ours to­day—ideals which are ever old, yet always fresh and new.


역사와 전통에 대한 감각은 학생들이 좋은 의사가 되기 위해 필요한 자질을 습득하고 갈고 닦을 수 있게 도와줄 것이다. 오슬러의 말을 빌자면 “that which alone can give permanence to powers— the Grace of Humility.”

A sense of history and tradition may help students acquire and hone qualities essential to being a good doctor including, in Osler’s words, “that which alone can give permanence to powers— the Grace of Humility.” 20


둘째, 역사적으로 훌륭한 롤모델들이 있다.

Second, history serves up useful role models.

Osler, a prolific medical biographer, kept above his mantel portraits of three British physicians: Thomas Linacre (c. 1460–1524), William Harvey (1578–1657), and Thomas Sydenham (1624–1689). These physicians symbolized for Osler the literary, scientific, and clinical dimensions of medicine, respectively. Osler called a fourth British physician, Sir Thomas Browne (1605–1682), his “lifelong mentor” because Browne’s Religio Medici (“the religion of a doctor”) informed Osler’s inner life.21 In a recently published treatise on mentoring in academic medicine, Lawrence G. Smith22 writes about today’s needs for such heroes:


 

영웅이 없었다면, 사람들은 자신이 되고자 하는 누군가가 아니라 현재에 머물러 있었을 것이다. X세대와 Y세대를 연구한 사람들이 아쉬워하는 것은, 이들의 세대에는 영웅이 없다는 것이다. 영웅을 발견하고, 그들의 성취를 기뻐하고, 우리의 학습환경에서 그들의 헌신을 늘 볼 수 있게 만들어주는 것이 의학교육에 있어서 중요한 도전과제이다. 영웅은 개개인이 그렇게 되기 위해서 노력해야 하는 궁극적 이미지를 형성한다.

Without heroes, people often settle for who they are instead of aspiring to who they can become. One of the laments of those studying Generations X and Y is that, as a generation, they lack heroes…. The identification of heroes, the rejoicing in their accomplishments, and the commitment to keep them ever visible in our learning environments are among the great challenges to medical education. Heroes form the ultimate image of who each person must strive to become.


마지막으로, 역사는 지금과 같이 점점 더 전문화되어가는 시대에 의사가 된다는 것의 의미가 무엇인지 깨닫게 해준다.

Finally, history fosters appreciation of what it means to be a doctor first and foremost in an era of spiraling specialization. Osler used history, as Donald G. Bates23 put it,


 

as a source of inspiration, …

존경받고 명예로운 전문직에 대한 감각을 높여주고  to heighten [students’] sense of belonging to a venerable and honorable profession, …

전문직으로서의 단결심을 고취시켜준다 to the promotion of a professional esprit de corps, [to come] together as members of a fraternity.



activist professionalism을 향상시키기 위한 의사학 교육

Teaching medical history to promote activist professionalism


이제는 의료의 불평등이나 환자의 관점을 간과하는 것, 혹은 그것이 존재하지 않는 것을 무시할 수 없게 되었다. 오슬러 시대의 의사는 종종 더 나은 의료접근성을 위한 켐페인을 벌이곤 했다. 비록 그들이 아픈 환자들에게 해줄 수 있는 것이라곤 약간의 약과 약간의 수술과 곁에 있어주는 것 뿐이었지만 말이다.

It is no longer permissible for serious medical historians to ignore the sorry record of health care disparities or to overlook patients’ perspectives on their care or lack thereof. Physicians of Osler’s period seldom campaigned for better access to care. They had little to offer seriously ill patients other than a few drugs, a few operations, and their presence at the bedside. The physiologist Lawrence J. Henderson24 famously remarked:


Somewhere between 1910 and 1912 in this country [the United States], a random patient, with a random disease, consulting a doctor chosen at random had, for the first time in the history of mankind, a better than fifty­fifty chance of profiting from the encounter.


오슬러와 그 이전 세대에 가끔 등장하던 의사-운동가는 노예제에 반대하고, 공공보건을 증진시키고, 여성과 소수인종의 권익 향상을 주장하던 정치적 운동가political activism 로 기억되곤 한다. 오슬러 전기의 어떤 부분도 사회 운동으로서 잘 알려져 있지 않다.

The occasional physician–activists of Osler’s and previous eras are best remembered for political activism in such areas as opposition to slavery, promotion of public health, and the rights of women and racial minorities.25,26 Parenthetically, none of the subjects of Osler’s biographical sketches are well known for social activism.


건강보험과 제3지불인(Third ­party payers and health insurance)은 오슬러 시대에는 존재하지 않던 이슈였다. 그러나 오슬러가 의료의 과도한 상업주의와 기업화에 격렬히 반대했음에도 오늘날에는 매우 중요한 문제가 되었다. 오슬러는 학생에게 다음과 같이 말했다.

Third ­party payers and health insurance were never issues in Osler’s lifetime. Highly relevant today, however, is Osler’s vigorous opposition to excessive commercialism and entrepreneurialism in medicine. He told students,

 

일단 순전한 사업 영역으로 내려가면, 너의 영향력은 사라질 것이고, 당신의 삶을 비춰주는 진정한 빛도 희미해질 것이다.

“Once you get down to a purely business level, your influence is gone and the true light of your life is dimmed.”27

 

Progressive Era (1890~1920)의 많은 사람들이 그랬던 것처럼 오슬러가 지닌 미래에 대한 신념은 과학에 기반을 둔 것이었으며, 특히 의과학에 대한 것이었다. 만약 그가 살아있었다면 비용-효과적인, 근거-기반 의료에 대한 접근성 향상을 주장했을 것이다.

Like many people during the Progressive Era (roughly, between 1890 and 1920), Osler rooted his faith in the future of humankind largely in science, especially medical science, and even gave to this effect a lay sermon, “Man’s Redemption of Man.”28 Were he alive, Osler would almost certainly champion wider access to cost­effective, evidence­based health care.



의사학 교육 방법

Methods for Teaching the History of Medicine


X세대와 Y세대는 의사학과 위인전을 공부하는 것이 순진하고, 그저 과거를 미화하는 것이라 저항할 것이다. 오늘날의 의대생과 젊은 의사들은 왜 이것이 중요한지 알아야 한다. 의사학은, 심지어 nostalgic한 것이라도, 확실한 목적과 목표를 가지고 도입되어야 하나, 단, 흥미와 재미를 느끼게 교육해야 한다.

Members of Generations X and Y are likely to resist, as they should, medical history and biography as naïve, feel­ good nostalgia. Today’s medical students and young physicians desire and deserve to know why this or that subject matters. Medical history, even of the “nostalgic” kind, should be introduced with clear goals and objectives and taught in a relevant yet entertaining way.



공식 교육과정

The formal curriculum


1950년대와 1960년대에는 미국과 캐나다 의과대학에 의사학을 열광적으로 넣었다.

During the 1950s and 1960s, enthusiasm for medical history in the formal curriculum prompted surveys of U.S. and Canadian medical schools.30–33


소수의 의과대학이 의사학을 필수 과목으로 하고 있으나, 새로운 요건requirement를 넣는 것은, 대부분의 학교의 교육과정 위원회에게 잘 받아들여지지 않을 것이다.

A few medical schools have superb required courses in medical history, but proposing a new requirement would, in most schools, probably be a tough sell to the curriculum committees.


우리는 가장 효율적이고 효과적인 방법은 각 교실이 introductory lecture에 넣는 것이라고 제안한다.

We suggest that the most efficient and effective way to jump­ start a new history of medicine program would be to have each department include, during the introductory lectures,



비공식 멘토링

Informal mentoring


오슬러가 JHU에 있는 기간동안, 그는 의사학을 완전히 비공식 멘토링으로만 가르쳤다.

Osler’s 1913 Silliman lectures at Yale University34 remain among the best start­ to ­finish overviews of the evolution of Western medicine up to the turn of the 20th century. However, during his storied career at Johns Hopkins University (1889–1905), Osler taught the history of medicine almost entirely by informal mentoring. During weekly evening sessions with students at his home, he often introduced historical topics and passed around rare medical books from his collection.35 Osler’s protégé and biographer Harvey Cushing36 described


the Oslerian method of slowly but surely arousing an historical appetite by the proper touch in each exercise upon the historical bearings of the subject under discussion, whatever it might be,—an eponymic question asked, the original source­books passed around, a paragraph read, a picture shown or an incident related. In this way, by the process of repeated inoculations, many students who unquestionably would have sidestepped a formal course of lectures became unconsciously impregnated with something much more valuable to them in the long run than the requirement of just a few more facts concerning diagnosis and treatment.



윌리엄 오슬러는 언제나 긍정적이었으며, 이상주의, 연대, 행동주의 라는 이 반드시 필요한 것들desiderata의 정수를 한 문장으로 요약했다.

William Osler,37 ever the optimist, captured in one sentence the essence of these desiderata—idealism, solidarity, and activism—in a 1905 farewell address to the medical profession of the United States:


Linked together by the strong bonds of community of interests, the profession of medicine forms a remarkable world ­unit in the progressive evolution of which there is a fuller hope for humanity than in any other direction.




 


 






 2013 Jan;88(1):97-101. doi: 10.1097/ACM.0b013e31827653f5.

PerspectiveTeaching and mentoring the history of medicine: an Oslerian perspective.

Author information

  • 1University of South Carolina School of Medicine, Columbia, South Carolina, USA. charles.bryan@providencehospitals

Abstract

Many predict a takeover (seen by some as hostile, and by others as inadvertent) of professional virtues and values by government and capitalism. One source of professional virtues and values consists of lessons from the history of medicine as taught and mentored by Sir William Osler. Some medical schools have required courses in medical history, but proposing a new requirement would probably be a tough sell to most curriculum committees. Osler himself argued against compulsory courses in medical history. The authors propose that exposing medical students to the historyof medicine promotes at least two of the seven types of professionalism identified by Hafferty and Castellani. Exposure to the evolution of medical science and to exemplary physicians of bygone eras promotes nostalgic professionalism, which, although in some ways suspect and naïve, fosters a sense of belonging and solidarity as members of a profession, not a trade, whereas exposure to the evolution of medicine as a public service, to the sad history of health care disparities, and to patients' perspectives promotes activist professionalism, fostering a sense of civic responsibility and opposition to excessive commercialism.Steps to promote such exposure include (1) identifying faculty, community physicians, and others interested in the history of medicine, (2) including the history of medicine in faculty development programs, (3) considering a segment in the historyof medicine during the introduction to each major course, (4) sponsoring history clubs, and (5) promoting environments favorable for mentor-protégé relationships for faculty and students with further interest.

PMID:
 
23165269
 
[PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]


같은 것을 다르게 보는 것 - DOPA에서 평가자 간 차이의 기전 (Adv in Health Sci Educ, 2013)

Seeing the same thing differently 

Mechanisms that contribute to assessor differences in directly-observed performance assessments

Peter Yeates • Paul O’Neill • Karen Mann • Kevin Eva







Background


전문역량의 평가를 위해서는 다양한 스킬에 대한 수행능력을 측정한 정보의 표집sampling과 통합이 필요하다. 이러한 프레임워크에서 WBA(또는 수행능력 평가)는 매력적인 도구인데, 왜냐하면 실제 현장에서 수행능력의 표본sample을 제공해주기 때문이며, 다수의 역량을 통합된 형태로 동시적으로 평가할 수 있게 해주고, 피드백의 기회를 주기 때문이다. 이러한 평가의 일반적 유용성에 대한 근거들이 있지만, 이러한 평가로부터 나오는 점수에 내재한 variability는 타당성을 위협하는 문제가 되기도 한다.

The assessment of professional competence requires sampling and integration of measures of performance on multiple diverse skills (Van der Vleuten and Schuwirth 2005). Within this framework, workplace based assessments (or performance assessments) represent an attractive tool as they offer samples of performance from real practice, simultaneously assess multiple competencies in an integrated manner and offer opportunities for feedback (Norcini 2003). Whilst support exists for the general utility of these assessments, vari- ability inherent in the scores that result from them are problematic as it threatens their validity (Hawkins et al. 2010; Pelgrim et al. 2011).


점수의 편차variation이 진점수true score의 차이에서 기인하는 부분도 있지만, 동일한 비디오를 보고 평가하게 하는 방식으로 이러한 차이를 통제한 연구에서도 동일한 수행상황을 보고도 평가자들은 9점 스케일에서 1점에서 6점까지 다양한 점수 분포를 보여주었다.

Whilst score variations may have arisen partly due to true score variability (in that different assessors generally assess different performances) a further study controlled for this by asking assessors to rate common videoed performances. This study showed that assessors’ scores ranged from 1 to 6 on a 9 point scale whilst rating the same performance (Holmboe et al. 2003).


평가자간 신뢰도에 대한 문제 뿐만 아니라, range restriction의 문제도 있으며, 서로 다른 역량 영역에 대한 점수 간 상관관계가 높게 나타나는 문제도 있는데, 특히 후자는 수행의 독립적 측면들을 통해서 다양한 역량을 보여주는 상황에서 더욱 그러하다.

In addition to problems of inter-rater reliability, scores also demon- strate range restriction (Alves de Lima et al. 2007; Wilkinson et al. 2008), and high correlations between scores from different domains of competence, (Cook et al. 2010; Fernando et al. 2008; Margolis et al. 2006), the latter issue being problematic to those who present variable competencies as independent aspects of practice (Lurie et al. 2009).


scale range가 제한되면 평가자간 신뢰도가 높아지기보다는 낮아지게 되고, 이를 극복하기 위해서 behavioral anchor를 추가하기도 했지만 그 향상 정도는 미미했다. Cook et al. 는 평가자 훈련이 평가자간 신뢰도를 향상시킬 수 있는가 보았지만, 유의한 효과는 없었다. 즉 수행능력에 대한 평가 점수는 문제가 있으며, scale format을 바꾸거나 평가자 훈련을 한다고 해도 기대하는 만큼 많은 향상이 이뤄지지는 않는다.

Restricting the scale range has been seen to reduce rather than increase inter-rater reliability (Cook and Beckman 2009), whereas the addition of behavioural anchors has produced small improvements (Donato et al. 2008). Cook et al. (2009) investigated whether rater training could improve inter-rater reliability, but showed no significant effect. Thus, performance assessment scores are problematic, and neither alterations of scale format nor rater training have produced the desired improve- ment in their psychometric properties.


이러한 문제를 재개념화하기 위한 시도로서, Govaerts 등은 수행능력 평가를 고전시험이론의 관점에서 보는 것은 제한된 관점만을 제공한다고 지적했다. 이러한 관점에서는 평가자를 고정적인 실체stable entity에 대한 신뢰할 수 없는 측정결과만 만들어내는 '고장난 도구faulty instrument'로 본다. 그러나 Govaerts는 이러한 관점 대신 수행능력평가를 구성주의적, 사회-심리학적 관점에서 보기를 제안한다. 이러한 관점에서는 사회적, 인지적 요인이 서로 상호작용해서 수행능력을 판단함에 있어 개개인의 특이성idiosyncratic을 만든다는 것이다. 즉, 점수의 차이는 평가자의 인식의 유의한 차이에서 기반한다는 것이다. 어떠한 차이는 이미 잘 알려진 문화적 편향으로 인해 생길 수 있으나, 한편으로 다른 차이는 단순히 개개인의 접근 방식이 독특해서 생기는 것일 수도 있다. 예컨대, 평가자가 어떠한 과제를 이해하거나 판단하는 방식 등이다. 이러한 모델에서 점수의 차이는 '진점수'의 다원성plurality에서 기인하는 것이며, 단일한 '진점수'가 존재하고 이것이 '에러'에 의해서 왜곡되는 것이 아니다.

In attempting to reconceptualise this problem, Govaerts et al. (2007) assert that viewing performance assessments through the lens of classical test theory offers a limited per- spective. This theoretical orientation views the assessor as a ‘‘faulty instrument’’ that produces unreliable measures of a stable entity (hence the classical test theory notion of ‘‘true score’’ and ‘‘error’’) (Streiner and Norman 2008, p 170). Instead, Govaerts et al. propose a theoretical view of performance assessment based on a constructivist, social- psychological perspective. This asserts that social and cognitive factors interact to produce idiosyncratic individual judgements on performance (i.e., variability that can be attributed to meaningful differences in the perceptions of raters). That is, while some variability will arise from the well-documented cultural or other biases that raise concerns about the validity of a rating process, some might arise simply from individual peculiarities in approach—for example comparatively unique ways in which the task is understood or judged, or differences in the specific aspects of practice to which assessors attend. In this model, score variations arise from a plurality of ‘‘true scores’’ rather than from a single ‘‘true score’’ that is distorted by ‘‘error’’.


개개인의 수행능력에 대한 판단을 형성하는데 기여하는 사회적, 심리학적 프로세스는 직업심리학 영역에서 많은 연구가 이뤄져왔으며, 의학교육에서의 평가와의 관련성이 고려된 바 있다. 요약하면, 이 판단 프로세스는 카테고리화작업으로 볼 수 있으며, 개개인을 어떤 카테고리에 배정하는 자동적이면서도 신중한 인지automatic and deliberate cognition의 혼합이며 이 판단의 일부분은 유사성에 기인한다. 평가자는 과거의 사례로부터 형성된 판단-관련 schemata를 가지고 있다. 이 과정에서의 기억의 왜곡, 정보 담색, 잘못된 귀인attribution 프로세스 등이 많은 에러를 설명해줄 수 있다. 판단은 사회적 맥락에서 이뤄지며, 평가자의 성향, 평가의 목적, 평가자와 피평가자의 관계 등 다양한 요소에 의해 영향을 받을 수 있다.

The social and psychological processes that contribute to forming judgements on an individual’s performance have been extensively studied within occupational psychology (De Nisi 1984; Feldman 1981), and their relevance to assessment within medical education has been considered (Govaerts et al. 2007; Gingerich et al. 2011; Williams et al. 2003). In summary, the judgement process can be viewed as a categorisation task that proceeds through a mixture of automatic and deliberate cognition to assign individuals to categories, in part based on similarity. Assessors necessarily possess judgement-related schemata that have arisen through exposure to past exemplars. Various distortions of memory and information search, and faulty attribution processes can account for many errors within these processes. Judgements are conducted within a social context and can be influenced by (amongst other things) the assessor’s disposition, the purpose of the assessment, and the relationship between the trainee and the assessor.


극소수의 연구만이 의학교육에서 평가자가 DOPA(directly-observed performance assessments )에 있어 판단 프로세스를 연구한 바 있다. Govaerts 는 비전문가와 비교할 때, 전문가는 다음이 달랐다.

Very few studies have investigated the processes responsible for assessors’ judgements within directly-observed performance assessments in medical education. Govaerts et al. (2011) showed that, compared to non-experts, expert assessors

  • 문제의 대표적 특징을 더 빠르게 찾아냄 developed problem rep- resentations more quickly,
  • 맥락적 힌트에 더 민감함 were more sensitive to contextual cues and
  • 더 많은 추론을 함 made more infer- ences.

 

따라서 전문가는 비전문가보다 더 디테일한 평가 schemata를 가지고 있다. Kogan 등은 평가자의 서로 다른 개별적 특성(성향/임상 역량/연령/성별)을 포함하고, 수행능력을 dual lenses of inferences about trainees로 바라보고, internal or external frames of reference로 바라보는 모델을 제시했다. 이 모델에서 판단과 이어지는 통합과정은 환경적 요인과 맥락에 의해 영향을 받는다. 따라서 판단은 다양한 인지적, 사회적 요인에 취약하다고 할 수 있다.

Thus experts appear to possess more detailed assessment schemata then non-experts. Kogan et al. (2010, 2011) described a model in which assessors possess differing personal characteristics (disposition/clinical competence/age/gender etc.) and then view perfor- mance through dual lenses of inferences about trainees, and either internal or external frames of reference. In their model the judgement and subsequent synthesis are influenced by environmental factors and context. Thus judgements are susceptible to a range of cognitive and social factors.


방법

Methods


평가 형식

Assessment format


Assessors score 7 domains of the performance (history taking; physical examination; communication skills; critical judgement; professionalism; organisation/efficiency; and overall clinical care) using a 6-point Likert scale anchored at

  • point 4 against the criterion of ‘‘meets expectation for F1 completion’’.
  • Point 3 is ‘‘borderline for F1 completion’’ with the remaining points comprising
  • ‘‘well below’’, ‘‘below’’, ‘‘above’’ and ‘‘well above’’ this criterion, plus ‘‘unable to comment’’.


평가자료 개발

Development of materials


PGY1 의사들에 대해서 우수-보통-나쁨 수준의 비디오 스크립트 개발

We developed scripted videos of performances by foundation (PGY1) doctors at different levels: ‘‘good’’, ‘‘borderline’’ and ‘‘poor’’ performances.

 

다음의 문헌 참조(병력청취, 전문성의 개발)

We used literature

  • on desirable contents of history taking (Kurtz et al. 2003; Martin 2003) and
  • on the development of expertise (Boshuizen and Schmidt 1992; McLaughlin et al. 2007),

저자들의 경험을 이용

along with the authors’ experience of foundation doctors, to write abstract descriptions of expected performance at each level.


 

참가자

Participants


All participants were consultant physicians from the North West of England.


 

절차

Procedure


Participants viewed videos individually on a laptop computer with headphones. They were instructed to imagine that they were on the medical admissions unit and that a Foundation Year 1 doctor had requested a Mini-CEX.


Think aloud 절차

Think aloud process


여기서 활용된 ‘‘Think aloud’’ 프로토콜을 참가자의 의사결정을 가이드하는 실제 사고 과정을 보여주는 것이라고 여겨서는 안된다. 그러나 이것이 유용한 것은 사고과정에 영향을 주는 요인에 대한 개개인의 인식을 탐색하는데 도움이 되며, 이후 검사에 풍부한 insight를 준다.

‘‘Think aloud’’ protocols such as those used here should not be treated as necessarily indicative of the actual thought processes that are guiding participants’ decision-making (Bargh and Chartrand 1999). They are useful, however, for exploring individuals’ per- ceptions of factors that influence their thought processes, which can yield rich insight for further testing (Wilson 1994).

 

유용성을 최대화 하기 위해서 Ericsson and Simon 의 가이드라인 활용. 다음의 것에 중요함.

To maximize the usefulness of the process in our study we followed the guidance provided by Ericsson and Simon (1980) who suggest that it is important to

  • (a) 참가자가 열심히 하는지 확인 ensure that participants are actively engaged in the task in question,
  • (b) 참가자가 생각을 묘사(not 설명)하게 함 ask participants to describe, rather than explain their thoughts, and
  • (c) 생각과 생각이 말로 나오는 시간 간격 줄임 reduce the time between participants’ thoughts and their verbalisation.


구인타당도 분석

Analysis of videos’ construct validity

 


 

질적자료 분석

Analysis of qualitative data


Audio recordings were transcribed verbatim and checked for accuracy. A researcher (PY) labelled sections to indicate whether they were

  • concurrent (spoken whilst watching per- formance) or
  • retrospective (spoken after), or
  • from follow up interviews.


Following repeated reading, PY began analysis by inductively assigning codes. Codes were developed to describe each new aspect relevant to the research question. These were discussed with other researchers (PON, KM) and refined from an initial 67 codes to 21 based on similarity. We grouped these codes as

  • ‘‘trainee focused codes’’—comments on the behaviours of the trainee, and
  • ‘‘assessor focused codes’’—comments that indicated ways in which the assessor was thinking.

 

A second researcher (KM) coded 2 transcripts independently, and comparison was made to develop the interpretation and consistency of codes. Constant comparison was used to compare the use and content of both trainee- focused and assessor-focused codes within each assessor, across the different performance levels, and subsequently between assessors.


As the analysis proceeded, we used memos to capture emergent theoretical ideas from the data that enabled understanding of the research question. These were systematically tested and refined or refuted with existing and subsequent data. We developed axial codes to label further examples of these new theoretical concepts.

 

Data were further examined to determine the inter-relationships between theoretical concepts, and to organise concepts into themes. We discussed and reflexively considered all emerging concepts against the data as analysis progressed. Throughout the process, deviant cases that did not fit were sought and used to challenge and refine the emerging theory. When analysis was com- pleted, only slight deviations from the theory were found. These are highlighted in the results.


We collected and analysed data iteratively as the study progressed. Codes were applied by the same researcher (PY) and theory was progressively developed across iterations. Throughout each iteration, we monitored each area of developing theory, and considered whether the new data extended or changed the conceptual ideas that it expressed. Satu- ration was judged to have occurred when iteration 4 developed the theory very little and iteration 5 did not alter the theory. Coding was done using QSR NVivo 8 software. This was used as part of the audit trail, which also included documentation of all memos, and the iterative development of theory.


Results


평가자 판단의 variability의 원인

Sources of variability in assessors’ judgements


두드러지는 특징에 대한 관점 차이

Differential salience


한 평가자에게 중요하게 다가온 것과 다른 평가자에게 중요하게 다가온 것이 다르다.

We found that what struck one assessor as important about a given performance varied from what struck a different assessor as important about the same performance.


또한 한 평가자가 특정 측면에 대해서는 코멘트가 거의 없었을 경우, 다른 측면에 대해서는 많은 코멘트를 했다. 수행의 다양한 측면마다 대해서 평가자들이 평가하는 정도가 달랐다. 동일한 수행에 대해서도 평가자의 전반적 초점은 평가자마다 비교적 독특했다.

Moreover, when a given assessor commented little on one aspect of a performance, they typically commented more on different aspects. Thus the relative extent to which assessors commented on different aspects of the performances varied. In this way, assessors’ overall focus within each performance seemed compara- tively unique.


종합하면, 같은 수행을 보고 있어도 수행의 퀄리티를 결정할 때 유용하게 사용하는 수행의 측면들이 다양했다. 그러나 이러한 차이가 attentional focus during the observation (i.e., noticing) 의 차이인지 differences in the emphasis assigned to a given aspect of performance (i.e., weighting).의 차이인지는 불분명하다(noticing vs weighting)

In sum, the aspects of the performances that assessors regarded as useful for deter- mining their quality varied, despite viewing the same performances. It is not clear from our data whether there were differences in attentional focus during the observation (i.e., noticing) or differences in the emphasis assigned to a given aspect of performance (i.e., weighting).


같은 수행에 대해서도 어떤 측면에서 보느냐에 따라서 두드러지는 특징의 정도degrees of salience가 다르기 때문에, 평가자들은 본질적으로 (같은 수행을 보아도) 서로 다른 관찰에 기반한 판단을 내린다고 할 수 있다.

By having different aspects of the same performance take on variable degrees of salience, raters were in essence forming judgements based on different observations, thereby representing the first source of vari- ability between assessors that contributes to differences between assessors in the judge- ment process.


 

준거 불확실성

Criterion uncertainty


평가 포멧은 "F1 종료시 기대되는 수준"과 비교하여 판단을 내리게 했다. F1 종료시 기대되는 수준은 평가자가 지금까지 겪어온 PGY1 의사가 누구냐에 따라 경험적으로 만들어진 것이라 할 수 있다.

The assessment format asks assessors to judge performance in comparison to ‘‘meeting expectations for F1 completion’’. These expectations were described as experientially- developed through exposure to post-graduate (foundation) year 1 doctors who were encountered over the course of their careers.


평가자들은 이 '기대치'의 구성요소가 무엇인가를 묘사할 때 서로 달랐다.

Assessors differed in the way they described the constituents of their expectations. Some assessors emphasised

  • 지식 the need for factual coverage;
  • 라뽀 others were more concerned with communication or rapport building;
  • 진단 정확성 diagnostic accuracy; or
  • 독립성 evidence of developing independence.

 

어떤 사람들에게는 내용 그 자체보다 면담의 프로세스가 중요했다.

For some the interview process (rather than factual content) was key to their expectations.

가끔은 어떤 한 가지 특정 측면singular aspect의 유무가 중요했다.

Singular aspects (i.e. the presence or absence of a drug-allergy history) were sometimes pivotal.


평가자간 PGY1 의사에게 전형적으로 기대되는 수행능력에 상당한 차이가 있음을 보여준다.

Further comments indicated considerable variation in assessors’ perceptions of the level at which foundation doctors typically perform.


평가자는 PGY1의 수행능력에 대해서 일반화된 기준general criterion으로 삼는 기대를 가지고 있었다. 그러나 이 기준은 경험적으로 나온 것이며, 서로 다른 방식으로 구성되고, 종종 모호하기도 하다. 아마도 이러한 모호함에 대해서 평가자들은 그들의 기준을 강화할augment할 수 있는 상대적 비교를 할지도 모르지만, had the potential to be situationally influ- enced as assessors’ perceptions of the level at which foundation doctors typically perform also varied. 평가기준의 이해와 활용에 있어서의 개인적 경험에 따른 차이가 두 번째 원인이 된다.

In summary, assessors possessed expectations of foundation doctor performance that served as a general criterion. These were experientially derived, differently constructed, and often ambiguous. Perhaps in response to this ambiguity, assessors also made relative comparisons that augmented their criteria, but had the potential to be situationally influ- enced as assessors’ perceptions of the level at which foundation doctors typically perform also varied. Consequently differences in understanding and use of the assessment’s cri- teria—probably due to differing personal experiences—acted as a second mechanism that contributed to variability in assessors’ scores, introducing relative uniqueness into their judgements.

 


 

정보 통합

Information integration


평가자들은 나름의 서사적 기술 언어narrative description language를 사용하여 판단을 내린다.

Thus it appears that—by and large—assessors judge in their own narrative descriptive language.


대부분의 평가자들은 포괄적 용어global term으로 판단을 묘사했으며, 영역간 구분을 짓는 것이 어렵다는 것을 인식했다.

Most assessors described that their judgements evolved in global terms or that they perceived that the domains were difficult to distinguish between:


그 결과 각 영역에 대해서 점수를 지정하는 것은 두 단계를 필요로 한다.

As a consequence, allocating a score for each domain required two processes:

  • 사서적 기술 언어에서 드러난 평가자의 편단을 scale descriptor로 변환하는 것
    con- version of the assessor’s judgement from their individual narrative description into the scale descriptors and
  • 총괄적 인상을 영역별 점수로 변환하는 것
    conversion into scores for each domain based on a global impression.

 

이러한 과정을 통해서 총괄적 인상global impression이 영역 점수에 영향을 주는 것이며 그 반대가 아니라는 것이 드러난다.

In this way it appears that variability in global impressions influenced variability of per- ceptions of domain scores rather than the reverse.


종합하면, 평가자의 판단이 그 형태를 갖춰갈수록, 수행능력이 competent한 것으로 판정되느냐의 정도는 (평가자간 다양하게 나타나는) 비교적 독특한 서사적 기술로 대표된다. 이는 주로 총괄적 판단에 따라서 형성되는 경향이 있으며, 수행의 개별 측면을 나타내는 scale descriptors 로 변환되어야 한다.

In sum, as assessors’ judgements took shape, the degree to which a performance was judged to be competent was represented by means of individual, comparatively unique narrative descriptions that varied between assessors. These tended to form along with a global overall judgement, both of which had to be converted into scale descriptors for individual aspects of practice. How that conversion took place may have further influenced the variability inherent in the scores.


 

고찰

Discussion


요약과 이론

Summary of findings and theory


 

같은 수행을 보고도 평가자가 집중해서 보는 측면과 서로 다른 측면에 배정되는 가중치는 평가자마다 달랐고 그 다른 정도도 다양했다. 결과적으로, 평가자는 서로 다른 관찰, 상대적으로 독특한 관찰의 조합을 바탕으로 판단을 내린다고 할 수 있다.

Despite viewing the same performances, assessors’ attentional focus and perhaps the weight they assign to different aspects of performance varies such that different aspects of the per- formance become salient to different assessors to different degrees. Consequently, asses- sors appear to rely on different, comparatively unique combinations of observations when formulating judgements.


두번째로, 평가자는 이러한 관찰 결과를 그들이 가지고 있는mentally held (종종 모호하고, 서로 다르게 구성되고, 서로 다른 '전형성typicality'의) 역량 기준과 비교하게 된다. 평가자는 이러한 기준을 형성할 때, 그리고 이 기준을 가지고 판단을 내릴 때, (적어도) 그들이 경험한 피훈련자의 사례를 참고로 하게 된다. 따라서 평가자들의 경험이 독특하기 때문에 평가자에게 다음과 같은 방식으로 다양한 방면으로 영향을 주게 된다multifaceted influence

  • 수행의 어떤 측면facet이 가장 두드러지는가salient 에 대해서 영향을 주고
  • 평가자의 평가기준에 영향을 주고
  • 평가자가 직접적으로 비교할 사례집단을 형성하여 영향을 준다

Secondly, assessors compare these observations against mentally held competence criteria that are often uncertain, are differently constructed, and include different percep- tions of typicality. Assessors’ appear to formulate these criteria and judge against them at least partly through reference to exemplar trainees with whom they have experience. Uniqueness in assessors’ experience is likely, therefore, to have a multifaceted influence by altering assessors’ perception of which facets of the performance are most salient, by influencing the criterion standard held by the assessor, and by creating a group of exem- plars against which assessors directly compare.


마지막으로, 평가자가 판단을 내릴 때 이러한 다양한 프로세스에 의해서 영향을 받기 때문에, 따라서 평가자들은 그러한 판단의 긍정-부정(valence of those judgements)을(혹은 관찰결과와 평가기준 간 차이의 정도를) 개개인별로 특이적으로 생성한 서사적 언어로 표현한다. 이러한 서사적(총괄적) 판단은 평가 스케일로 변환되어 개별 영역의 점수를 생성한다.

Finally, as assessors form judgements that are influenced by these various processes, they describe—and therefore presumably mentally represent—the valence of those judgements (or the judged degree of difference between their observations and their criteria) in individually generated narrative language. These individual narrative (and global) judgements are converted into the assessment scale to produce scores for each individual domain.


마지막으로, 우리가 개개인의 수준에서 판단의 variability에 초점을 맞추었지만, 그 variability가 무한하다고 가정해서는 안된다. Thammasitboon 등은 서로 다른 평가자가 역량에 대한 다양한 개념을 가지고 있지만, 이 개념은 네 개의 역량 구인으로 그룹지어질 수 있음을 밝혔다. 아마도 더 많은 수의 평가자를 대상으로 표본을 수집하면 반복되는 패턴을 찾을 수 있을 것이다. 그러한 패턴을 밝힘으로써 평가자에 의한 모든 variability를 단순히 error라고 뭉뚱그리지 않고 variability에 대한 더 깊은 이해가 가능할 것이다.

Further, while we have focused on variability in judgement at the individual level, one should not presume that such variability could ever be infinite in scope. Thammasitboon et al. (2008) showed that whilst different assessors possessed different conceptions of competence in multi-source feedback, their conceptions could be grouped into four dif- ferent constructs of competence. Presumably a larger sample of assessors might have enabled us to identify repeated patterns of performance that could be grouped. Observation of such patterns would reinforce the conclusion that meaningful differences might be drawn from variability in perception rather than simply concluding that all variability not attributable to the individuals being assessed should be deemed to be ‘‘error.’’


 

연구의 한계

Consideration of limitations


 

이론적 함의

Theoretical implications of findings


이 연구에는 몇 가지 중요한 함의가 있다. Govaerts 는 점수의 varitaion을 단순히 error로 보기보다는 특이성idiosyncrasy의 한 형태로 보는 것이 좋다고 제안했다. 우리의 결과는 '정확성' 그 자체에 대한 주장에 대한 것은 아니지만, 어떻게 한 개인의 여러 특이점들이 합해져서 평가자가 내리는 판단의 특이성을 형성하는지 보여주었다.

This study has a number of important implications. Govaerts et al. (2007) suggested that score variation is better viewed as a form of idiosyncrasy rather than simply as error. Our results do not allow us to make claims about ‘accuracy’ per se, but they do illustrate how multiple individual peculiarities can combine to produce idiosyncrasy in assessors’ judgements.


수행능력에 관한 평가자 특이적 판단은 예전에는 다른 맥락에서 보고되었다. Ginsburgh 등은 서로 다른 전공의를 볼 때의 인상에 기반해서 이뤄졌지만, 우리의 연구는 심지어 동일한 수행상황을 보고도 그러한 결과가 나타남을 보여주었다. 즉, 적어도 이러한 평가자 특이적 판단의 일부는 피평가자의 차이가 아니라 평가자의 차이에서 기인하는 것이다.

Idiosyncratic judgements on performance by assessors have been previously reported in a different context. Ginsburgh et al. (2010) ’s study was based on impressions of different residents, our results showthat similar findings can occur even when assessors view the same pool of performances—thus indicating that at least some of this idiosyncrasy arises from assessor differences rather than from differences in trainee behaviour.


교육적 관점에서 '부정확inaccuracy'와 '특이성idiosyncrasy'의 구분은 중요하다. 무엇보다, 교육 영역에서 채택하고 있는 psychometric 관점은, 일단 충분한 수의 표본을 수집하여 적절한 수준의 신뢰도를 갖춘다면 학습자에게 '정확한' 피드백을 줄 수 있을 것으로 가정한다. 만약 일부 variability가 수행능력에 대한 서로 다른 인상 간의 유의한 차이를(equally valid) 보여주는 것이라면, 우리의 과제는 어떻게 다양한 관점을 삼각측량하여 학습자에 대한 온전한 모습complete picture를 그려낼 것인가, 이를 가지고 그들의 수행능력에 관한 유용한 피드백을 전달할 수 있을까이다. 이러한 개념은 Govaerts등에 대해서 언급된 바 있으며, van der Vleuten and Schuwirth의 programmatic assessment 접근법과도 일치한다.

From an educational perspective, the difference between inaccuracy and idiosyncrasy is important: most dominantly, the field has adopted a psychometric perspective which assumes that once we have sampled enough to ensure adequate reliability, we can provide learners with ‘‘accurate’’ feedback. If some variability indicates meaningful (i.e., equally valid) different impressions of performance we are now faced with determining how to triangulate between multiple perspectives to create a complete picture of a learner and convey useful feedback about their performance. This concept has been previously artic- ulated by Govaerts et al. (2007) and resonates with the approach to programmatic assessment suggested by van der Vleuten and Schuwirth (2005).


평가자가 받은 인상의 특이성에 기여하는 개개인 수준의 기전이 갖는 추가적 함의가 있다. 평가자가 'attribute different degrees of salience to different aspects of common perfor- mances'라는 사실은 과연 평가자가 - 판단이나 평가는 차치하고서라도 - '객관적인 관찰'을 할 수 있느냐는 의문을 갖게 한다. 따라서 평가자에게 무엇을 평가할 것인가에 대한 정해진 준거를 가지는 공식적 시험 세팅을 제공하고자 하는 것에 많은 노력이 들어갔지만, 평가자의 평가가 진행되는 중의 관심대상attentional focus에 관한 노력은 별로 없었다.

The individual mechanisms that contribute to idiosyncrasy of assessors’ impressions have further implications for both theory and practice within assessment. The finding that assessors attribute different degrees of salience to different aspects of common perfor- mances—through noticing or paying attention to them differently—questions the notion that assessors can ‘‘objectively’’ observe—let alone judge or rate—performances. Thus, whereas much prior effort has gone into providing examiners in formal exam settings with defined criteria against which to judge (Newble 2004), very little work has been undertaken concerning examiners’ attentional focus whilst judging.


평가자 훈련, 특히 ‘‘Frame of Reference Training’’ (FORT) 훈련은 직업심리학에서 폭넓게 효과적인 것으로 확인되었다. FORT는 다음을 포함한다.

Assessor training, in particular ‘‘Frame of Reference Training’’ (FORT) training, has been shown to be effective across a breadth of contexts in occupational psychology, showing moderate to large effects on a range of endpoints (Woehr 1994). Frame of ref- erence training involves:


  • defining performance dimensions, 
  • providing a sample of behavioural incidents representing each dimension (along with the level of performance represented by each incident) and 
  • practice and feedback using these standards to evaluate perfor- mance (Schleicher et al. 2002)


따라서 Holmboe 등이 보고한 바와 같이 의학교육 맥락에서 평가자 훈련이 효과가 없다는 것은 놀랍다. 우리는 평가자들이 그들의 평가 준거를 그들의 직업경험동안 반복적으로 사례를 접하면서 쌓아온 것으로 설명함을 확인했다. 이러한 긴 경험에도 불구하고 그 준거는 불확실하며, 최근의 사례에 의해 영향을 받을 수 있다. 이러한 결과는 다수의 사례에 노출되는 것이, 평가 특성에 대한 합의를 이루는 것보다, 대안적으로 보다 효과적인 전략이 될 수 있음을 시사한다.

Therefore, the results reported by Holmboe et al. (2004) and Cook et al. (2009)ina medical education context, showing limited or no effect of rater training, are surprising. We found that assessors described their criteria as experientially derived over the course of their careers, through exposure to repeated exemplars. Despite this long experience, criteria remain uncertain, and can be influenced by recent examples. These findings raise the possibility that exposure to a greater number of exemplars, rather than agreeing on attri- butes, may represent an alternative, potentially successful, strategy that is more akin to the way assessors’ criteria are represented.





 2013 Aug;18(3):325-41. doi: 10.1007/s10459-012-9372-1. Epub 2012 May 12.

Seeing the same thing differently: mechanisms that contribute to assessor differences in directly-observed performance assessments.

Author information

  • 1School of Translational Medicine, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK. peter.yeates@manchester.ac.uk

Abstract

Assessors' scores in performance assessments are known to be highly variable. Attempted improvements through training or rating format have achieved minimal gains. The mechanisms that contribute to variability in assessors' scoring remain unclear. This study investigated these mechanisms. We used a qualitative approach to study assessors' judgements whilst they observed common simulated videoed performances of junior doctors obtaining clinical histories. Assessors commented concurrently and retrospectively on performances, provided scores and follow-up interviews. Data were analysed using principles of grounded theory. We developed three themes that help to explain how variability arises: Differential Salience-assessors paid attention to (or valued) different aspects of the performances to different degrees; Criterion Uncertainty-assessors' criteria were differently constructed, uncertain, and were influenced by recent exemplars; Information Integration-assessors described the valence of their comments in their own unique narrative terms, usually forming global impressions. Our results (whilst not precluding the operation of established biases) describe mechanisms by which assessors' judgements become meaningfully-different or unique. Our results have theoretical relevance to understanding the formative educational messages that performance assessments provide. They give insight relevant to assessor training, assessors' ability to be observationally "objective" and to the educational value of narrative comments (in contrast to numerical ratings).

PMID:
 
22581567
 
[PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]


도심의료와 공공의료 교육: TRUIMPH (Acad Med, 2013)

Training in Urban Medicine and Public Health: TRIUMPH

Cynthia Haq, MD, Marjorie Stearns, MPH, John Brill, MD, MPH, Byron Crouse, MD,

Julie Foertsch, PhD, Kjersti Knox, MD, Jeffrey Stearns, MD, Susan Skochelak, MD, MPH,

and Robert N. Golden, MD






미국이 보건의료에 비용을 많이 쏟지만, 그 성과는 별로임.

Although the United States spends more money on health care than any other country—$8,362 per person in 20101—the population does not experience the best health outcomes and currently ranks 51st in life expectancy.2


인구집단의 건강에 영향을 미치는 요소로 '일차의료 접근성'은 핵심 요인이다. 일차의료에 초점을 맞춘 보건시스템은 more effective, equitable, and efficient health services 과 관련있으며, 더 나은 인구집단의 건강을 더 적은 비용으로 달성하게 해준다. 보건의료개혁이 수백만의 미국인들에게 financial access를 높여주었을 수는 있으나, 충분한 수의 보건의료전문직이 없다면 의료서비스는 제공될 수 없다.

Access to primary health care is a key factor influencing the health of populations. Research has shown that health systems focused on primary care are associated with more effective, equitable, and efficient health services and that they achieve better population health outcomes at lower costs.4 Although health care reform may increase financial access to health care for millions of Americans, health services cannot be delivered without sufficient numbers of appropriately skilled health professionals distributed according to the needs of the population.5


6천만명 이상, 혹은 20%의 미국인이 일차의료 Health Professional Shortage Areas (HPSAs)에 거주하고 있다.

More than 60 million, or nearly 20%, of Americans are living in primary care Health Professional Shortage Areas (HPSAs).6


일차의료의사의 부족과 더불어, 국가적으로 대부분의 전공과에 있어서 의사의 부족을 겪고 있다. AAMC는 2015년까지 3만명의 일차의료 인력과 3만3천명의 비-일차의료 의사가 부족할 것이라고 예상하였으며 2025년까지 이는 더 심해질 것으로 예상했다 그러나 의사들이 전공을 정하고 어느 지역에서 진료할지를 정하는데 더 높은 경제적 보상이 있는 쪽이 어딘가를 우선적으로 고려하는 한 단순히 의사를 더 양성하는 것 만으로는 이러한 전공과 지역적 불균등분포 문제를 해결하지 못할 것이다.

In addition to the increasing shortage of primary care physicians, the nation is experiencing a shortage of physicians across most specialties. The Association of American Medical Colleges projects a shortage of more than 30,000 primary care and 33,000 non-primary-care physicians by 2015—and worsening shortages projected through 2025.5 Increasing the production of physicians will not resolve these specialty and geographic maldistributions as long as physicians perceive financial incentives in choosing select specialties and/or in practicing in communities that generate higher levels of reimbursement.


 

미국 의과대학에서 의료취약인구를 위한 교육과정을 살펴보면 다양한 형식을 보여주며, 학생의 농촌/도시 환경에 engagement도 다양하게 나타난다.

A review of U.S. medical school programs designed to prepare students to care for medically underserved populations reveals a variety of formats and types of student engagement in rural and urban environments.

 

포멧은 이러한 것들

Formats range from

  • short electives or required courses10,11 to
  • extended, multiyear commitments combining formal didactics,
  • immersion in clinically underserved populations, and
  • community health projects.12–25

 

다음의 측면에서 다양하다.

These programs vary in their

  • 목적 focus areas,
  • 내용 curricular content,
  • 학생 참여 정도 levels of student involvement,
  • 지원/선발 과정 application/ selection processes, and
  • 성과 outcomes.

 

연구에서 학생의 공감과 지식의 향상을 보고하였으며, 일차의료 진로 선택이 많아졌고, HPSA에서 진료할 것으로 결정하는 것이 많아졌다.

Several have demonstrated increases in participating students’ empathy and knowledge,19,24 selection of primary care careers,15,17,19,23 and decisions to practice in HPSAs12,13,15,17,18,23 when compared with nonparticipants.


2005년 위스콘신 지역의 심각한 건강불균형에 대한 대응으로, University of Wisconsin (UW) Medical School 는 공공의료를 의학교육의 핵심 요소 통합하고자 하는 비전을 가지고 교육과정을 개혁하며 학교의 이름도 SMPH로 바꾸었다.

In 2005, in response to substantial health disparities in Wisconsin,26 the University of Wisconsin (UW) Medical School launched a bold curricular transformation with the vision of incorporating public health as an integral component of medical education. The school changed its name to the School of Medicine and Public Health (SMPH),


위스콘신 지역 인구의 17%가 농촌 혹은 도시의 일차의료 의료인력부족지역(HPSA)에 거주하고 있다. 

More than 17% of the people of Wisconsin live in federally designated primary care rural or urban HPSAs29—a percentage similar to national shortages.6


SMPH는 이러한 요구에 대응하기 위한 새로운 프로그램을 만들었고  Wisconsin Academy for Rural Medicine 는 농촌 의사를, Training in Urban Medicine and Public Health (TRIUMPH)는 도시 의사를 양성한다.

The SMPH has created new programs to respond to these needs. The Wisconsin Academy for Rural Medicine prepares rural physicians,30 and its sister program, Training in Urban Medicine and Public Health (TRIUMPH), prepares urban physicians.31


트라이엄프

TRIUMPH


목적과 감독

Program goals and oversight


목적 

TRIUMPH is designed to prepare medical students to become community- responsive physician leaders32 who are able to promote health equity for urban populations in Wisconsin and beyond.



프로그램의 주요 목표

The program

  • 지역사회에 완전한 몰두 immerses students in clinical work within urban communities,
  • 롤모델 노출 exposes them to positive physician role models and community leaders,
  • 지역사회 문제에 참여(관여) engages them in addressing complex community and public health problems, and
  • 일차의료 진로 선택 권장 encourages them to consider primary care or subspecialty medical careers serving urban underserved populations.

 


밀워키 캠퍼스

Milwaukee Academic Campus


TRIUMPH 학생들은 대부분의 임상실습을 밀워키에서 보냄. Aurora Health Care가 중요한 기능을 하는 지역

The SMPH has an established statewide network of urban and rural clinical training sites at which most students rotate during their third (M3) and fourth (M4) years of medical school. TRIUMPH students, however, complete the majority of their clerkships in Milwaukee, 90 miles from the main campus in Madison. Milwaukee is home to Aurora Health Care, a not-for-profit hospital and clinical network with a strong commitment to medical education,33 where up to 30% of UW medical students have participated in required clerkships for decades.


밀워키 특징 

The City of Milwaukee

  • contains the greatest concentration of Wisconsin residents living in a metropolitan HPSA (n = 317,721) and
  • requires an estimated 22 additional primary care physicians to end its significant physician shortage.29

 

Of the city of Milwaukee’s nearly 600,000 inhabitants,

  • 34 41% have public health insurance and
  • 16% have no health insurance.35 In Milwaukee,
  • 38% of all families with children under 18, and
  • 46% of all children, live in poverty.

 

The infant mortality rate for African Americans born in Milwaukee in 2009 was 14.7/1,000 live births—the seventh worst among large cities in the nation, and more than twice as high as the rate for white infants.36


 

학생 모집과 선발

Student recruitment and selection


SMPH웹사이트를 보고 TRIUMPH에 대해서 학습함 

Students learn about TRIUMPH from the SMPH’s Web site, through classmates, and during brown bag information sessions held monthly during the fall semester.

    • 2학년때 지원
      They apply and are selected during their second year of medical school. Students interested in any specialty may apply as long as they also have an interest in practicing in urban underserved areas.
    • 에세이 제출, 추천서 제출
      Applicants submit essays describing their background and their experience working with underserved populations or with people of lower economic status; they also submit letters of recommendation.
    • The dean of students 가 지원서 검토
      The dean of students reviews applicants to confirm positive academic standing and professional conduct.
    • 위원회(교수, 지역사회 리더, 4학년 학생)에서 선발
      A committee of faculty, community leaders, and two M4 TRIUMPH students selects applicants.
    • 대부분 지역사회 봉사 경험이 있음
      Most applicants have participated in community service prior to and/or during the first two years of medical school.
    • 선발 기준은 'strong service ethic and motivation to work in low-resource settings'인데, 그 이유는 이전 연구에서 이 요인이 미래에 취약인구집단을 위해 봉사할 것인가를 예측해주었기 때문에.
      Selection criteria include demonstration of a strong service ethic and motivation to work in low-resource settings, because prior studies have confirmed that these factors predict a greater likelihood of future service to underserved populations.37

3학년때 밀워키지역으로 이동. Aurora Health Care 가 집 제공, 추가 인센티브는 없음. 6명(2009년)으로 시작해서, 지금은 학년당 16명 (총 학생의 10%)

Students relocate from Madison to Milwaukee to begin TRIUMPH during their M3 year. Aurora Health Care provides housing; there are no additional financial incentives. Program capacity was initially 6 students per year (in the 2009 pilot) and has recently expanded to 16 per year—approximately 10% of the total class.


대부분의 TRIUMPH학생은 10~15개월을 밀워키에서 보냄

most TRIUMPH students spend 10 to 15 months in Milwaukee over the course of their last two years of medical school,

 


교육과정 설계와 조직

Curriculum design and organization


Fishbein and Ajzen의 theory of reasoned action 을 따라서 설계함. 여기서는 attitudes 와 subjective norms 가 미래의 행동과 진로 선택에 영향을 준다고 함.

The curriculum design reflects Fishbein and Ajzen’s38 theory of reasoned action, which proposes that attitudes and subjective norms are likely to shape future behavior and career decisions.39


Montefiore Social Medicine residency program의 프레임워크를 적용하여 설계함. 여기에 다른 원칙들도 가미됨.

TRIUMPH’s curriculum designers adapted the framework from the Montefiore Social Medicine residency program,40 revising the goals and activities to be appropriate for medical students and enhancing personal and peer support. Whereas TRIUMPH builds on the foundational work of Montefiore and others, it provides a unique blend of principles from

  • asset-based community development,41
  • community-oriented primary care,42,43
  • servant leadership,44
  • evidence-based public health,45
  • culturally responsive health care,46 and
  • mindful practice47 to cultivate compassionate care for self, for others, and for communities.48


지역사회와 공공보건 프로젝트

Community and public health projects.


1주에 한나절.

Students are excused from clinical duties to engage in service–learning projects one half-day per week throughout the duration of the program.


세미나와 휴머니즘 라운드

Seminars and humanism rounds.


프로젝트 세미나와 휴머니즘 라운드가 번갈아가면서 진행.

Project seminars alternate with humanism rounds during which students share clinical and community narratives with personal reflections.

 

휴머니즘 라운드에서는 다음을 논의함

Humanism rounds provide a supportive environment for students to discuss

    • patient and community dilemmas or conflicts;
    • progress and challenges; and
    • reflections, responses, and feelings.

서로 경청하고, 공감하고, 비판단적 자세로.

Peers are instructed to listen carefully and to respond with compassion and in a nonjudgmental fashion rather than to focus on clinical issues.



임상 실습

Clinical rotations.


대부분의 4학년 실습을 밀워키에서 보냄
TRIUMPH students complete the majority of their M4 rotations in Milwaukee while they continue the core curriculum seminars and projects.

4개월까지 밀워키 외 지역에서 다음의 것을 할 수 있음.

Students are allowed to spend up to four months of their senior year away from Milwaukee

      • to complete rotations that are not offered in the city,
      • to engage in rotations in residency training sites, or
      • to pursue global health electives.

6주짜리 M4 preceptorship을 이수해야 함

All SMPH students are required to complete an M4 preceptorship, a six-week full-time rotation to enhance their clinical skills.

TRIUMPH 학생들은 도시의사의 inspiring 롤모델과 함께 전 학년기간동안 지속적으로 함께 일함

TRIUMPH students, however, work specifically with inspiring urban physician role models in a longitudinal fashion over the entire year.

대부분의 4학년 TRIUMPH 학생들은 연방에서 인정받은 커뮤니티 헬스센터의 preceptor와 매칭됨

Thus far, most M4 TRIUMPH students (24 out of 31) have been matched with preceptors in federally qualified community health centers.



비용

Institutional costs.


상당한 비용이 들어감(학생, 지역사회, 파트너 기관)

The SMPH has invested significant institutional resources to ensure that the program provides benefits for students, communities, and institutional partners.



Community organizations receive financial support for project mentors ($1,500 per student), and

community members receive honoraria for organizing community events and presentations (a total of $4,000 per year).

 

학생당 8300달러

All of these expenses result in a total of net new costs of about $200,000 per year for 24 students (16 M3 + 8 M4 students), or about $8,300 per student.

 


프로그램 평가

Program evaluation


몇 가지 어려움

  • 이미 의료취약지역에 강력한 흥미를 가진 학생이 지원한다는 것. Confound 가능성.
    One challenge in evaluating programs like TRIUMPH is that they purposely admit students who already have a strong interest in practicing in medically underserved areas, and this selection effect results in preexisting differences between program students and their peers that confound key outcomes.
  • 핵심 결과라 할 수 있는 '취약지에서의 진료를 선택하는 TRIUMPH 졸업생' 결과는 수 년 뒤에나 나온다
    A second challenge is that the key outcome—in this case, the number of TRIUMPH graduates practicing in urban underserved areas, especially in Wisconsin—takes many years to emerge.
  • 어떤 이유로든 TRIUMPH과정 이수가 딜레이된 학생을 어떻게 포함시킬 것인가.
    A further complication is determining in which “cohort” to include the data (for analysis) of TRIUMPH students who delay completing medical school for some reason.
  • 프로그램 자체가, 그리고 프로그램 평가가 시간에 따라/매년 달라진다는 것.
    A final challenge, especially in doing statistical analyses and making inferences regarding program effects, is that the program and its evaluation have changed over time (as should be the case for programs that use data to make improvements), so that what students experience in different years/versions of TRIUMPH gradually changes.


어떤 학생은 3학년, 4학년의 전체(15개월)을 다 경험한 반면, 어떤 학생은 일부 (3학년 6개월)만 경험함.
One key change—and a key distinction among TRIUMPH students of various cohorts—is that some have experienced a “full dose” of the program (six months of their M3 year and all nine months of their M4 year), whereas others have experienced only a partial dose (six months of their M3 year).



Method

 

1. 3학년과 4학년 매2주마다 집중 과정 이수 후 설문

1. Surveys of M3 and M4 students after each of their two-week intensive courses. Each survey, comprising 40 to 45 items, asks students to rate and comment on each session or activity, rate how well the course met each of its goals, and offer suggestions for improvement.

 

2. TRIUMPH학생 대상 설문 (학생의 태도 변화를 매년 측정)

2. Year-end surveys of all TRIUMPH students that allow the program both

  • to measure annual changes in students’ attitudes toward practicing in underserved areas and
  • to determine the impact and effectiveness of all aspects of the TRIUMPH curriculum.

Each survey, comprising 36 to 40 items, asks students to

  • rate the effectiveness of and
  • comment on all aspects of that year’s program.

 

It also asks students to rate the program’s overall impact

  • on their interest and confidence in working with underserved urban populations and
  • on their knowledge, skills, and attitudes related to such work.

 

3. 멘토의 학생에 대한 평가(학년 말), 멘토 자신에 대한 응답

3. Year-end surveys of the community mentors that gather mentors’ ratings (on a five-point scale where 1 = Low and 5 = High) of students’

  • dedication to the project,
  • curiosity/drive to learn,
  • professionalism, and
  • flexibility/ability to adapt to circumstances.

Mentors also

  • rate five aspects of the mentoring experience,
  • provide information about their willingness to continue serving as mentors, and
  • make suggestions on how to improve the program experience for mentors.


4. 모든 TRIUMPH 학생의 포커스그룹

4. One-hour, tape-recorded, year-end, in-person focus groups with all the students in a cohort, facilitated by the TRIUMPH evaluator (J.F.), during which students discuss in- depth the effects of, the challenges they experienced during, and any suggestions they have for improving TRIUMPH.



5. 성적
5. Participating students’ course grades for all four years of medical school, Step 1 and 2 board exam scores, clerkship SHELF scores, and year-end professional skills assessment scores.

 

6. TRIUMPH학생과 다른 UW 의과대학생의 졸업후설문(졸업 후 1년, 3년, 6년)

6. Postgraduation surveys of TRIUMPH and other UW medical students at one year (23 items), three years (27 items), and six years (27 items) post graduation that ask, among other things,

  • the graduate’s specialty,
  • whether he or she is currently and/ or is ultimately planning to practice in Wisconsin and/or in medically underserved areas, and
  • the degree to which she or he is engaged in various public health activities.



Results



Outcomes for the students who enrolled in TRIUMPH in 2010


Outcomes for the students who enrolled in TRIUMPH in 2011

 








 

고찰

Discussion


포커스그룹 결과를 보면 프로그램이 낮은 SES의 의료취약인구에 대한 헌신과 자신감을 심어주었다. 무기력helpless에서 희망hopeful로 태도가 바뀌었으며, 레지던트 전공 선택에 있어 중요한 시기에 취약인구와 함께하려는 정신spirit을 심어주었다.

Comments from focus groups of students reflect that the program has reinforced their commitment to and increased their confidence in working with underserved populations and people of lower socioeconomic status. Students have shared that their attitudes shifted from helpless to hopeful, and that the program has preserved their spirit to work with underserved populations during the critical period of residency specialty selection.


원래 흥미는 있었지만 TRIUMPH가 나의 진로 목표를 더 굳건히 해주었고, 효과적인 지역사회 의사와 대변인이 되기 이한 자신감과 실용적 도구practical tool을 주었다.

I was interested in working with underserved populations, but TRIUMPH solidified this as my career goal and gave me the practical tools and confidence to be an effective community physician and advocate.


학생들의 교육경험을 향상시켜주고 취약지역에서 살아남은 긍정적인 롤모델과 함께 의료취약 현장에서의 실제 근무기회를 주었다. 의과대학생들은 사실적 지식을 암기하고, 과목 요건을 충족시키고 임상환경의 진료에 익숙하긴 하나, 대부분은 지역사회에서, 그리고 다학제간 팀에서 복잡한, 장기적 문제를 해결하기 위해 일해본 경험이 적다.

Further, TRIUMPH enhances the educational experiences of students and gives them an opportunity to work in underserved practices with positive role models who thrive in such settings. Medical students are familiar with memorizing facts, meeting precise course requirements, and practicing in clinical environments, yet most have limited experience working with communities and interdisciplinary teams to address complex, long-term problems.


대부분의 학생들은 상당한 채무educational debts를 지게 되며, 어떻게 취약인구를 위해 일하면서 개인/가정의 요구와 진로 사이의 균형을 맞출 수 있을 것인지 고민한다. 다음의 것들이 가능한 진로 옵션을 제공해준다.

  • 롤모델과 커뮤니티 프로그램에 대한 노출
    Exposing students to successful, enthusiastic physician role models and vibrant community health programs,
  • 대출 상환 플랜 정보 제공
    informing them about loan repayment plans, and
  • 비경제적 보상을 보여줌
    demonstrating the nonfinancial rewards related to working with disadvantaged populations

Additionally, most medical students carry substantial educational debts and are concerned about how to balance their personal and family needs with careers dedicated to working with the poor and medically underserved. Exposing students to successful, enthusiastic physician role models and vibrant community health programs, informing them about loan repayment plans, and demonstrating the nonfinancial rewards related to working with disadvantaged populations provide them with viable career options.


UW SMPH 에도 영향을 미쳤다. "대학의 사회적 책무에 대한 미션을 실현할 수 있었으며, 학생들이 지역사회 보건의 대변인이 될 수 있게 하는 새로운 교육과정 도구를 제공하였고, asset-based 접근법을 적용하였고, 스스로 성찰할 수 있었다"

TRIUMPH has also influenced the host institutions, including the UW SMPH itself. One advisory committee member has noted that the program has “

  • actualized the school’s mission of social responsibility,
  • provided new curriculum tools to prepare students to serve as health advocates,
  • applied asset-based approaches to community health, and
  • promoted self-reflection.


레지던트 프로그램에도 영향을 주기 시작하였다

TRIUMPH is beginning to influence residency programs, too. Graduates have initiated efforts to enhance community engagement at the postgraduate level.


지역사회 조직도 개선시켰다.

Finally, TRIUMPH improves community organizations as well.


아직 여러 개념적/Logistic/재정적 과제가 남아있다.

Although TRIUMPH has achieved notable short-term successes, the program has encountered significant conceptual, logistical, and financial challenges.

  • 개념적 A conceptual barrier: 학생의 멘토와 롤모델 부족
     is the reality that relatively few physicians have successfully integrated clinical medicine and public health into their careers. Therefore, recruiting physicians as well as other community health leaders to serve as student mentors and role models has been essential.
  • 로지스틱 Logistically: 교육과정의 과포화
    the medical school curriculum is overcrowded with content, requirements, and duty hours, so clear and regular communication with clerkship directors has been necessary
    • 시간을 확보하고 to protect student time,
    • 효율적으로 내용을 교육하고 to deliver content efficiently, and
    • 지역사회와 공공보건이 향상됨을 보여주면서도 to demonstrate that community and public health work would enhance and
    • 학생의 임상 수행능력에는 악영향을 미치지 않게 하는 것 not adversely affect students’ clinical performance.
  • 재정적 Financially: 재정적 지원이 열악했던 국가 상황
    , the program was launched at about the same time as the economic recession and at a time when the school was facing serious budget shortfalls due to reductions in state funding. Nevertheless, the school and the state have sustained their financial support. In fact, because of strong student, faculty, and community interests, the program even expanded during this period of strained resources.




 


 

 



 2013 Mar;88(3):352-63. doi: 10.1097/ACM.0b013e3182811a75.

Training in Urban Medicine and Public HealthTRIUMPH.

Author information

  • 1University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, Wisconsin 53705, USA. clhaq@wisc.edu

Abstract

PURPOSE:

The number of U.S. medical school graduates who choose to practice in health professional shortage areas (HPSAs) has not kept pace with the needs of society. The University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health has created a new program that prepares medical students to reduce health disparities for urban medically underserved populations in Milwaukee. The authors describe the Training in Urban Medicineand Public Health (TRIUMPH) program and provide early, short-term outcomes.

METHOD:

TRIUMPH integrates urban clinical training, community and public health curricula, longitudinal community and public health projects, mentoring, and peer support for select third- and fourth-year medical students. The authors tracked and held focus groups with program participants to assess their knowledge, skills, satisfaction, confidence, and residency matches. The authors surveyed community partners to assess their satisfaction with students and the program.

RESULTS:

From 2009 to 2012, 53 students enrolled in the program, and 45 have conducted projects with community organizations. Participants increased their knowledge, skills, confidence, and commitment to work with urban medically underserved populations. Compared with local peers,TRIUMPH graduates were more likely to select primary care specialties and residency programs serving urban underserved populations. Community leaders have reported high levels of satisfaction and benefits; their interest in hosting students exceeds program capacity.

CONCLUSIONS:

Early, short-term outcomes confirm that TRIUMPH is achieving its desired goals: attracting and preparing medical students to work with urban underserved communities. The program serves as a model to prepare physicians to meet the needs of urban HPSAs.

PMID:
 
23348092
 
[PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]


의과대학생 중 잠재적 관계-지향적 리더 찾아내기: 동료에 대한 긍정적 영향의 역할(Med Teach, 2015)

Identifying potential engaging leaders within medical education: The role of positive influence on peers

BARRET MICHALEC1, J. JON VELOSKI2, MOHAMMADREZA HOJAT2 & MARK L. TYKOCINSKI2

1University of Delaware, USA, 2Sidney Kimmel Medical College at Thomas Jefferson University, USA






앞선 연구에서 의과대학생들 사이에서의 리더십을 배양하는 것이 가치있고 필요한 일임을 지속적으로 강조한 바 있다. 중요한 특징들

Previous research consistently highlights the value and neces- sity of cultivating leadership qualities among medical students (O’Connell & Pascoe 2004; Veronesi & Gunderman 2012).

  • Emotional intelligence,
  • confidence,
  • creativity,
  • practical know- ledge and competence,
  • interpersonal communication,
  • motiv- ation and encouragement of others,
  • fostering a sense of community,
  • social appraisal skills, and
  • cognitive abilities among others

 

are frequently offered as vital leadership skills and characteristics


이전 연구들은 주로 교과목, 전략, 프로그램, 세미나 등을 통해서 의과대학생들에게 리더로서의 기술과 리더십의 특성 등을 '가르치는' 것에 초점을 두어 왔다. 그러나 연구결과를 보면 프로페셔널리즘과 관련된 긍정적 특성들을 향상시키려는 시도들은 (거의 틀림없이 리더십에 대한 것도) 학생들의 반발push-back, 과목 스케쥴 조정의 딜레마, 더 포괄적 차원에서의 조직문화와 관련된 장애 등을 겪게 된다.

The focus on this research has been almost exclusively on developing courses, strategies, programs, and seminars to ‘‘teach’’ medical students the traits, characteristics, and skills of leaders and leadership (Crites et al. 2008; Goldstein et al. 2009; Varkey et al. 2009; Long et al. 2011; Straus et al. 2013). Studies have shown, however, that attempts to foster positive attributes such as those related to professionalism (which are arguably akin to attributes related to leadership) are met with push-back from students, course scheduling dilemmas, and barriers related to the overarching organizational culture (West & Shanafelt 2007; Finn et al. 2010; Michalec & Hafferty 2013).


'탐색-기반identification-based' 접근법을 통해서 의과대학생 중 '리더'를 이해하려는 시도는, '양성-기반cultivation-based' 접근법과 달리 이미 근본적인 리더십 자질과 능력을 보여주고 있는 학생들을 더 격려하여 더 발전할 수 있게 해주는 것에 노력을 쏟는다. 따라서 탐색-기반 접근법은 전체 학생을 대상으로 하는 프로그램이나 과목을 통해서 이미 포화상태인 교육과정에 리더십을 '배양farming'해야 하는 필요를 없애주거나, 적어도 최소화시켜줄 수 있다.

An identification-based approach to understanding‘‘leaders’’ within medical school, as compared with what appears to be an engrained cultivation-based approach, would concentrate efforts to encourage and further advance individ-uals that have already exhibited fundamental leadership qualities and capabilities. An identification-based approach would thereby eliminate, or at least minimize, the need of leadership ‘‘farming’’ that is proposed through grade cohort-wide programs and classes, and lift some of the burden on already saturated curriculums


유사하게, 현재의 '의학교육에서의 리더십'에서는 동료들에게 좋은 영향을 미치고 있는 학생들을 어떻게 효과적으로 찾아낼 수 있는지가 빠져있다. 이것의 핵심에는, '리더십은 영향력에 관한 것이다'라는 명제가 있다. 예를 들면 "다른사람들이 무엇을 해야 하고 그것을 어떻게 해야 하는지 이해하고, 거기에 동의할 수 있는 영향력 프로세스" 혹은 "공동의 목표를 달성하기 위해서 개인이 다른 개인들에게 영향을 미치는 프로세스"라는 말로 설명된다.

Similarly, what appears to also be absent from the current state of the leadership-in-medical-education literature is an emphasis on constructing effective mechanisms to identify those with the ability to be influential with others (peers).At its core, leadership is about influence – as showcased in prominent conceptualizations of the term: (a) ‘‘...the process of influencing others to understand and agree about what needs to be done and how to do it ...’’ (Yukl 2006), and(b) ‘‘...a process whereby an individual influences a group of individuals to achieve a common goal’’ (Northhouse 2007).


리더십에 있어서 타인-지향성other-orientation은 Alimo-Metcalfe와 Alban-Metcalfe가 제안한 관계-형성적engaging 모델에서도 보여진 바 있다. Alimo-Metcalfe는 리더십의 가장 중요한 영역은 "타인에 대한 진정한 관심genuine concern"이라고 하였다. 전통적인 리더십이 '영웅적', 카리스마잇는, 고독한distant 리더십과 같이 리더(개인 수준)의 가장 중요한 파워를 강조했다면, 관계-형성적 관점에서의 리더십은 리더가 다른 사람을 향하고, 개개인의 접근가능성, 열망, 지지, 다른 사람들로 하여금 스스로의 영향력과 모험심을 표현할 수 있게 해주는 능력 등에 가치를 둔다.

The emphasis of other-orientation in regard to leadership qualities and capabilities is showcased in the engaging model of leadership proposed by Alimo-Metcalfe and Alban-Metcalfe(2005, 2006) and Alimo-Metcalfe et al. (2008) who argue that perhaps the most significant dimension to leadership can be classified as showing ‘‘genuine concern for others’’. Whereas traditional leadership ‘‘heroic’’, charismatic, and ‘‘distant’’ models of place the crux of power with the leader(individual-based), the engaging perspective of leadership emphasizes an individual’s other orientation and promotes the value of the individual’s accessibility, inspiration, support, and their ability to enable and encourage others to express their own influence and enterprise. 


Methods


Study setting


Sample


766명 학생 중 630명

A total of 630 (82%) of 766 students in three fourth-year classes(2011, 2012, and 2013) responded.


Measurements and procedure


상위 10%를 '고긍정영향' 으로 구분하고, 80명이 해당됨

Students in the top 10% of this distribution for each class were designated as ‘‘high positive influence’’ and these 80 students were compared with 686 classmates. 


'긍정영향'의 개념이 어떠한지 주관식으로 응답하게 함. 다음의 네 가지가 나옴.

(a) support,

(b) academic/organizational competence,

(c) role model, and

(d) fostering a positive/fun climate. 

To examine how medical students’ conceptualized thenotion of the ‘‘positive influence’’ they experienced fromthose they selected, we added an open-ended item to the2013 survey. Students were asked to think about who theyselected as having a significant positive influence, andrespond to the question, ‘‘In what way(s) have they [thestudent(s) they selected] had the a positive influence?’’Approximately one-half of students provided words,phrases, or short sentences. These were read by one of theauthors to identify the most frequently appearing conceptsand categories. Four categories were identified: (a) support,(b) academic/organizational competence, (c) role model, and(d) fostering a positive/fun climate. 


 


 

 

Results


고긍정영향 집단은 공감점수가 더 높았음 

High positive influencers were found to have a significantly higher (p50.01) mean empathy score (mean¼117.1, SD¼9) compared with that of other students (mean¼113.5, SD¼11).

 

 



'긍정영향'의 개념에 대해서 모든 응답은 친사회적 행동과 학업/조직 이해에 대한 것이었다. 58%는 지지Support로 분류되었고, ‘‘helpful’’, ‘‘supportive’’, ‘‘encouraging’’, ‘‘listening’’, and ‘‘offering advice.’’ 등으로 묘사됨. 두 번째로 많은 것은 '학업/조직 역량.

Regarding students’ conceptualization of the ‘‘positive influence’’, all the comments referred to types of prosocial behavior and academic/organizational understanding. The majority (58%) of terms were categorized as

  • Support, as the comments related to substantive personal interactions such as being ‘‘helpful’’, ‘‘supportive’’, ‘‘encouraging’’, ‘‘listening’’, and ‘‘offering advice.’’ The second most occurring categories (15%) were
  • Academic/Organizational Competence (e.g., ‘‘brilliant’’, ‘‘challenging’’, and ‘‘shared knowledge’’) and
  • Role Model (e.g., ‘‘positive role model’’, ‘‘ability to balance work/life’’, and ‘‘exemplified commitment’’).

Finally, 12% of the terms were categorized as

  • Fostering a Positive/Fun Climate, as comments related to ‘‘fun’’, ‘‘enthusiasm’’, ‘‘great team member’’ and ‘‘positive attitude’’.



Discussion


인구통계학적, 학업적 차이

Demographics and academic performance differences


남성-여성에는 차이 없었음. 리더십의 핵심이 '영향력'에 근간을 둔다는 것을 고려하면, 이것은 약간 놀라운데, 왜냐하면 기존 연구에서는 전문직이나 대학의학에서 여성이 리더십 지위에 있는 경우가 드물다고 보고하고 있기 때문이다. 그러나 교실/학교/대학에서는 남성과 여성 중 누가 더 '공적official' 지위에 있을 가능성이 더 높은가에 차이가 있을 수 있다. 또한 여성의 리더십 역할과 지위에 대한 무의식중의(종종 의식적인) 편견이 잇을 수 있다.

Interestingly, there were no significant differences found in the rates of being designated as a positive influence between men or women. Given that the crux of leadership is rooted in influence, this finding somewhat surprising as the literature consistently points to the glaring lack of females in leadership positions in professional and academic medicine (Morahan et al. 2011; Rosenthal et al. 2013; Valantine & Sandborg 2013; Bell et al. 2014). However, there could be differences between the men and the women in regard to which sex is more likely to serve in ‘‘official’’ (nominated and elected) positions within the classes, school, and University. Perhaps there continues to be an unconscious (and even at times conscious) bias towards women regarding leadership roles and positions.


더 나이가 많은 학생들의 어떤 생애경험이 동료들에게 더 도움을 주고 지지해주고자 하는 의지를 높여주었을 수도 있다. 이는 더 나이가 많은 학생이 결혼을 하였거나 자녀가 있거나 하여 이러한 추가적인 사회적 관계가 그들의 타인-지향성을 배양시켜주고 다른 사람에 대한 encouragement, engagement 특성을 강화해주었을 수 있다.

Perhaps certain life experiences these older with students gained (compared the age-typical medical student) cultivated their willingness and ability to be support- ive and helpful to their peers. It could also be suggested that because older students may be more likely to be married and/ or have children that these possible additional social relation- ships have cultivated their other-orientation, enhancing their attributes of encouragement of and engagement with others.


타인에 대한 진정한 관심

Genuine concern for others


 

고긍정영향 그룹이 평균 공감점수가 더 높았다. 이는 Pohl등의 보고와도 일치하는데, 여기서는 동료들에게 '프로페셔널리즘'에 있어서 더 많이 지명당한 학생일수록 더 공감점수가 높았다. 고긍정영향그룹은 모의환자시험에서 환자들에게 더 높은 점수를 받았는데, Berg등은 (JSE점수에서) 대인관계 기술이 더 높은 학생이 모의환자에서 더 높은 평가를 받았음을 보고한 바 있다.

Students within the high positive influence group had a significantly higher average empathy score than all other students in the sample. This finding is consistent with that reported by Pohl et al. (2011) who found that medical students who were nominated by their peers on professionalism attributes obtained a significantly higher mean empathy High scores than their other classmates. influencers also received significantly higher scores from the ‘‘patients’’ during their simulated patient experiences. Similar findings are reported by Berg et al. (2011) who found that medical students with higher interpersonal skills (reflected in their scores on the JSE) received higher ratings of competence by simulated patients.


종합하면, 동료들에게 고긍정영향자로 인식되는 학생은 타인에 대한 진정한 관심을 보이며, 이는 관계-형성적 리더십 모델의 토대이다.

Taken together these findings suggest that indeed students perceived by their peers as being a positive influence also reflect a genuine concern for others – the foundation of the engaging leadership model.


이 자료에 따르면 고긍정영향자는 타인에 대한 진정한 관심을 보이고, 동료에 의해서 영향력이 높은 학생으로 인정받는 학생들은 Alimo-Metcalfe and Alban-Metcalfe’s model of engaging leadership 을 잘 반영한다. 이러한 관점에서 높은 영향력을 미치는 이들 학생들은 조직변화의 에이전트로서 가능성이 있다.

The data suggest that high positive influencers do show both a genuine concern for others and that students identified by their peers have the ability to be influential do indeed reflect the tenets of Alimo-Metcalfe and Alban-Metcalfe’s model of engaging leadership – and in this sense these influential students could in fact be agents of organizational change waiting to be tapped.



리더십에 있어서 '영향력'의 역할을 보여주며, 의과대학 기간 내에 관계-형성적 리더를 찾을 수 있음을 보여준다. 비록 의과대학 입학위원회가 뛰어난 GPA나 MCAT점수를 완전히 무시하지는 않더라도, 이와 같은 시험점수에서 뛰어나지는 않아도 추천서 등을 통해서 팀-지향적, 협동적, 동료에 대한 격려 peer-encouragement, 일반적 지지적 행동 등을 보이는가를 유심히 볼 필요가 있다. 더 나아가서 동료평가가 의학교육에서 리더를 찾는데 유용하고 가치있는 도구임을 보여준다. 다른 연구에서도 동료-평가, 동료-지명 방식이 프로페셔널리즘과 프로페셔널 개발과 관련하여 타당한 지표임을 보여준 바 있다.

The findings featured in this specific study promote the role of influence as it relates leadership and that engaging leaders can be identified during their years in medical school. Although we are not suggesting that medical school admis- sions committees completely disregard applicants with stellar GPAs and MCAT scores, there is something to be said to possibly paying special attention to those students who may not stand-out test-wise but present letters of recommendation that speak of team-orientation, cooperation, peer-encourage- ment, and general supportive behavior. Furthermore, we argue that peer-assessment appears to be a worthwhile and reliable tool to identify leaders within medical education. This inference has also been reached in other studies that have also found peer-assessment/nomination to be a valid indicator of attributes related to professionalism and professional development (Holmboe & Hawkins 1998; Pohl et al. 2011).


이 연구는 단면적 연구이다.

 

Similarly, this study was cross-sectional, only a longitudinal approach would identify whether these high influencers/leaders possess these other- oriented and organizational knowledge-based attributes and characteristics when they arrive at medical school (or even before), and if/how these attributes are sustained.




 


 


 




 2014 Aug 26:1-7. [Epub ahead of print]

Identifying potential engaging leaders within medical education: The role of positive influence on peers.

Author information

  • 1University of Delaware , USA .

Abstract

Abstract Background: Previous research has paid little to no attention towards exploring methods of identifying existing medical student leaders. Aim: Focusing on the role of influence and employing the tenets of the engaging leadership model, this study examines demographic and academic performance-related differences of positive influencers and if students who have been peer-identified as positive influencers also demonstrate high levels of genuine concern for others. Methods: Three separate fourth-year classes were asked to designate classmates that had significant positiveinfluences on their professional and personal development. The top 10% of those students receiving positive influence nominations were compared with the other students on demographics, academic performance, and genuine concern for others. Results: Besides age, no demographic differences were found between positive influencers and other students. High positive influencers were not found to have higher standardized exam scores but did receive significantly higher clinical clerkship ratings. High positive influencers were found to possess a higher degree of genuine concern for others. Conclusion: The findings lend support to (a) utilizing the engaging model to explore leaders and leadership within medical education, (b) this particular method of identifying existing medical student leaders, and (c) return the focus of leadership research to the power of influence.

PMID:
 
25155553
 
[PubMed - as supplied by publisher]


공감과 다른 인적특성과 긍정적인 사회적 영향력으로 의과대학에서 잠재적 리더를 찾아낼 수 있을까? (Acad Med, 2015)

Can Empathy, Other Personality Attributes, and Level of Positive Social Influence in Medical School Identify Potential Leaders in Medicine?

Mohammadreza Hojat, PhD, Barret Michalec, PhD, J. Jon Veloski, MS, and Mark L. Tykocinski, MD







리더십 학자들에 따르면 긍정적인 사회적 영향은 효과적인 리더십의 핵심 특징이다. 리더십은 개인이 함께 공동의 목표를 위해서 일할 때 상호관계적 상호작용으로부터 나온다. Eberly 등은 리더십을 '사회적 네트워크 분석을 통해서 밝힐 수 있는 사회적 영향력의 행사'라고 정의했다. 이러한 접근법은 잠재적 리더를 밝혀내는데 활용되어왔다.

Positive social influence, according to leadership scholars, is a core feature of effective leadership.1–3 Leadership emerges from interpersonal interactions that occur when individuals work together to achieve a common goal.3 Eberly and colleagues1 have defined leadership as an exertion of social influence that can be examined through social network analysis. This approach has also been used to identify the emergence of potential leaders.4–6


효과적인 리더에 대한 또 다른 접근은 리더의 개인적 특성에 대한 분석이다.

Another approach to identifying effective leaders is studying leaders’ personality attributes.1 For example,

  • certain cognitive abilities,
  • empathy,
  • emotional intelligence,
  • sociability,
  • tolerance of ambiguity, and
  • social appraisal skills

have been reported to foster effective leadership across a variety of situations.7–12


특히 개인의 "관계-지향적" 특성, 즉 공감empathy, 적극적 참여active engagement, 자기 확신self-confidence 등은 효과적인 리더십에 기여하는 것으로 보고되고 있다. 반대로 "참여적 스타일engaging style" 리더십과는 상반되는 특성도 있는데, 고립isolation, 고독loneliness, 신경증neuroticism, 충동impulsiveness, 공격성aggression 등이 사회적 관계에 해로워서 효과적인 리더십에도 해롭다고 보고된 바 있다.

In particular, “relationship-oriented” personality attributes such as empathy,7–9,12,13 active engagement,14 and self-confidence14 have been reported as being conducive to effective leadership.11,15–19 In contrast, there are other personality attributes that are at odds with the “engaging style” of leadership.20 For example, isolation, loneliness, neuroticism, impulsiveness, and aggression have been reported as being detrimental to social relationships21,22 and, by extension, to effective leadership.1–3


리더십에 관한 이들 연구는 개인의 특징에 초점을 두고, 리더십의 개인주의적 모델에 초점을 두고 있다.

Much of the previous research on leadership has focused on the personality profile, or the individualistic model of leadership.7–11


리더십이 '사회적 영향력의 행사'라는 가정하에, 그리고 사회적 영향력은 개인적 특성들의 함수라는 가정하에 본 연구를 수행

On the basis of the assumptions that leadership is an exertion of social influence1–3 and that social influence is a function of pertinent personality attributes,7–19 we designed this study




Method


참여자

Participants



긍정적 사회적 영향의 측정

Instrument to measure positive social influence



관계-형성적(relationship-building) 인적 특성 측정

Instruments to measure engaging (relationship-building) personality attributes



공감

Empathy.


We used the Jefferson Scale of Empathy (JSE), a 20-item validated instrument specifically developed to measure empathy in the context of patient care in medical and other health professions students and practitioners. We used the S version of the JSE, which was developed for administration to medical students.24 Evidence in support of the JSE’s validity25–29 and reliability25,29 has been reported, and the instrument has been translated into 43 languages and used in more than 60 countries.30 The possible score range is 20 to 140; a higher score on this scale indicates a greater orientation toward empathic engagement in patient care. The typical Cronbach alpha coefficient for this instrument, which has been reported in many studies, hovers around 0.75.24,25,29,30



사회성

Sociability.


We used a seven-item scale from the short form of the Zuckerman– Kuhlman Personality Questionnaire (ZKPQ) to measure sociability.31,32 (The ZKPQ was developed to measure five basic factors of personality that have a strong biological–evolutionary basis.31) Evidence in support of the validity and reliability of this scale in male (α = 0.78) and female (α = 0.79) college students has been reported.31 A higher score on this scale indicates a more sociable personality.


활동성

Activity.


We used a seven-item scale from the short form of the ZKPQ that measures a tendency to be active and to prefer challenging work.31 Evidence in support of the validity and reliability of this scale in male (α = 0.67) and female (α = 0.72) college students has been reported.31 A higher score on this scale indicates a higher degree of preference for challenging work.



자기존중

Self-esteem.


We used an abridged, five-item version of the Rosenberg Self- Esteem Scale,33 which is a measure of the self-acceptance aspect of self-esteem.34 This abridged scale has been used with medical and other health professions students.35–37 The reliability coefficient of this abridged scale among health professions students has been reported as 0.72.36 A higher score on this scale indicates a higher degree of self-esteem.



관계-회피성 인적 특성 측정

Instruments to measure disengaging personality attributes

고독

Loneliness.


We used an abridged, five- item version of the UCLA Loneliness Scale, which is a global measure of loneliness experiences.38 The abridged version has been used previously with medical and other health professions students,35,36 and its psychometric support in medical students has been reported.37 The reliability coefficient of the abridged scale among health professions students has been reported as 0.87.36 A higher score on this scale indicates a greater experience of loneliness and a lack of satisfaction with social relationships.



신경증

Neuroticism.


We used a seven-item scale from the short form of the ZKPQ that measures a tendency to be tense, to worry, to be overly sensitive to criticism, to be easily upset, and to be obsessively indecisive.31 Evidence in support of validity and reliability of this scale in male (α = 0.70) and female (α = 0.72) college students has been reported.31 A higher score on this scale indicates a more neurotic personality.



공격성

Aggression-hostility.


We used a seven- item scale from the short form of the ZKPQ that measures a tendency to express verbal aggression and to show rudeness, thoughtlessness, vengefulness, spitefulness, a quick temper, and impatient behavior.31 Evidence in support of the validity and reliability of this scale in male (α = 0.66) and female (α = 0.67) college students has been reported.31 A higher score on this scale indicates a higher degree of aggression and hostility.




충동

Impulsive sensation seeking.


We used a seven-item scale from the short form of the ZKPQ that measures a tendency to act quickly on impulse without planning, often in response to a need for thrills and excitement, change, and novelty.31 Evidence in support of validity and reliability of this scale in male (α = 0.62) and female (α = 0.71) college students has been reported.31 A higher score on this scale indicates a higher degree of impulsiveness and thrill-seeking behavior.




절차

Procedures


IRB

This study, determined to be exempt from review by the Thomas Jefferson University institutional review board, was conducted with graduating medical students between 2011 and 2013 as part of the Jefferson Longitudinal Study of Medical Education.39,40


학생 명단을 주고 "어떤 반 동료가 당신의 전문적/개인적 성장에 유의미한 긍정적인 영향을 주었나요?" 라고 질문하고, 복수의 학생을 선택할 수 있게 함.

To identify students’ degree of positive social influence among their peers, we asked students in each graduating class to complete a peer nomination instrument, which included the names of all students in the class listed in alphabetical order. Students were told that these nominations would be used in a study designed to enhance understanding of personal connections. The instrument’s instructions asked students to think back on their medical school experiences and respond to the following question: “Which of your classmates had significant positive influences on your professional and personal development?” The instructions specified that students were to consider all of their classmates who had positive influences on them and to check as many names as they deemed necessary.



통계 분석

Statistical analyses


We used multivariate analysis of variance, followed by univariate analyses of variance and Duncan post hoc multiple range tests, to examine the significance of the difference between the top and bottom influencers (the independent variable) on each of the dependent variables (empathy, sociability, activity, self-esteem, loneliness, neuroticism, aggression-hostility, and impulsive sensation seeking). We also calculated Cohen d as an estimate of the effect size of the differences.41,42




Results




고찰

Discussion


 

가장 많은 영향력을 가진 학생집단은 더 공감적/사회적/적극적이었다. 성공적 리더십의 관계-지향적 특성과 맞는다.

Our findings suggest that students identified as the top influencers (i.e., those with the most positive influence nominations from their peers) are more empathic, sociable, and active than the bottom influencers (i.e., those with the fewest nominations). These personality attributes are indicative of an engaging, relationship-building personality, which is a prominent feature of successful leadership.7–9,11,12,14–19,43


긍정적인 사회적 영향과 높은 공감 사이의 정적 관계는 이전 연구와도 일치함. 프로페셔널리즘을 갖추었다고 동료에 의해서 많이 지명받은 학생이 JSE에서 높았다. 긍정적인 사회적 영향력과 공감 사이의 관계가 있으며, 공감적 리더는 팔로워의 일체감belonging에 대한 요구를 고려할 수 있는 사람이며, 팔로워의 소속감에 대한 요구를 자극하며, 팔로워의 감정을 인지하고, 팔로워의 우려를 이해하며, 이타적 행동으로 팔로워와 관계를 맺는다.

Our finding of a significant association between positive social influence and higher empathy is consistent with the findings of a previous study in which medical students who were nominated by their peers as displaying qualities related to professionalism obtained a significantly higher mean score on the JSE than their classmates.44 This significant association between positive social influence—described as the foundation of leadership2—and empathy was expected, given previous findings that empathic leaders are able to take into consideration their followers’ needs for belongingness,7 to stimulate their followers’ needs for affiliation,45 to recognize their followers’ emotions,13 to understand their followers’ concerns,19 and to make connections with their followers through altruistic action.8


이전 연구에서 긍정적 사회적 영향력을 미치는 의사들이 간호사로부터 환자 진료와 관계된 정보를 얻을 가능성이 더 높고, 진료의 질이 따라서 더 높아짐을 보여준 바 있다. 이는 긍정적 사회적 영향력이 더 나은 임상 결과를 가져다줌을 시사한다. 또한 긍정적인 영향을 주는 것으로 동료로부터 인정받는 것이 교수들이 학생의 임상적 역량에 대해 평가한 것과 유의미한 연관이 있었다.

Prior work has shown that physicians who exert positive social influence are more likely to receive pertinent information from nurses, consequently resulting in higher-quality patient care,46 which suggests that positive social influence can lead to better clinical outcomes. Additionally, in a recent study, we found a statistically significant association between peer recognition of positive influence and faculty ratings of medical students’ clinical competence in third-year core clinical clerkships.47


인성검사도구를 시행한 시점과 동료 지명 검사를 시행한 시점 사이의 간격이 제한점이 된다. 의과대학생의 인적특성이 의과대학 기간동안 변할 수 있다. 이러한 의견도 타당하나, 본 연구에 사용된 핵심 인적특성 - ZKPQ로 측정한 것들 - 이 생물-진화론적 토대를 두고 있기에, 특정한 개입 없이 쉽게 바뀌지 않기에 이런 시간 간격의 효과는 제한적이었을 것이다. 의과대학 기간 동안 이러한 측면에 목표를 둔 체계적인 프로그램은 없었음.

The time interval between the administration of the personality assessment instruments and the peer nomination instrument may be considered another limitation of this study. It could be argued that medical students’ personality attributes may have changed during medical school. Although there is merit to this argument, the effect of the time interval may be mitigated by the fact that some of the key personality attributes used in this study, such as those measured by the ZKPQ, have a biological–evolutionary basis31 and are not easily amenable to change without intervention. In addition, because there were no systematic or goal-directed programs to change students’ personality attributes during medical school, any changes would likely be random, rather than systematic, and thus would not substantially confound our findings.



효과크기가 좋게 봐줘야 중등도 정도여서 임상적(실용적) 유의미성이 있다고 보기 어려울 수 있다.

Because the effect size estimates were, at best, moderate, it could be argued that the clinical (practical) significance of our findings would be questionable.41,42


효과크기가 작긴 하나 평균적인 인성 연구와 비추어 보면 실망할 정도로 작은 것은 아니다.

However, the range of effect size estimates of statistically significant differences in our study (from 0.21 to 0.57) should not be discouraging, given that the average effect size estimate in personality research, according to a large meta-analytic study, is 0.21,48 and the average validity coefficient in undergraduate medical education research is 0.30.49



동료 지명Peer nomination은 의과대학생의 프로페셔널리즘의 지표로서도 유용했으며, 간호대학에서도 잠재적 리더를 선발하는데 권고된 바 있다. 의과대학의 잠재적 리더를 찾고, 효과적인 리더십을 배양해주는 것은 전문직과 사회를 위하여 좋을 것이다.

Peer nomination has also been found to be an indicator of qualities that are related to professionalism in medical students44 and in medical practice,50 and it has been recommended as a method for selecting potential nursing leaders.51 Identifying potential leaders in medicine and cultivating qualities that foster effective leadership in physicians-in-training would be beneficial to the profession and to society at large.52,53


 

함의 

Implications

 

긍정적인 사회적 영향력과 효과적인 리더십을 촉진하는 형성적 인성 사이에 유의미한 관계가 있다. 이러한 결과는 의과대학의 잠재적 리더를 양성farming하는 것보다 탐색identifying하는 것이 더 유용함을 시사한다. 이러한 탐색-기반 접근법은 의과대학으로부터 새로운 교육 프로그램을 설계하고 자원을 할당하는 부담을 줄여준다.

In addition, our findings, which suggest a significant link between positive social influence and engaging personality attributes that foster effective leadership (e.g., empathy), have important implications for identifying, rather than “farming,”47 potential leaders in medical school. Not only may this identification- based approach relieve schools from the burden of designing and allocating resources for a new educational program (as in a more traditional cultivation- based approach),












31 Zuckerman M. Zuckerman–Kuhlman Personality Questionnaire (ZKPQ): An alternative five-factorial model. In: de Raad B, Perugini M, eds. Big Five Assessment. Seattle, Wash: Hogrefe & Huber Publishers; 2002:377–396.


49 Ferguson E, James D, Madeley L. Factors associated with success in medical school: Systematic review of the literature. BMJ. 2002;324:952–957.


39 Gonnella JS, Hojat M, Veloski J. AM last page. The Jefferson longitudinal study of medical education. Acad Med. 2011;86:404.






 2015 Apr;90(4):505-10. doi: 10.1097/ACM.0000000000000652.

Can empathyother personality attributes, and level of positive social influence in medical school identifypotential leaders in medicine?

Author information

  • 1Dr. Hojat is research professor of psychiatry and human behavior, Department of Psychiatry and Human Behavior, and director, Jefferson Longitudinal Study of Medical Education, Center for Research in Medical Education and Health Care, Sidney Kimmel Medical College at Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Dr. Michalec is assistant professor, Department of Sociology, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware. Mr. Veloski is director, Medical Education Division, Center for Research in Medical Education and Health Care, Sidney Kimmel MedicalCollege at Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Dr. Tykocinski is provost and executive vice president for academic affairs, Thomas Jefferson University, and Anthony F. and Gertrude M. De Palma Dean and Professor of Pathology, Sidney Kimmel Medical College at Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.

Abstract

PURPOSE:

To test the hypotheses that medical students recognized by peers as the most positive social influencers would score (1) high on measures of engaging personality attributes that are conducive to relationship building (empathy, sociability, activity, self-esteem), and (2) low on disengaging personality attributes that are detrimental to interpersonal relationships (loneliness, neuroticism, aggression-hostility, impulsive sensation seeking).

METHOD:

The study included 666 Jefferson Medical College students who graduated in 2011-2013. Students used a peer nomination instrument toidentify classmates who had a positive influence on their professional and personal development. At matriculation, these students had completed a survey that included the Jefferson Scale of Empathy and Zuckerman-Kuhlman Personality Questionnaire short form and abridged versions of the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale and UCLA Loneliness Scale. In multivariate analyses of variance, the method of contrasted groups was used to compare the personality attributes of students nominated most frequently by their peers as positive influencers (top influencers [top 25% in their class distribution], n = 176) with those of students nominated least frequently (bottom influencers [bottom 25%], n = 171).

RESULTS:

The top influencers scored significantly higher on empathy, sociability, and activity and significantly lower on loneliness compared with the bottom influencers. However, the effect size estimates of the differences were moderate at best.

CONCLUSIONS:

The research hypotheses were partially confirmed. Positive social influencers appear to possess personality attributes conducive to relationship building, which is an important feature of effective leadership. The findings have implications for identifying and training potentialleaders in medicine.

PMID:
 
25629944
 
[PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]


평가자-기반 평가에서 첫인상의 역할에 대한 고찰(Adv in Health Sci Educ, 2014)

Exploring the role of first impressions in rater-based assessments

Timothy J. Wood




의학은 오랜 기간 학습자의 역량을 평가할 때 선생이나 전문가의 판단에 의존해왔다. 이들을 평가자로 사용하는 것은 두 가지 요인을 반영한다. 첫째로, 좋은 의사가 되는데 필요한 스킬은 지필고사와 같은 비-평가자 기반 평가로는 쉽사리 드러나지 않는다. 둘째 요인은 어떻게 의사가 훈련되느냐와 관계되어 있다. 학습자가 임상환경에서 수행하는 능력이 관찰되상이 되며, 이는 훈련과정 중 하나이다.

Medicine has a long history of assessing the competence of learners by relying on the judgments of teacher and/or experts. This use of these people as raters is likely a reflection of two factors. First, the skills that make a good physician do not necessarily lend themselves easily to non-rater based assessments methods like written examinations. The second factor relates to how physicians are trained. Learners are observed in clinical settings as part of their training,


최근, 역량-바탕 프레임워크를 적용하여 학습자를 평가할 것이 권고되고 있다. 이 평가 프레임워크는 근무지 평가 뿐 아니라 피드백의 활용을 강조하는데, 이 둘 모두 평가자 역할의 중요성이 매우 강조된다.

More recently, there has been an increased push to adopt a competency- based framework to assess the skills of learners (Holmboe et al. 2010). This assessment framework emphasizes the use of feedback as well as workplace assessments, both of which require observation thus further highlighting the critical role of the rater.


그러나 안타깝게도, 모든 인간은 선입견과 편견을 가지고 있고, 이것이 학습자의 역량을 평가할 때 그 평가의 퀄리티에 영향을 끼친다.

Unfortunately, all humans have preconceived notions, biases and abilities that influence the quality of the judgments they make when assessing the competence of learners (Gige- renzer and Gaissmaier 2011; Hoyt 2000; Landy and Farr 1980; Saal et al. 1980, 1974; Williams et al. 2003).


의학교육에서 활용되는 평가가 가치를 가지려면(타당하고 신뢰성 있으려면), 사람들이 타인에게 점수를 매기는 인지적 프로세스를 이해하는 것이 중요하다. 실제로, 모든 평가에 있어서 이러한 종류의 정보를 수집하는 것은 chain of validity evidence의 한 부분이다.

To ensure the assessments that are used in medical education have value (i.e., are valid and reliable), it is crucial that we understand the cognitive processes behind howpeople assign scores when assessing others. In fact, the collection of this type of information is considered part of the chain of validity evidence one should collect with regards to any assessment (AERAet al. 1999; Clauser et al. 2008; Cook and Beckman 2006; Downing and Haladyna 2009).


특히 관심의 대상이 되는 것은 '첫인상', '단편적 판단', '아는바 없음' 와 같은 판단이다.

Of particular interest is the impact of judgments often referred to as ‘‘first impression’’, ‘‘thin slice’’ or ‘‘zero acquaintance’’ judgments.


첫인상

First impressions


이러한 타인에 대한 판단을 '인상'이라 부르며, 우리가 타인의 인성과 행동에 관한 정보를 인지하고 조직하고 통합하는데 도움을 주는 카테고리이다. 첫인상은 빠르게 만들어지는 인상으로서, 누군가를 만나고 5분 내에 형성된다. 첫인상은 첫인상 판단이 내려지는 시점이 매우 빠르고 제한된 정보에 따라 내려진다는 점을 감안하면 놀라울 정도로 정확하다.

These judgments about others are called impressions, which are categories that we use to help us perceive, organize and integrate information about an individual’s personality and behavior (Feldman 1981; Fiske and Neuberg 1990; Gingerich et al. 2011). First impressions are a type of impression that is made quickly, usually within 5 min of meeting someone for the first time. First impressions have been found to be surprisingly accurate given how quickly they form and the limited information on which they are based (Ambady and Rosenthal 1992; Ambady 2010; Harris and Garris 2008).

 


 

첫인상 뒤에 숨겨진 인지절차는 무엇인가?

What are the cognitive processes behind a first impression?


많은 인지적 활동(의사결정, 추론, 카테고리화, 기억) 등은 두 가지 절차에 따라 이뤄진다. 시스템1과 시스템2 프로세스이다. 일반적으로 시스템1은 빠르고, 노력이 덜 들며, 비-분석적이고, 자동적이고, 무의식적이며, 시스템2는 느리고, 노력이 들고, 분석적이고, 통제되며, 의식적이다.

Many cognitive activities including decision making, reasoning, categorization, and memory are thought to consist of two underlying processes; what have come to be known as System 1 and System 2 processes (Evans 2008; Uleman et al. 2008; Kahneman 2011). It is generally accepted that System 1 processes are rapid, effortless, non-analytic, automatic, and/or unconscious, whereas System 2 processes are slow, effortful, analytic, controlled, and/or conscious.


  • 시스템1: 강아지나 고양이 라는 단어를 읽는 것 cat, dog.
  • 시스템2: 이러한 단어를 읽는 것 parasito- logical, incudostapedial.


시스템1과 시스템2 모두 많은 인지활동에 활용될 수 있으며, 인지심리학과 사회적판단, 의사결정에 관한 연구에서 우리가 어떻게 이 두 가지 프로세스를 조화시키는지 이해하려고 노력해왔다.

Both System 1 and System 2 processes can be used to perform many of the cognitive activities listed above; therefore the focus of research in cognitive psychology and social judgment and decision making is to try to understand how we coordinate these two processes (see Brooks 2005; DeNisi et al. 1984; Fiske and Neuberg 1990; Jacoby 1991; Kahneman 2011; Norman 2009; Schneider and Chein 2003 for examples in these areas).


첫인상은 주로 시스템1 프로세스를 반영한다.

First impressions are thought to reflect primarily System 1 processes


만약 첫인상에 대한 이러한 가정(시스템1 프로세스)이 사실이라면, 무의식적 프로세스에 의존하는 과제에 있어서, 사람들이 자신이 그 과제를 어떻게 수행했는지를 말로 설명하는 것은 어려울 것이다.

If this assumption about first impressions is true, for tasks that rely on unconscious processes, it should be difficult for people to accurately verbalize how they performed a task


 

어린아이에게 자전거를 어떻게 타는지 설명해주는 것이 얼마나 어려운가를 생각해보라

One just has to think of how hard it is to explicitly verbalize to a child the steps needed to ride a bicycle to realize this occurs.


첫인상과 관련된 인식의 수준(level of awareness)를 본 연구는 적다. 이 중, 정확성과 자신감(accuracy and confidence)에 대한 것이 있다. 예컨대, 정확성과 자신감은 낮지만 정적 상관관계에 있다는 연구가 있음.

there have only been a few studies that have looked at the level of awareness associated with first impressions. Of the work that has been done, the focus has been on the relationship between accuracy and confidence. For example, (Smith et al. 1991) found a low but positive relation between accuracy and confidence levels.


유사하게, 정확성과 자신감의 관계는 평가자가 자신의 평가에 자신감이 전혀 없을 때 가장 높았는데, 왜냐하면 이 때 평가자는 자신이 평가하는 대상에 대해서 생각이 없었no idea기 때문이다.

Similarly, (Ames et al. 2010), the correlation between accuracy and confidence was highest for those raters with no confidence in their rating because they knew when they had no idea about a personality judgment.


비록 사람들이 다른 사람에 대해서 판단하는 것이 가져올 결과를 알고 있더라도, 사람들은 어떻게 그 판단을 내렸는지 설명하는 일을 어려워하며, 그 판단을 어떻게 내렸는가에 대한 통찰insight을 거의 가지고 있지 않다

The conclusion from both of these studies is that, although people may be aware of the outcome of forming a judgment of others, they appear to have difficulty articulating how they did it and/or have little insight into how they actually made that judgment.


Biesanz 등은 자신감과 정확성 사이에 관계가 작다는 것이 lack of awareness를 반영한다는 결과에 의문을 표했다. 이들은 사람들이 비록 스스로 첫인상 판단이 얼마나 정확한가에 대해서는 잘 모르더라도, 그들이 첫인상에 대한 판단을 내리는 시점을 인지하고 있다고 주장한다.

Recently, Biesanz et al. (2011) questioned the finding that a low relationship between confidence and accuracy in first impression judgments reflects a lack of awareness. They argued that people are aware at the time when individual first impression judgments are accurate even if they do not know how accurate their judgments are globally.


첫인상이 시스템1 프로세스를 사용함을 반영하는 또 다른 연구패턴은 이 판단이 빠르게 내려진다는 것이다.

Another pattern of results that one should expect if a first impression reflects the use of System 1 processes is that the judgments should be made quickly.


Willis and Todorov 는 사진에 있는 사람을 보고 성격에 대한 인상을 정확하게 판단할 때, 100ms만 보고서도 시간제한없이 본 것과 비슷한 정확도로 판단할 수 있음을 밝혔다.

Willis and Todorov (2006). found that people can produce as accurate an impression of the personality traits associated with a person in a photograph after 100 ms exposure as they do when viewing the same photo- graph with no time constraints.

 


Dodson 등은 OSCE의 평가자에게 피평가자를 5분 시점에서, 그리고 8분 시점에서 평가하게 했다. 5분 시점에서 평가한 결과는 8분 시점에서 평가한 결과보다 점수가 낮았으나, 둘 사이의 상관관계는 높았으며, 5분 시점이 평가로도 점수의 신뢰도는 낮아지지 않았다.

Dodson et al. (2009) asked examiners on an admissions OSCE to provide a rating of the examinee’s abilities at the 5 min mark and then again at the 8 min mark. Ratings at 5 min were lower than ratings at eight minutes, but the correlation between ratings at the two time points was high (r = 0.82–0.91) with no drop in reliability for scores at the 5 min mark.


Govaerts 등은 경험이 많은 평가자와 경험이 거의 없는 평가자에게 피평가자의 비디오를 보게 하였는데, 모든 경우에서 평가자들은 5분 내에 판단을 내릴 수 있다고 생각했다.

Govaerts et al (2011; see also Govaerts et al. 2013) asked experienced and inexperienced examiners to watch two videos of a trainee with a patient. In all conditions, therefore, the examiners thought they could judge the performance in under 5 min.


첫인상이 시스템1 프로세스를 사용한다고 가정한다면, 세 번째 특징은 판단을 내릴 때 인지적 자원의 소모가 거의 없어야 한다는 것이다. 인지심리학에서 과제의 자동화를 연구하는 한 가지 흔한 방법은 divided attention task를 사용하는 것.

A third characteristic that one would expect if first impressions reflect System 1 pro- cesses is that the judgment should require few cognitive resources to operate. In cognitive psychology, one common method used to study the automaticity of a task has been to use a divided attention task;


 

이러한 논리에 따라서, 또 다른 과제를 동시에 하게끔 하여도 초기 판단의 정확성이나 수행능력에는 차이가 없었다.

By this logic, introducing a simultaneous task will have little impact on the accuracy or performance associated with the initial judgment.


Patterson and Stockbridge 는 첫인상을 높은 인지적부하 조건에서 판단하게 한 그룹에서 오랜 시간 숙고하게 한 그룹보다 더 정확한 판단을 내렸으며, 이는 첫인상이 시스템1 프로세스를 사용한다는 것을 기대하게끔 한다.

Patterson and Stockbridge (1998). found that participants in the high cognitive load condition were more accurate in the first impression group compared to the deliberative group, a finding one would expect if a first impression judgment relied primarily on a System 1 process.


Ambady는 과목에 대한 과목 초반의 평가와 최종 평가의 상관관계가 낮음을 보고하면서, 인지부하조건에 비해서 통제조건 혹은 지연조건은 아무런 차이가 없음을 밝혔다.

Ambady found a low correlation between the initial ratings and the final course ratings in the reasons condition (r = 0.27) but no differences between the control and delay conditions compared to the cognitive load condition (r = 0.65–0.71). This pattern is what would be expected if participants were relying primarily on a System1 process to make their initial judgments.


요약하자면, 첫인상에 깔린 인지프로세스에 대한 연구를 보면 첫인상은 시스템1 프로세스에 의존하는 것으로 보이며, 왜냐하면 평가자는 흔히 자신들이 어떻게 그 인상을 형성했는지 인지하지 못하며, 그 판단은 빠르게 내려지고, 인지적 부하를 가한 조건에 민감하게 반응하지 않았기 때문이다.

In summary, research looking at the underlying cognitive processes behind first impressions would suggest that first impressions likely reflect the reliance on a System 1 process because raters are typically unaware of how they created an impression, the impressions are made quickly, and they are not sensitive to manipulations that add com- peting attentional demands.


첫인상은 얼마나 정확한가?

How accurate are first impressions?


이 질문에 대한 대답은 논란이 있다. 듀얼-프로세스 모델에 곤한 대부분의 연구는 사람들이 시스템1 프로세스에 의존하면 오류를 일으킬 확률이 높다는 것에 초점을 둔다. 시스템1 의존 시에 늘어나는 에러는, 평가자들이 (그들을 심사숙고하고 분석적으로 만들어주는 것보다) 휴리스틱, 기억 인출, 인지적 편향과 같이 에러를 유발하는 것들에 영향을 받는 경향이 높기 때문이라고 설명한다. 이러한 관점에서, 첫인상은 에러에 취약하며, 여기에 기반한 판단은 지양되어야 한다.

The answer to this question is debatable. Much of the literature on dual process models (Evans 2008; Croskerry 2009; Kahneman 2011; Tversky and Kahneman 1974) has focused on the increase in errors that occur when people rely on System 1 processes. The explanation for the increase is that when relying on System 1 processes, raters are more likely to be influenced by heuristics, memory retrieval or other cognitive biases which lead to errors compared to processes that are more deliberative and analytic. From this perspective, first impressions should be prone to errors, and judgments based on them should be avoided.


시스템1 프로세스가 시스템2 프로세스보다 더 에러를 발생시킬 가능성이 높다는 근거에도, 일부 연구자들은 이 연구결과의 일반성에 의문을 표한다. 예컨대, 임상추론 연구를 리뷰하여, 일부 연구자들은 임상문제에 대해서 (빠른 반응은 정확하나) 늦은 반응slow response은 오류를 만들어내는 상황들을 찾아내었다.

Despite evidence that System 1 processes can lead to more errors than System 2 pro- cesses, some researchers have challenged the generality of these results (Eva and Norman 2005; Gigerenzer and Gaissmaier 2011; Klein 2009). For example, (Norman 2009; also Sherbino et al. 2012), in a review of clinical reasoning studies, described situations in which errors were associated with slow responses to clinical problems, whereas fast responses were more accurate.


또 다른 연구는 실험실 세팅에서 내린 틀린 판단이 실제 상황에서는 옳은 판단이었을 수 있다는 것에 초점을 둔다. Mu¨ller-Lyer Illusion 을 시스템1과 시스템2에 따라서 해석한 예시가 있다.

Other researchers have suggested that rating-based research needs to be focused on what people can do in more naturalistic settings or with more realistic stimuli because a wrong judgment in the laboratory may be a correct judgment in the real world. This distinction is best demonstrated by considering how the Mu¨ller-Lyer Illusion is interpreted in terms of System1 and System2 processes.


즉, '착각'이 반드시 판단의 오류를 의미하는 것은 아니라는 점이다.

In other words, the illusion does not reflect an error of judgment.


정확성에 대한 또 다른 논점으로는, '정확성'이라는 것이 다양한 사회적판단 연구에서 상대적인 개념이며, 왜냐하면 무엇을 옳고 그르다고 정의내리는 황금률은 존재하지 않기 때문이다. 이보다는 정확성이 '판단'에 기초하고 있으며, 그 판단이란 '동의'혹은 '예측'에 의존한다고 보는 것이 옳다.

Another comment about accuracy is needed. Accuracy is a relative concept in many social judgment studies because a gold standard that clearly defines right or wrong does not exist. Rather, accuracy is based on a judgment, which may rely on agreement or prediction (Funder 1987; Funder and West 1993; Kenny 1993).


'동의agreement'에 있어서, 평가자 평가와 자기평가를 비교한 것이나 같은 준거로 다른 평가자의 평가와 비교한 연구 등이 있다.(self-other agreement / consensus rating)

In the case of agreement, studies usually compare ratings made by a rater to those made by the target (self-other agreement) or to a rating made by other raters using the same criteria (consensus rating).


'예측prediction'에 있어서, 동일한 혹은 다른 준거에 따라 미래의 결과를 예측하는지 보는 것이다.

In the case of prediction, the ratings are used to see if they predict a future result based on either the same or different criteria.


Funder가 주장한 바와 같이, 이 분야의 연구는 '상관관계의 크기가 아니라, 판단이 더 정확해지는지 아니면 덜 정확해지는지'를 연구해야 한다.

As argued by Funder (1987), research in this area should study circumstances in which judgments become more or less accurate rather than focus on the magnitude of the correlation.


판단의 정확성이 상대적이라는 관점에서, 첫인상에 대한 연구는 정확도에 있어서 다양한 결과를 보여주었다. Barrick 등은 짧은 라뽀 세션rapport session에 기반한 첫인상과 인터뷰 점수가 중등도의 상관관계를 가짐을 보여주었다.

In light of the argument that accuracy is relative, studies of first impressions have shown considerable range in terms of the degree of accuracy. Barrick et al. (2010) found a moderate correlation between first impression based on a short rapport session and an interview score (r = 0.42).


요약하자면, 듀얼-코드 이론가들에게 공통적인 결론은 시스템1 프로세스에 의존하는 것이 (첫인상을 포함해서) 판단의 오류를 유발할 수 있으며, 우리는 이를 경계해야 한다. 연구자들은 이에 대하여 두 가지 반응을 보인다. 첫째로, 이러한 패턴이 모든 경우에 있어서 옳지는 않으며, 느리고 숙고하는 프로세스에 기반한 판단이 더 에러를 일으키는 경우도 있다. 둘째로, 연구자들은 에러를 일으키는 요인들이 가지는 가치가 있는지 의문을 표하며, 실험실을 벗어나면 시스템1 프로세스를 사용한 판단이 오히려 더 정확할 수 있음을 지적한다. 또한 대부분의 판단에 있어서 정확성은 - 첫인상을 포함하여 - 상대적인 개념이며 절대적인 옳고 그름의 황금률은 없다. 이러한 상대성을 고려한다면, 어떤 프로세스가 에러를 유발하는가를 보는가에만 초점을 두기보다는 판단의 정확성이 높아지거나 낮아질 수 있는 조건을 연구하는 것이 나을 것이다.

In summary, a common perspective from dual code theorists is that reliance on System 1 processes, including first impressions, can lead to errors in judgment and that we need to be wary of relying on these processes when making judgments. Researchers have had two responses to this perspective. First, the pattern is not necessarily true in all cases and it has been shown that judgments based on slow deliberative processes can be more error-prone than those made on first impressions. Second, some researchers have questioned whether studies of factors that produce errors are of value, and point out that often errors made in the laboratory using System 1 processes are actually correct judgments when studied outside the laboratory. In addition, accuracy of most judgments, including first impres- sions, is relative because there is often no gold standard that determines right from wrong. Given this relativity, it may be more fruitful to study conditions that cause accuracy to increase or decrease rather than focus solely on whether one process leads to errors.


첫인상의 정확도에 영향을 주는 요인은 무엇인가?

What factors modify the accuracy of a first impression?


첫인상의 정확도에 영향을 주는 요인을 찾는 것이 중요하다. Gingerich 등은 평가자의 기분, 평가자가 알던 다른 사람과의 유사성, 사전에 접한 정보 등을 지적했다. 예컨대, 피평가자의 관찰가능한 성격 (외향성 등)은 덜 관찰가능한 성격 (신경증, 개방성) 등에 비해서 더 정확하게 평가가능하다.

An examination of other factors that could modify the accuracy of a first impression would be of value. Gingerich et al. (2011) has reviewed some of these factors within the larger impression formation literature and they include: mood of the rater, similarity to other people the rater knows, and seeing information in advance. For example, with regard to the people being rated, observable personality traits like extroversion are typically judged more accurately than less obser- vable traits like neuroticism or openness (Ambady et al. 1999; Borkenau and Liebler 1992; Lippa and Dietz 2000).


평가자-기반 요인에 있어서..지능intelligence, 젠더, 평가자의 기분mood (슬픈 평가자가 덜 정확하다)

With regard to rater-based factors,

  • intelligence has been identified as a factor that could influence the accuracy of first impressions judgments.
  • Gender has also been identified as a potential factor that can influence the accuracy of judgments based on first impressions (Ambady et al. 1995; Chan et al. 2011; c.f. Lippa and Dietz 2000).
  • Another rater-based factor that can influence the accuracy of a first impression is the mood of the rater, with sad raters having less accurate first impressions than happy raters (Ambady and Gray 2002).


인상 관리impression management와 안정성stability에 대한 연구. 인상 관리란 직업 면접에서 흔히 연구되며, 피면담자가 면담자와의 상호작용을 컨트롤하여 영향을 주고자 하는 것.

Another issue related to factors that could influence the accuracy of a judgment based on a first impression is related to impression management and the stability of the first impression. Impression management is most commonly studied in the job interview lit- erature and refers to situations in which interviewees attempt to influence an interviewer by controlling the interaction between themselves and interviewer. Barrick et al. (2009) found evidence that

  • 외모 appearance (i.e. physical and professional),
  • 인상관리 impression management (i.e., self-promotion, ingratiation to the interviewer, emphasizing positives, focusing attention on the interviewer), and
  • 언어/비언어적 특성 verbal (voice) and non-verbal (smiling, eye contact) characteristics

 

can all have an influence on the impression a rater may form.


 

 

요약하면, 첫인상에 영향을 줄 수 있는 요인은 다양하다. 이들 중 일부는 판단의 대상이 되는 사람과 관련되어있다. '평가자와 얼마나 유사한가'와 같은 비의도적인 요인들 뿐 아니라 '피평가자가 평가자가 받는 인상을 관리하려는 노력'과 같은 의도적 요인들도 있다. 젠더/지능/기분 등이 관련된다. 외향성은 더 판단하기 쉬운 특성이다.

In summary, a number of factors were identified that can influence the accuracy of a first impression. Some of these factors are related to the person being judged: either uninten- tional factors like similarity to the rater or intention factors like those deliberately used by ratees to manage impressions raters may create. Other factors that influence accuracy like gender, intelligence, or mood are related to the rater. Finally, some traits like extraversion appear to be easier to judge than other traits.


 

평가에 있어서 첫인상의 영향력은?

What is the impact of first impressions for assessment?


첫인상 연구의 대부분은 다음 등이다

The majority of studies of first impressions have focused on

  • the ability of raters to make a personality judgment of some kind,
  • rate the abilities of a teacher, or
  • predict the success of a job interview.


'자기충족적 예언' 혹은 '예언효과'와 관련된 것이다. 이는 첫인상이 이후의 평가자와 피평가자의 관계에 영향을 준다는 것이다.

The first area deals with a phenomenon called self-fulfilling prophecies or an expectancy effect. This phenomenon occurs when an initial impression influences subsequent interactions between the rater and the person being rated (Dipboye 1982; Harris and Garris 2008; Rosenthal 1994).


Snyder 등은 남성 참가자가 부정적 기대를 가지고 있으면, 여성 참가자를 덜 친절하게 대하고 여성으로부터 부정적 반응을 얻는다.

Snyder et al. concluded that if male participants had negative expectations, they treated the female participants in a less friendly manner, getting a negative reaction from the females.


유사하게, 직무 면접에서 Dougherty 등은 긍정적 첫인상이 면접관의 긍정적 커뮤니케이션 스타일과 연결되며, 합격 가능성이 높아지고, 더 긍정적인 보컬 스타일과 연결된다.

Similarly, in a study using job interviews, Dougherty et al. (1994) found that positive first impressions were related to more positive communication styles by the interviewer, increased likelihood to extend an offer, and more positive vocal style.


두 번째로, 첫인상과 후광효과에 대한 것이다. 후광효과는 평가자가 피평가자를 판단할 때 '독립적인 특성들 간' 분별에 실패할 때 발생한다. 후광효과는 모든 평가 영역간 상관관계가 다 높게 나타나는 식으로 드러나거나, 혹은 평균 SD가 작은 방식으로 드러난다. 이는 다양한 측면dimensions에 걸쳐서 한 가지 요인이 모든 variability를 설명할 수 있는 경우이며, 또는 유의미한 평가자-피평가자 상호작용 rater-ratee interaction이 발견되는 경우이다.

The second area to which first impressions could impact on assessment is a type of rater bias called a halo effect. A halo effect is thought to occur when a rater fails to discriminate among independent aspects of behavior when making a judgment about a person. Halo is typically manifested as either high average correlations across all dimensions being assessed, low average standard deviations across all dimensions being assessed, when a single factor accounts for all of the variability in scores across multiple dimensions, or when a significant rater 9 ratee interaction is found (Balzer and Sulsky 1992; Cooper 1981).


후광의 원인에는 여러가지가 있다.

Several sources of halo have also been identified by researchers.

  • 일반적 인상general impression이 이어지는 모든 판단에 영향을 주는 경우
    The first source of halo occurs when a rater makes a judgment about a person based on a general impression (e.g. a first impression) that they form. This impression then influences all subsequent ratings or judgments about the person. For example, if a rater forms a first impression of a learner that is either positive or negative in nature, then this impression will guide the ratings on all dimensions being rated.
  • 한 영역에서 두드러지는 특징salient dimension이 다른 영역에도 줄줄이 영향을 미치는 것
    The second source of halo occurs when a salient dimension or trait drives the ratings on other dimensions being judged. For example, a high or low rating on communication skills could influence ratings on other dimensions, even those that may be unrelated, like technical skills or knowledge.
  • 평가대상이 되는 영역 간의 분간에 실패한 것inadequate discrimination between dimension
    A third source of halo is an inadequate discrimination between dimensions being rated. This source of halo usually occurs when the dimensions being rated are ambiguous and raters end up grouping what are intended to be unrelated dimensions and providing similar ratings.


후광효과가 평가의 정확성/비정확성을 가져오는가? 후광의 존재는 시스템1 프로세스에 따른 것으로 이해되며, 따라서 첫인상의 정확도에 대한 것과 같이 논쟁의 여지가 있다.

Does the presence of a halo effect lead to accurate or inaccurate ratings? The presence of halo is considered to be due to a System 1 process (i.e., use of a general impression or memory of behaviors rather than independent ratings) and therefore, like the discussion around the accuracy of first impressions, the accuracy of judgments influenced by a halo is debatable.


Cook 등은 후광효과와 정확성간 차이가 거의 없다고 밝힘. 더 연구 필요

Cook et al. (2008) found similar results as the Bernadin and Pence study in that there was little difference in halo and accuracy between raters who were trained and those in a control group. It would appear, therefore, that the relationship between halo and accuracy is an area that warrants further research to understand the conditions that influ- ence this relationship.


요약하자면, 첫인상은 두 가지 방향으로 영향을 줄 수 있다. 자기충족적 예언, 그리고 후광효과
In summary, first impressions may influence the types of assessments used in medicine in two ways. It could contribute to a self-fulfilling prophecy in which negative or positive first impressions influence the way a rater thinks about or interacts with a target. It could also contribute to the presence of a type of rater bias called the halo effect because one of the causal mechanisms behind halo is the use of a general impression by a rater when making a judgment about a target.


결론과 함의

Conclusion, implications for assessment in medical education


Factors related to impression formation (Gingerich et al. 2011), cognitive load (Tavares and Eva 2013; van Merrie¨nboer and Sweller 2010; Wood 2013), familiarity with the examinee (Stroud et al. 2011), rater expertise (Berendonk et al. 2013) as well as rater-biases (Ira- maneerat and Yudkowsky 2007; Williams et al. 2003) and overly structured assessments within competency-based frameworks (Ginsburg et al. 2010) have all been identified as influencing the way assessors assign scores.


1) 첫인상이 평가에 얼마나 영향을 주는가?

1) To what degree will first impressions influence subsequent ratings within a particular assessment context or tool?


영향을 준다는 것은 확실해 보이(is related to subsequent scores)나, 다양한 맥락에서의 확인이 필요

The basic finding, that first impressions are related to subsequent scores, is compelling but requires demonstration in a variety of contexts.


2) 한 평가 상황내에서도 첫인상이 바뀌는가?
2) Do first impressions change within the context of a single assessment session and if so under what conditions?


OSCE에서 초반에 못하다가 점차 회복하는 학생들이 있다. 그러나 좀 더 rigorous한 연구가 필요
Anecdotally, many physician examiners can describe an examinee that started off an OSCE station or oral examination badly and then recovered brilliantly. These stories suggest that impressions can change, but such anecdotal evidence must be supported by rigorous research. The stability of a first impression is particularly important for examinations like OSCEs,


만약 판단이 첫 몇분간 끝난다면, 평가 시간이 길어지는 것이 평가의 퀄리티에 주는 영향이 없을 것이다.

If a judgment about the examinee’s ability is made within the first couple of minutes, and that judgment remains stable throughout the assessment despite a change in an examinee’s performance, then longer assessments may not be adding anything to the quality of the rating that one cannot get within a few minutes.


3) 시스템1과 시스템2 프로세스의 조화

3) How does the coordination of System 1 and System 2 processes influence the use of and the accuracy of a first impression?


어떤 경우에는 시스템1이 더 정확

Under some circumstances, System 1 processes, like first impressions, can lead to more accurate judgments than System 2 processes, but it is not clear under what conditions this may occur.


무슨 평가방법을 사용하느냐

One such factor is the scoring method used. There is a considerable amount of literature on the advantages and disadvantages of using checklists versus rating scales for assessments (Hawkins and Boulet 2008; Van der Vleuten and Swanson 1990).

  • 체크리스트: 고도로 심사숙고하는deliberative 평가법. 시스템2를 활용함 A checklist is a highly deliberative scoring process so would likely reflect the use of System 2 processes.
  • 평가스케일Rating scales: 시스템1의 역할이 더 커질 수 있음(평가자가 해석할 여지가 많고 덜 rigid함). Rating scales, on the other hand, have more room for rater interpretation and are less rigid, so could allow a larger role for System 1 processes like first impressions to influence scoring.

 

평가의 목적이 무엇이냐

The purpose of the assessment (i.e., formative or summative assessment), is also important in terms of whether System 1 or System 2 processes should be favored.

  • 형성적 피드백을 위한 평가는 더 심사숙고해야하고 분석적 채점 프로세스를 위한 설계
    It is possible that an examination designed for formative feedback might favor a deliberative, analytical scoring process in order to provide feed- back,
  • 총괄평가를 위한 평가는 더 global하고 덜 analytic함.
    whereas an examination designed solely for summative assessment may favor a more global, less analytical scoring process.

 

인지부하: 어떤 과제는 인지적 자원을 더 필요로 함. 예를 들면 응급실에서 피평가자의 병력청취, 의사소통기술, 프로페셔널리즘을 판단해야 하는 경우

Cognitive load is another factor that would likely influence the use of and accuracy of first impressions. Because some rating tasks require a higher degree of cognitive resources (i.e., attention) than other tasks, the resulting scores could start to mimic the results found under divided attention manipulations described earlier. For example, imagine a situation in which a rater must evaluate an examinee’s history taking, communication skills and professionalism while they interact with a live patient in a busy Emergency Department.


4) 자기충족적 예언이 얼마나 평가에 영향을 주는가?

4) To what degree does a self-fulfilling prophecy influence the ratings?


5) 후광효과와 첫인상의 관계

5) What is the relationship between first impressions and the halo effect?


 

상황에 따라 다름;

First impressions are thought to contribute to the presence of a halo effect.

  • Under some circumstances, especially when one wants to identify specific strengths and weakness within a person, the presence of halo would make the assessment difficult.
  • In other cir- cumstances, especially when trying to discriminate abilities between individuals, the presence of halo may actually be a benefit due to the high reliability.

What is unclear is what those circumstances are, and how manipulations that influence first impressions impact on the presence or absence of halo.


checklist vs rating scale

First impression ratings could be compared to a condition in which examiners score examinees using a checklist versus a condition in which they use a rating scale. If rating scales support the use of System 1 processes and checklists facilitate System 2 process, one might find a larger correlation with the former scoring system.






 2014 Aug;19(3):409-27. doi: 10.1007/s10459-013-9453-9. Epub 2013 Mar 26.

Exploring the role of first impressions in rater-based assessments.

Author information

  • 1Academy for Innovation in Medical Education (AIME), RGN2206, Faculty of Medicine, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, K1H-8M5, Canada, twood@uottawa.ca.

Abstract

Medical education relies heavily on assessment formats that require raters to assess the competence and skills of learners. Unfortunately, there are often inconsistencies and variability in the scores raters assign. To ensure the scores from these assessment tools have validity, it is important to understand the underlying cognitive processes that raters use when judging the abilities of their learners. The goal of this paper, therefore, is to contribute to a better understanding of the cognitive processes used by raters. Representative findings from the social judgment and decision making, cognitive psychology, and educational measurement literature will be used to enlighten the underpinnings of these rater-based assessments. Of particular interest is the impact judgments referred to as first impressions (or thin slices) have on rater-based assessments. These are judgments about people made very quickly and based on very little information. A narrative review will provide a synthesis of research in these three literatures (social judgment and decision making, educational psychology, and cognitive psychology) and will focus on the underlying cognitive processes, the accuracy and the impact of first impressions on rater-based assessments. The application of these findings to the types of rater-based assessmentsused in medical education will then be reviewed. Gaps in understanding will be identified and suggested directions for future research studies will be discussed.

Comment in

PMID:
 
23529821
 
[PubMed - in process]


의학교육에 공공보건 통합시키기 (Am J Prev Med. 2011)

Integration of Public Health Into Medical Education An Introduction to the Supplement

Rika Maeshiro, MD, MPH, Denise Koo, MD, MPH, C. William Keck, MD, MPH








Twelve years ago, the Association of American Medi- cal Colleges (AAMC) and the CDC established a formal relationship through a cooperative agree- ment “to strengthen collaborations between academic med- icine and public health.” A consistent focus of cooperative agreement activities has been improving the public health, population health, and prevention aspects of medical educa- tion. Historically, these subjects were often omitted from the training of physicians. Contemporary medical educators continue to struggle to secure the time and resources to effectively integrate this content into the curricula,



The cooperative agreement has supported the Re- gional Medicine–Public Health Education Centers (RMPHECs)1 initiative, an effort to integrate public/popu- lation and prevention education into medical school and residency curricula through partnerships with local and state public healthagencies andother public healthpartners, as well as reports focusing on public health topics that have not traditionally been included in medical school curri- cula.2,3


The Conference



Reflections


We propose the following to assist these educators:


National organizations or individual institutions should continue efforts to convene medical educators who are responsible for integrating public health into the contin- uum of medical education. The dearth of opportunities for networking and shared problem solving was cited as a barrier to progress by educators.


Journals should create opportunities to publish articles that describe educational innovations and assess their impacts. Journals should consider adapting publica- tion standards so that experiences can be shared even when they might be limited to one institution, or before robust outcome data are available.


Medical educators, public health educators, and public health practitioners should convene and collaborate at local and regional levels. Institutions that have robust traditions of collaboration with their public health and community partners can creatively integrate educa- tional opportunities that benefıt their learners as well as their partnering organizations.


Emerging information about the impact of the social determinants of health on health status,49 the focus of the Affordable Care Act on prevention and wellness,50 and the poor showing of the U.S. among the developed nations of the world in terms of population health49 all suggest that a major paradigm-shift in medical educa- tion and practice has become a necessity.









 2011 Oct;41(4 Suppl 3):S145-8. doi: 10.1016/j.amepre.2011.07.010.

Integration of public health into medical education: an introduction to the supplement.

PMID:
 
21961654
 
[PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]


각 선발방법은 얼마나 효과적인가? systematic review (Med Educ, 2016)

How effective are selection methods in medical education? A systematic review

Fiona Patterson,1 Alec Knight,2 Jon Dowell,3 Sandra Nicholson,4 Fran Cousans2 & Jennifer Cleland5




INTRODUCTION


실제로, 의학교육에서의 선발은 종종 정치적 고려 및 핵심 이해관계자에 따라 움직인다. 이러한 영향력은 '전통적인' 척도로부터 벗어나고자 하는 모든 움직임에 - 비록 그렇게 해야 하는 확고한 근거가 있음에도 - 반대하는 결과를 낳기도 하며, 근거-기반 선발을 어렵게 한다. 그러나 Kreiter와 Axelson의 non-systemic review를 보면 지난 25년간 효과적인 교육 인터벤션이 학습에 가져다주 이득은 0.20이하의 효과크기이나, 근거-기반 선발은 훨씬 더 강력해서, 잘 설계된 선발 도구는 1SD 이상의 향상을 가져온다.

Indeed, selection for medi- cal education internationally is frequently driven by political considerations and the preferences of key stakeholders.1 Such influences may result in resis- tance against any move away from ‘traditional’ mea- sures despite compelling evidence to do so, often to the detriment of evidence-based selection practices. However, Kreiter and Axelson’s2 non-systematic review of medical admissions research and practice in the last 25 years noted that effective educational interventions typically produce only small gains in learning (effect sizes generally below 0.20), whereas evidence-based selection is comparatively far more powerful, with well-designed selection tools achieving performance gains exceeding one standard devia- tion.


이전 학업 성취도는 일반적으로, 그리고 앞으로도 선발의 기반 근거가 될 것이고, 초기 스크리닝 단계에서 평가될 것이다. 

Prior academic attainment has gener- ally been, and continues to be, the primary basis for selection and is usually assessed at an initial screen- ing stage.3


그러나 이렇나 접근법에 대해서 몇 가지 우려가 있다. 우선, 이전 연구에서 학업성취도가 좋긴 하나 수행능력의 완벽한 예측인자는 아니며, UME의 23%, PGME의 6% 분산만을 설명한다. 

How- ever, there are several concerns about this approach. Firstly, previous reviews have concluded that aca- demic performance is a good, but not perfect, pre- dictor of performance, accounting for approximately 23% of the variance in performance in undergradu- ate medical training and 6% in postgraduate performance.4


둘째로, 학업성취도가 지속적으로 의과대학 수행능력의 좋은 예측인자라는 것을 보여주고 있으나, 역사적으로 중요한 비학업적 특성, 흥미, 동기부여요인과 같은 것들을 신뢰성있게 평가하는 방법에 관한 연구는 덜 이루어져 왔다.

Secondly, although academic achievement is consis- tently shown to be a good predictor of performance in medical school,5 historically substantially less attention has been paid to researching methods that reliably evaluate important non-academic personal attributes, interests and motivational qualities.


셋째로, 장기적 코호트 연구가 부족하다.

Thirdly, there has been a dearth of longitudinal cohort studies examining the predictors of success after qualification.


의과대학 선발절차와 전공의 선발절차의 공정성은 대중의 많은 관심과 비판의 대상이 되어왔다.

Medical school admissions processes and selection for specialty training attract strong public interest and often criticism regarding fairness.7–9






방법

METHODS


자료 출처

Data sources


We conducted a formal literature search using the criteria specified in Table S1 (online).


연구 포함 및 제외 기준

Study selection and inclusion and exclusion criteria


연구 유형, 퀄리티, 선발방법 평가

Assessment of study type, quality and selection method


 

연구질문과 근거의 퀄리티는 Table 1에. Muir and Grey의 ‘salience’ and ‘safety’ 카테고리는 삭제

The research questions and evidence quality cate- gories are displayed in Table 1. In relation to the different research questions under investigation, we removed Muir and Grey’s (1996)10 ‘salience’ and ‘safety’ categories as they were not relevant to our context.


연구에 대해서 다음을 평가함.

Therefore, we examined each study in relation to four research questions concerning, respectively:

  • effectiveness;
  • proce- dural issues;
  • acceptability, and
  • cost-effectiveness.

 

예측타당도가 선발방법의 효과성에 있어 가장 중요한 척도라는 은연중의 가정을 해소하기 위한 것. 또한 선발도구의 성패는 그 외에도 accessibility, 실행(도입)의 용이성, 핵심 이해관계자들에게 받아들여지는acceptable 정도 등에 따라 달려있다.

This approach was intended to address the assumption implicit in much previous research that predictive validity is the most important measure of the effec- tiveness of a selection method; we acknowledge that the success of a selection tool may be determined by a range of additional factors, including its acces- sibility, ease of implementation and the extent to which it is viewed as acceptable by key stakeholders.



RESULTS


For a full list and description of all papers identified in the review, refer to Tables S2 and S3 (online).


Type of evidence


Effectiveness


Procedural issues


Acceptability


Cost-effectiveness


 

적성검사

Aptitude tests



요약 Summary


학생 선발에 있어서 적성검사의 유용성에 대한 근거는 혼재되어 있으며, 어떠한 적성검사를 대상으로 하였는가에 따라 크게 달라진다. 따라서 적성검사에 대한 일반적인 결론을 내리는 것은 어렵다. 예컨대, 어떤 연구는 적성검사의 예측타당도를 지지하나 다른 연구에서는 어떤 적성검사는 예측타당도가 부족하다고 지적한다. 이러한 mixed 근거는 적성검사의 공정성에 대해서도 마찬가지로 나타나는데, 일부 연구에서는 특정 그룹이 더 점수를 받는다고 하며, 어떤 연구에서는 또 그렇지 않다고 한다. 예컨대, 의과대학 지원자의 여러 그룹 간 공정성equity에 대한 근거는 다양하다(sex, age, language status and socio-economic sta- tus) 또 다른 적성검사에 대한 근거는 지원자의 배경에 상관없이 공정하며, 코칭에 영향을 거의 받지 않고, 시간이 지나도 안정적인stable 성격을 보인다고 말하며, 그 예외로 UMAT을 지적한다. 따라서 각 적성검사에 대해서 평가하는 것이 중요하다.

Mixed evidence exists among researchers on the usefulness of aptitude tests in medical student selec- tion and findings largely depend on the specific aptitude test studied; hence commenting on the generality of findings is problematic. For example, some studies support the predictive validity of apti- tude tests, but other research suggests that some specific aptitude tests lack predictive validity. Mixed evidence also exists on the fairness of aptitude tests, with some research suggesting that certain groups score more highly on aptitude tests than other groups, whereas other research suggests that this is not the case. For example, there is varied evidence on the equity of aptitude tests for different groups of medical school applicants (e.g. according to sex, age, language status and socio-economic sta- tus).11,15,20,24,46–50 Other evidence suggests that apti- tude tests are equitable with respect to candidate background, are affected relatively little by candi- date coaching, and remain stable over time,20,24,44,50–52 with the possible exception of the UMAT.30 It is therefore important to evaluate each aptitude test in its own right in order to draw con- clusions on the quality of the tool.





학업성취도

Academic records


Summary


연구자들 사이에서 학업성취도가 의과대학 선발에 유용한 정보를 준다는 합의가 있다. 연구 결과는 일반적으로 학업성취도가 예측력이 있으며, 즉 학업성취도가 더 뛰어날수록 의과대학에서 성공 가능성이 높다는 것이다. 그러나 이전 학업성취도의 변별력에 대한 우려가 있어서 이는 의과대학 지원자가 최상위권top grades를 받을수록 점차 변별력이 없어진다는 우려도 있다. 또한 높은 성적을 받은 지원자가 더 좋은 의사가 된다는 장기 추적 자료근거가 부족하다. 더 나아가 Milburn은 영국에서 지나치게 A-level 지원자에 의존하는 것이 대학의 사회적 유입 social intake를 왜곡시키며, 의과대학을 학업성취도에만 근거해서 뽑는것이 중요한 비학업적 요인을 무시하는 결과를 가져올 수 있다고 지적한다.

There is a high level of consensus among researchers that academic records provide useful information to inform medical student selection. Research generally suggests that prior academic attainment has predictive power, meaning that those with stronger academic records are more likely to succeed in medical school. However, there is concern that the discriminatory power of prior academic attainment may be diminishing as increasing numbers of medical school applicants have top grades. There is also a lack of long-term follow-up data to provide evidence that medical school applicants with higher grades go on to become better physicians. Moreover, Milburn8 notes that over-reliance on A-level results in the UK may create a distorted social intake to univer- sities, and recruiting medical students solely on the basis of academic attainment may neglect important non-academic factors required for suc- cess in medical school and beyond.


자기소개서

Personal statements


효과성 Effectiveness


예측타당도에 대한 효과성 근거는 엇갈린다. 비록 일부 근거가 자기소개서의 유급/탈락, 내과 수행능력, 임상 관련 교육 등에 관한 예측타당도를 지지하고 있지만, 또 다른 연구는 자기소개서는 다른 흔히 사용되는 선발도구에 비해서 신뢰성이 떨어진다고 주장하기도 하며, 의과대학 성공의 예측을 잘 해주지 못한다고 지적한다. 그러나 일부 저자들은 자기소개서는 지원자들로 하여금 그들이 지원하는 의학 학위의 특징에 대해서 인식하게 해주며, 좀더 informed decision을 하게 도와준다고 말한다.

Evidence on the predictive validity of personal state- ments is varied. Although some evidence has been found for the predictive validity of personal state- ments for medical school dropout rates,65 perfor- mance on internal medicine14 and clinical aspects of training,66 several others have reported that personal statements have low reliability compared with other commonly used selection instruments70 and are not predictive of subsequent success at medical school.2,71–73 Some authors suggest, however, that personal statements may have some value for making applicants aware of the characteristics of the medical degree they are applying to, which may help themto make a more informed decision to apply.73


 

절차적 이슈 Procedural issues


절차적 요인이 자기소개서의 신뢰도와 타당도에 영향을 준다. 의과대학 지원자는 자기소개서를 통해서 입학위원회에게 매력적으로 보일 만한 방법으로 스스로를 보여주나, 그것이 지원자의 특성을 반드시 정확하게 보여주지 않을 수도 있다. 따라서 자기소개서에 드러나는 인적 특성은 부분적이고 주관적이다. 자기소개서의 효과성에 영향을 주는 요인으로는 마감시기에 비해서 일찍 냈는지, 채점 방식, onsite vs offsite 등이 있다. 마지막으로 한 연구는 자기소개서가 여러 영국 의과대학 사이에 서로 다양한 방법으로 사용되고 있음을 지적했다. 일부 의과대학은 선발 결정을 내리는 공식적 정보로서 활용했으나, 어떤 의과대학은 선발에 부당한 bias를 줄 수 있어서 이 정보를 무시하였다.

Evidence suggests that a number of procedural factors affect the reliability and validity of personal statements. Medical school candidates may use personal statements to present themselves in ways they believe are attractive to admission commit- tees, which may not necessarily be accurate.74,75 Hence, the information captured by personal statements is likely to be both partial and subjec- tive in nature. Factors that may affect the effec- tiveness of the selection method include the earliness of submission in relation to a deadline,76 marking method, and on-site versus off-site com- pletion.77 Finally, one article highlighted the fact that personal statements are used differentially by different UK medical schools.78 Some medical schools use the information formally in making selection decisions, whereas others ignore this information out of concern that it may unfairly bias selection decisions.


수용가능성 Acceptability


연구 결과로부터 자기소개서의 데이터 오염의 가능한 원인이 지적된 바 있다. 여기에는 지원자의 이전 기대, 제출까지 걸리는 시간, 제3자의 도움 candidates’ prior expectations, the length of time spent completing submissions, and input to submis- sions from third parties등이 있다. 또 다른 연구에서 정치적 타당성과 이해관계자의 만족도에 대해서 지적한 바 있으며, Stevens 등은 약 60%의 학생이 자기소개서를 의과대학 선발도구로서 적절하다고 인식함을 보여주었다. Elam 등은 의과대학 지원서에 작성해야 하는 내용이 입학위원회가 내리는 결정에 중요한 영향력도 행사할 가능성이 매우 낮다는 것을 보고했다. White 등은 의과대학 지원자가 자신을 보여줄 때, 지원자로서 바람직한 모습을 보여주지, 진짜 자신의 모습을 성찰항 보여주지 않는다고 지적했다. 마찬가지로 Kumwenda는 대부분의 의과대학 지원자는 다른 지원자들이 진실을 왜곡한다고 생각했고, 상당 비율의 지원자가 지원서의 정확성accuracy(진실성)을 평가하지 않을 것으로 생각함을 보여주었다.

Research has highlighted potential sources of data contamination in personal statements, including candidates’ prior expectations, the length of time spent completing submissions, and input to submis- sions from third parties. Other research14,74 has commented on the political validity and stakeholder satisfaction of personal statements in medical stu- dent selection. Whereas Stevens et al.45 found that approximately 60% of students thought that per- sonal statements were suitable to use for admission to medical school, Elam et al.13 reported that the contents of medical school candidates’ application forms are very unlikely to exert any significant influ- ence on decisions made by admissions committees. White et al.74 also argued that medical school candi- dates present themselves in ways that they believe are expected of candidates, rather than in ways that are genuine reflections of themselves. Likewise, Kumwenda et al.79 found that most medical school applicants believed that others stretched the truth in their personal statements, and a proportion of applicants believed it was unlikely that statements were checked for accuracy.


 

요약 Summary



자기소개서의 효과성은 좋게 봐줘야 mixed 되어있다고 할 수 있으며, 예측타당도를 지지하는 근거는 매우 적고, 많은 연구에서 신뢰도와 타당도가 부족하다고 지적한다. 자기소개서는 선발도구로서의 효과성이 다양한 외부 요인에 영향을 받음에도 전세계적으로 의과대학 선발에서 널리 사용된다. 자기소개서의 내용은 선발결정을 내리는 사람들의 판단을 불공정하게 흐릴 수 unfairly cloud 있다.

Evidence on the effectiveness of personal statements in medical student selection is mixed at best. Little evidence exists to support the predictive validity of personal statements, and a large volume of research evidence suggests that the selection method lacks reliability and validity. Personal statements remain widely used in medical school selection worldwide, despite concerns that the effectiveness of the selec- tion method is influenced by numerous extraneous factors. The content of personal statements may also unfairly cloud the judgement of individuals making selection decisions.



추천서

References


요약 Summary


추천서의 신뢰성과 타당성 모두에서 부정적이라는 근거는 충분하다. 그럼에도 추천서는 의과대학 선발에 흔히 사용되는 도구이다. 이러한 측면에서, 의과대학 선발에 추천서를 넣는 것은 도움이 되지 않으며, 소중한 자원은 다른 선발 도구에 사용하는 것이 더 좋을 것이다.

There is a good level of consensus that references are neither a reliable nor a valid tool for selecting candidates for medical school. Despite these find- ings, references remain a common feature of med- ical school selection worldwide. To this extent, the inclusion of references in medical school admis- sion processes may be unhelpful and may use valuable resources that could be directed more usefully to selection methods with evidentially based reliability and validity.




SJT

Situational judgement tests


요약 Summary


SJT가 잘 만들어지기만 한다면 신뢰성 있고, 타당하교, 비용효과적이고, 수용가능하다는 근거가 충분하다. SJT는 개발이 복잡하고, 따라서 문항의 형식, Instruction, 채점 등과 관련하여 다양한 옵션이 있다. 이러한 옵션이 적절하게 보정calibrate된다면 SJT에 근거들은 이것이 의과대학에서 비학업적 특성 평가에 강점을 갖음을 보여준다.

There is a good level of consensus among research- ers that SJTs, when properly constructed, can form a reliable, valid, cost-effective and acceptable ele- ment of medical school selection systems. SJTs are complex to develop and there is a wide range of options available in relation to item formats, instruc- tions and scoring. When these options are cali- brated appropriately, research evidence points to the strength of SJTs in medical student selection for assessing non-academic attributes.




성격, 감정지능

Personality and emotional intelligence


요약 Summary


포괄적으로 말해서, 연구자들은 성격의 어떤 영역은 의과대학 수행능력에 유의미하게 긍정적/부정적 방향으로 관련됨에 합의를 이룬다. 그러나 성격 영역과 의과대학 수행능력간의 관계는 종종 매우 복잡한데, 예를 들면 conscientiousness 는 지식-기반 평가에는 긍정적으로 연관되어 있으나, 일부 임상상황에서의 평가에서는 부정적으로 연관되어 있다. 이러한 결과는 성격-기반 선발도구를 검토할 때 준거의 구인에 대해서 보다 자세히 살펴볼 필요가 있음을 제안한다. 성격검사는 비용-효과적이고 면접 방법 등과 같이 추가 probe가 가능한 다른 선발도구와 함께 사용될 수 있다.선발을 하는 사람들은 성격검사가 의과대학을 넘어선 장기적 예측타당도에 대한 근거가 부족함을 알아야 한다. 또한 성격검사가 의과대학에 입학하는 학생들의 다양성을 축소시킬 수 있음을 알아야 한다. EI의 예측타당도에 관한 연구는 거의 없고, 매우 초기 단계이다.

Taken broadly, there is a relatively high level of con- sensus among researchers that some domains or traits of personality are significantly positively or neg- atively associated with aspects of performance in medical school. However, the associations between personality domains and medical school perfor- mance are often complex, as is demonstrated by evidence that conscientiousness may be positively associated with knowledge-based assessment, but negatively associated with some clinical aspects of medical school assessment. This suggests that closer attention to the criterion constructs should also be considered when reviewing personality-based selection tools. Personality assessment can be cost-ef- fective and may be used in combination with an interview method in which applicant responses can be probed further. Recruiters should be aware that there is a relative dearth of evidence regarding the long-term predictive validity of personality assess- ment beyond medical school, and that there has been some concern that personality assessment may narrow the diversity of types of individuals entering medical education and training. Research on the predictive validity of EI assessment was sparse and at a very early stage of development.



면접, MMI

Interviews and multiple mini-interviews


Type of evidence



효과성 Effectiveness


 

일부 반하는 근거가 있지만, 근거를 종합하면 전통적인 면접방식은 학생선발로서 예측타당도가 부족하고 강건한robust 방법이 아니라는 것이 중론이다. Edwards 등은 면접에서의 수행능력이 낮은 것이 높은 의과대학 성적과 연괸된다고 하였다. 면접의 효과성에 대한 혼재된 근거는 면접 방법의 다양성을 보여주는 것이기도 하며, 상대적으로 비구조화된 것부터 고도로 구조화된 패널 면접까지 다양하다. Eva와 Macala는 비록 행동면접스테이션behavioural indicator stations가 다른 타입보다 더 신뢰도가 높긴 했으나, 면접관 평가의 신뢰도에 있어서 비구조화된 것과 구조화된 MMI 간 차이가 없음을 보여주었다.

Despite some evidence to the contrary,14,16,33,123–130 the balance of evidence suggests that generally, the traditional interview is not a robust method of selecting medical students, and lacks predictive validity.4,9,28,80,131–137 Edwards et al.17 found that poorer interview performance was associated with higher medical school grade point average (GPA). The mixed findings on the effectiveness of inter- views may reflect substantial differences in interview methods, which range from relatively unstructured individual interviews to highly structured panel interviews. However, Eva and Macala138 found no difference between the reliability of interviewer ratings in unstructured and structured multiple mini-interview (MMI) stations, although behavioural indicator stations differentiated between candidates more reliably than other station types.




MMI에 관한 연구는 전통적 면접에 관한 것보다 일관된다. 예컨대 psychometric properties는 적절한 것으로 보고된다. Uijtdehaage and Parker는 지원자에 대한 상대적(rather than 절대적absolute) 평가를 사용한 연구에서 MMI의 신뢰성이 쉬운 스테이션을 보다 어려운 것으로 바꿔서 향상될 수 있음을 보여주었다. 그러나 Hissbach 등은 지원자의 수행능력에 대한 systemic difference보다 평가자의 bias가 지원자 점수에 더 큰 영향을 줄 수 있음을 보여주었다. 비록 의사소통기술과 같은 일부 특성은 MMI에서 흔히 평가대상이 되곤 하나, 여러 면접밥법 사이에 측정하고자 하는 것이 무엇인가에 대한 명확성이 부족하다. 비록 설계와 무관하게 MMI와 학업성취도 간의 관계는 작거나 없지만, MMI의 구인타당도는 아직 연구대상이다. 더 나아가서 매우 표준화된 면대면 면접은 표준화된 배우를 활용한 시나리오-기반 MMI면접에 비할 바가 아니며, MMI 스테이션의 차원성dimensionality(MMI가 스테이션당 하나 이상의 구인을 측정하는가)에 관한 문제는 논쟁거리가 되고 있다.

The findings from research on MMIs tend to be more directionally consistent than those from research on traditional interviews: for example, the psychometric properties of MMIs are usually reported to be adequate.44,139–146 Uijtdehaage and Parker146 found that the reliability of an MMI was improved by replacing an easy station with a more challenging one, and using relative, rather than absolute, ratings of candidate performance. How- ever, Hissbach et al.147 found that rater bias had a greater effect on applicant scores than systematic differences in candidate performance. There is little clarity about what is being measured within the dif- ferent approaches described, although some attri- butes, such as communication skills, are commonly purported to be assessed by MMIs. Construct validity evidence for MMIs remains exploratory and largely inconclusive, although irrespective of design differ- ences, the relationships between MMIs and aca- demic measures are small to absent.145 Moreover, tightly standardised face-to-face interviews may not be comparable with scenario-based MMI stations utilising standardised role actors, and the dimen- sionality of MMI stations (i.e. whether MMIs can measure more than one construct per station/inter- view question) has been debated in the literature.145



절차적 이슈 Procedural issues


MMI는 대학별로 길이, 패널 구성, 구조, 내용, 채점방법 등이 다양하다. 면접방법이 다양한 것은 신뢰도와 타당도의 혼재된 연구결과의 원인일 수 있다. 다른 근거들은 지원자의 수행능력이 코칭에 따라 영향을 많이 받는다고 지적한다. 비록 많은 연구자들이 MMI를 성공적으로 도입하였다고는 하나 면접을 사용함에 있어 질문의 범위나 유형에 관련된 logistical 어려움이나 면접관의 주관성 등과 같은 어려움이 있었다고 보고한다. Uijt- dehaage and Parker 는 'MMI도입은 할 수는 있지만 상당히 부담스러운daunting 일이다'라고 요약했다.

Schools differ significantly in terms of the length, panel composition, structure, content and scoring methods for interviews. The differential usage of the interview method in medical student selection may underlie the mixed findings on both the relia- bility and validity of interviews reported above. Other research evidence suggests that candidate performance may be significantly affected by coach- ing.30 Using interviews in a selection process also presents logistical difficulties relating to the range and type of questions155 and interviewer subjectiv- ity,51,143,156,157 although numerous authors report on the successful implementation of MMIs into their medical school admission processes.44,146 Uijt- dehaage and Parker summarised that ‘implementing an MMI was feasible but a daunting task’.146




수용가능성 Acceptability


대부분의 연구는 면접 절차에 대한 지원자와 면접관의 긍정적 인식을 보여주며, MMI와 더 구조화된 면접이 덜 구조화된 면접보다 선호된다는 근거가 있다. 일부 근거는 의과대학 지원자는 면접을 시행하는 의과대학을 더 선호함을 보여준다. Campagna-Vaillan- court 등은 대부분의 지원자와 평가자가 MMI가 다양한 역량을 평가하는데 적절한 방법이며, 이를 공정fair하다고 보았고, 전통적 방법보다 선호함을 보여주었다. MMI를 선발에 도입할 때 단계적으로 staged 도입하는 것이 더 받아들여질 가능성acceptance을 높일 수 있다. 표준화된 면접은 PGME 선발에도 사용할 수 있으며, IMG학생이나 면접관에게도 acceptable하다.

Most research reports that applicants and interviewers tend to viewthe interviewing process posi- tively,44,45,60,146 and there is tentative evidence that MMIs and more structured interviews are preferred over less structured methods.138,158 Some evidence suggests that aspiring medical students may prefer the schools that conduct interviews.159 Campagna-Vaillan- court et al.144 found that the majority of applicants and assessors perceived an MMI to be appropriate to assess a range of competencies and considered it to be a fair process, as well as being preferable to a tradi- tional interview. The staged introduction of an MMI into a selection process may foster institutional accep- tance of the method.160 Standardised interviews can also be adapted for use in postgraduate medical selec- tion to measure characteristics that are considered important and acceptable to both international medi- cal graduates and interviewers.139,141,161


비용 효과성 Cost-effectiveness


비록 면접이 기계-채점 방식의 시험보다 더 비용이 많이 들긴 하고, MMI가 전통적 면접보다 스테이션 개발과 연기자 인건비로 인해서 비용이 더 올라가나, MMI의 비용-효과성은 일반적으로 괜찮은 편이다. Value for money는 스테이션 수를 늘리거나 신뢰도가 충분하지 않은 스테이션을 줄여서 더 높아질 수 있다. 그러나 일부 연구결과를 보면 스테이션 수나 질문question의 수를 늘리는 것이 면접관을 늘리는 것보다 더 신뢰성 향상에 도움이 됨을 보여준다. 실제로 Roberts 등은 Cronbach's alpha가 고부담 시험에서 0.80에 달해야 한다고 추정하며, 한 스테이션당 1명의 면접관을 사용할 경우 14스테이션짜리 MMI 가 이 정도에 도달한다고 했다. 이 숫자는 7~12개 스테이션 정도로 줄일 수 있는데, 이 경우 스테이션당 두 명의 면접관이 필요하다. 또한 Dodson 등은 MMI 스테이션당 길이를 8분에서 5분으로 줄임으로서 자원을 아끼면서도 지원자의 등수나 검사 신뢰도에 영향을 최소화 할 수 있다고 말했다. Knorr과 Hissbach는 최소 MMI 스테이션 수에 대해서 일반적 권고안을 내리기 어렵다고 했다.

The cost-effectiveness of MMIs is generally reported to be good,154 although comparatively interviews are significantly more costly than machine-marked tests, and MMIs are more expensive than traditional inter- views because they incur increased costs for station development and actor payments.145,146 Value for money may be improved by examining the number of stations in an MMI, and reducing the number of stations if reliability is not affected. However, some research suggests that increasing the number of questions or stations in MMIs increases reliability more than increasing the number of interview- ers.143,145,162 Indeed, Roberts and colleagues esti- mated that to reach a Cronbach’s coefficient alpha of 0.80 for high-stakes assessment, MMIs must include 14 stations if each is manned by a single interviewer. This number could be reduced to between seven and 12 stations if each station is manned by two interviewers.143 Alternatively, Dod- son et al.163 found that reducing the duration of MMI stations from 8 to 5 minutes conserves resources with minimal effect on applicant ranking and test reliability. Knorr and Hissbach145 concluded in their systematic review that no general recommen- dation for the minimum number of MMI stations can be derived from the literature at present.


Tiller 등은 비용과 시간을 줄이기 위해서 스카이프로 MMI를 시행가능함을 보여주었다.

Tiller et al.164 found that cost and time savings for candidates were substantial when an MMI was con- ducted online via Skype rather than in person, although further research is required regarding the impact on fidelity of the lack of a face-to-face encounter.



요약 Summary


면접은 가장 많이 사용되는 선발도구 중 하나이다. 여러 근거를 보면 전통적인 면접은 고부담 결정의 도구로 사용하기에는 신뢰도와 타당도가 떨어지며, MMI가 신뢰도와 타당도를 높일 수 있는 방법이다. MMI의 예측타당도와 구인타당도에 대해서는, 특히 구인이 정확하게 측정가능한가에 대해서,  더 많은 이론-주도theory-driven연구가 필요하다. 면접에서 평가될 준거의 적절성에 대한 근거가 더 필요하고, validation study가 필요하다. 비용효과성이 평가되어야 하며, 채점이나 점수의 대안적 활용(최저 기준(과락) 설정)에 대한 연구도 더 필요하다. MMI는 그 신뢰성 근거가 누적되며 최근 빠르게 확산되어가고 있다. 그러나 구인타당도와 차원성dimensionality에 대한 이슈는 아직 문제의 여지가 있다. 대학들은 그들이 측정하고자 하는 것이 무엇인지, 실제로 측정하는 것은 무엇인지를 더 잘 이해해야 한다. MMI가 지원자에 미치는 영향은(공정성fairness, 수행능력, 코칭의 영향력 등) question rotation과 같은 설계 관련 결정에 매우 중요한 실제적 문제이다.

Interviews are among the most widely used tools in selection for medical school admission. Evidence suggests that traditional interviews lack the reliability and validity that would be expected of a selection instrument in a high-stakes selection setting. Evidence also suggests that MMIs offer improved reliability and validity over traditional interview approaches. Further theory-driven research is war- ranted, however, in relation to the predictive and construct validity of the MMI method, particularly with respect to the constructs that can be assessed accurately (e.g. communication, critical thinking, empathy, etc.). More evidence is required regarding the appropriateness of criteria that can be assessed in interviews and should be informed by validation studies. In addition, the cost-efficiency and utility of MMIs should be evaluated, along with alternative approaches to scoring and alternative uses of scores (including any minimum threshold criteria). The use of MMIs has spread rapidly in recent years as they can be designed as a reliable selection method. However, issues surrounding the construct validity and dimensionality of MMIs remain problematic: it is critically important that schools better understand what they are seeking to measure, and actually are measuring, with this approach. The impact of the MMI on candidates (in terms of fairness, perfor- mance, coaching effects, etc.) is an outstanding practical concern that should influence design deci- sions such as question rotation.






선발센터

Selection centres


Summary


전반적으로 SC의 유용성에 대한 연구가 부족하다. PG 선발에서 SC의 예측타당도 근거가 강력하며, 더 많은 연구 필요.

Overall, research on the utility of SCs for medical student selection was relatively sparse. Evidence on the predictive validity of SCs for postgraduate selec- tion is stronger, although further evidence is required to build a case for their predictive validity in medical school selection.






DISCUSSION


핵심결과요약

Summary of key findings


지나치게 단면연구설계에 대한 의존도가 높고, 타당도보다는 신뢰도에 집중되어 있어서 'reliably wrong'한 결과를 가져올 수 있다. 비록 일부 연구가 예측타당도를 다루었지만, 구인타당도(무엇이 측정되고 있는가)를 다룬 연구는 적고, 비용-효과성 연구도 적다. 비록 18년간의 연구를 다루었지만, 장기 추적 연구가 부족하다. 지난 2년간 증가하고 있기는 하다.

There is an over-reliance on cross-sectional study designs and a general focus on reliability estimates as indicators of quality rather than aspects of validity (a method may have high reliability but be ‘reliably wrong’25). Although some studies have addressed issues relating to pre- dictive validity, very little research has explored construct validity issues (i.e. what is being mea- sured) and the relative cost-effectiveness of selec- tion methods. During the 18 years covered by this review, there have been remarkably few long-term evaluation studies; however, we note that over the last 2 years there has been an increase in the amount of longitudinal evidence emerging in this area.


여러 선발방법이 복합적으로 사용된 경우 다양한 선발방법들을 아우르는(그리고 가중치의 영향력을 포함한) 선발 시스템과 관련한 연구가 적다.

There remain comparatively few studies examining selection system design overall and the relative contributions of the various selection methodolo- gies (and the impacts of various weightings) when methods are used in combination (as is the norm in medical school selection172,173).


그러나 신뢰성, 타당성, 효과성에 대한 명확한 메시지는 있다. 학업성취도는 대부분의 선발정책과 근거의 strength에서 공통적 특징으로 지속되고 있으며, 앞으로도 그러할 것으로 생각된다. 여러 근거가 전통적 면접, 자기소개서, 추천서보다 구조화된 면접, MMI, SJT, SC가 더 효과적이고 공정한 방법임을 보여준다. 적성검사의 효과성과 공정성에 대한 근거는 혼재되어있고 검사에 따라 다르다. 이는 현재로서 '적성'이 의미하는 바가 무엇인지 합의된 프레임워크가 없기 때문일 것이다. 현재로서는 '순수한' 인지능력 평가(UKCAT)부터 학력검사(BMAT)까지 다양하다. 이런 상태에서는 다양한 적성검사의 상대적 기여를 systematic하게 평가하기 어렵다.

There are, however, some clear messages about the comparative reliability, validity and effectiveness of various selection methods. The academic attainment of candidates remains a common feature of most selection policies and the strength of evidence in support of it continuing to do so remains strong. The extant evidence paints a relatively clear picture illustrating that structured interviews or MMIs, SJTs and SCs are more effective methods and generally fairer than traditional interviews, references and personal statements. Evidence is currently mixed regarding the effectiveness and fairness of aptitude tests, depending on the tool in question. This stems largely from the fact that there is no currently agreed framework that specifies what is meant by aptitude; at present tests range from assessments of ‘pure’ cognitive ability (e.g. the UKCAT) to aca- demic tests (e.g. the BMAT). As such, it is difficult to systematically assess the relative contributions of different aptitude tests, and of aptitude tests within a wider selection system.


다양한 선발방식의 수용가능성에 대한 결과도 혼재되어 있는데, 다양한 정치적 이슈 - 이해관계자의 다양한 관점, 의과대학생과 의과대학에 관한 철학적 차이, 선발도구가 도입되는 형태 - 때문이다.

The picture regarding the acceptability of various selection methods is also mixed, and may be influenced by a variety of political issues including differing stakeholder views, variations in the philosophies of both medical students and medical schools, and the ways in which the tool is implemented as part of a selection system.


여기에 실린 논문을 평가할 때 어떤 용어는 그 스펙트럼이 다양하다는 것을 명확히 해야한다. 그 설계방식에 따라서 평가도구의 질이 엄청나게 달라질 수 있으며, 따라서 효과성에 대한 결론을 내리기 전에 개별적으로 각 설계방식을 검토해봐야 한다. 

When judging the papers in this review, it was clear that some terms cover a broad spectrum of meth- ods: MMIs, SJTs, aptitude tests, personality assess- ments and SCs are measurement methods that comprise a multitude of different design parame- ters. Depending on the design, this may significantly alter the quality of the instrument to the extent that each needs to be indi- vidually evaluated before conclusions about its effec- tiveness can be reached.


이론에 대한 함의

Implications for theory


선발연구에 대해서 지속적인 문제는 우리가 선발도구로 예측하려는 성과와 관련되어 있다. 예를 들어 준거criterion에 있어서  conscientiousness 와 수행능력간 관계에 있어 의과대학 초기 성과와 후기(임상)성과에 따라 혼재된 결과를 보여준다. 또한 선발도구 평가에 사용되는 성과척도가 성취도와 최대 수행능력에 대한 것이기에 (의과대학 성취도, 면허시험 수행능력), 임상 진료행위나 전형적(day-to-day) 수행능력과는 다를 수 있다.

A persistent problem with selection research relates to the issue of which outcomes we are trying to pre- dict by using various selection methods.59 For exam- ple, to illustrate this criterion problem, when exploring the association between conscientiousness and per- formance outcomes, we find mixed results when examining outcomes relating to early examination performance in medical school and performance within clinical practice in later years. Furthermore, our review also highlights that outcome measures used to evaluate selection methods most often focus on indicators of attainment and maximal perfor- mance (e.g. medical school achievements, perfor- mance in licensure examinations) rather than indicators relating to clinical practice and typical (day-to-day) in-role job performance.


선발 방법의 정확성과 관련해서 outcome criteria의 명확한 프레임워크가 필요하다.

In judging the evidence for the relative accuracy of selection methods, it becomes appar- ent that a clear framework of outcome criteria with which to interpret the research evidence and compare selection methods, both individually, and within a selection system, has yet to be established;



또한 주로 예측타당도에 초점을 맞춰왔으며, 각 평가도구가 무엇을 측정하고 있는가(구인타당도construct validity)에 대해서는 덜 연구되어왔으며, 어떻게 각 방법이 합해져서 선발시스템을 만드는가에 대한 의문을 갖게 한다. 이는 특히 MMI에 대해서 그러한데, 비록 최근 매우 유명해졌지만, MMI를 가지고 평가하려는 특징attribute가 무엇인가에 대한 consistency가 부족한 것이 구인타당도에 관련된 근거 결론을 내리지 못하게 한다.

In addition, evidence regarding the effectiveness of some methods has focused pre- dominantly on the predictive validity of the tool, rather than on assessing precisely what different methods are measuring (i.e. construct validity); this raises the question of how a method can be considered to add value to a selection system if the constructs it is measuring are unknown. This is particularly the case for MMI research, in which, despite the method’s increasing popularity in recent years, there is a lack of consistency regard- ing the attributes selectors are using MMIs to assess for and, relatedly, evidence regarding con- struct validity remains inconclusive.



지원자의 역량의 지표로 무엇을 봐야 하는가는 medical career의 어느 지점을 기준으로 보느냐에 따라서 달라질 수 있다. 따라서 구체적인 역할에 따라서 지원자를 평가하는 선발 준거가 다양해지고 달라지는데, 여기에는 학업적, 비학업적 지표가 모두 포함된다. 어떤 요인이 UME에는 중요한 예측인자로 나올 수 있지만 임상 수행능력에서는 반대로 작용할 수도 있다. 따라서 서로 다른 선발 방법은 서로 다른 단계마다 서로 다른 방식으로 사용되어야 한다. 예컨대 SJT는 의과대학 초기 수행능력과는 예측력이 낮으나(주로 학업에 초점이 맞춰지므로), clinical practice에 있어서는 더 예측력이 높다. 의학 분야의 선발시스템 설계 어려움은 학업적, 비학업적 자질을 아우르는, 학부선발에서 신뢰도와 타당도가 있는 것과 수 년이 지난 전공의 수련에서 신뢰도와 타당도가 있는 것에 대한 연구 근거를모두 포함시켜야 하는 것이다.

It is clear that indicators of competence for entrance to medical training and practice are likely to be different at different points in a medical career; thus, applicants are judged on multiple selection criteria depending on the specific role, which may include varying combinations of aca- demic and non-academic indicators of aptitude. A factor may be identified as an important predictor for undergraduate training, but may actually hinder some aspects of performance in clinical prac- tice.59,66 As such, different selection methods may predict differently at different stages: for example, an SJT may be less predictive of performance in the early years at medical school (which tends to be more academically-focused), but significantly more predictive of performance outcomes when trainees enter clinical practice.28,174 A major challenge within medicine is to integrate the research evi- dence to inform the design of selection systems that are reliable and valid (and weighted appropriately) from undergraduate selection through to selection for specialty training after many years of education, for both academic and non-academic qualities.


따라서, 더 이론-주도적 연구가 'competent'의사란 누구인가 를 밝히기 위해 이뤄져야 한다. unified taxonomy of performance indicators 를 만들어서 단기- 장기- 예측 타당도의 표지자로서 활용해야 한다. 예컨대, 일부 연구자들은 의과대학선발시에는 학업성취도를 기반으로 select in 하고, 비학업적 기술을 바탕으로 select out해야 한다고 주장한다. 비학업적 능력이 PGME 선발에서 더 큰 역햘을 하며, 전공에 다라서 가중치가 달라질 수 있다는 주장도 있다. 예컨대 공감과 의사소통은 일반의와 소아과에서 중요하고, 경계vigilance와 상황인지situational awareness는 마취과에서 중요하다.

Hence, there is a need for more theoretically driven, future-oriented research aimed at identifying what a ‘competent’ physician is at the various stages of training and practice. This will allow researchers and practi- tioners to move towards crafting a unified taxonomy of performance indicators which may be used as markers in short- and long-term predictive validity studies of selection methods. For example, some researchers suggest that from undergraduate selec- tion onwards, medical students should be selected in on the basis of academic attainment and selected out on the basis of non-academic skills and attributes.175 It could be argued that non-academic attributes and skills should therefore play a much larger role in postgraduate selection and the weighting of these may differ depending on the specialty. For example, research from job analysis studies shows that empa- thy and communication are weighted more heavily for selection into general practice176 and paedi- atrics, whereas vigilance and situational awareness carry more weight in anaesthesia.177



실제practice적 함의

Implications for practice


추천서나 자기소개서보다 SJT와 MMI가  inter- and intrapersonal (non-aca- demic) 특성을 더 타당하게 예측한다. SJT와 MMI는 보완적일 수 있다. SJT가 더 넓은 영역의 구인을 효율적으로 평가한다면, MMI는 면대면 접촉을 포함한다. 비록 비용이 들지만 구조화된 면접은 지원자 응답을 더 멀리, 더 깊게 probe할 수 있다.

Our review shows that SJTs and MMIs are more valid predictors of inter- and intrapersonal (non-aca- demic) attributes than personal statements or refer- ences. Situational judgement tests (SJTs) and MMIs may be complementary: whereas SJTs can measure a broader range of constructs efficiently as they can be machine-marked, MMIs, by contrast, involve a face-to-face encounter. Although expensive, struc- tured interviews (including MMIs) allow applicant responses to be probed further and in more depth.


현재로서는 적성검사와 인지요인에 대한 그림은 덜 분명하다.  

At present, the picture for aptitude tests and cogni- tive factors is less clear as a result of
  • the large num- ber of aptitude tests and the differences between those that are currently available,
  • the diverse out- come measures against which performance on apti- tude tests is compared (to assess validity, see the ‘criterion problem’ discussed above),
  • the multiple ways in which aptitude tests are implemented, and
  • the mixed nature of the evidence on the effective- ness of aptitude testing.

 

일부 적성검사는 특정 지원자를 선호한다는 근거도 있다.

There is also some evidence that some aptitude tests may favour certain types of candidate,46 which may have unfavourable implica- tions for fairness and widening access to medicine.


선발방법의 근거를 해석하고 적용하는데 대한 어려움에는 아래와 같은 것들

The challenges of interpreting and apply- ing evidence of selection methods include

  • 장기 자료 부족 the relative lack of longitudinal data,
  • 성과 준거의 합의된 기준 부족 lack of an agreed-upon framework of outcome criteria, and
  • 기관별 차이 institutional differences (including in available resources, curricula and philosophies of what a high-performing medical student is considered to be).

Kreiter and Axelson는 학생선발의 목표의 복잡성이 장애가 된다고 지적함. social jus- tice, educational equality, health care and political outcomes 등이 종종 서로 경쟁하는 목표가 됨. 선발방법의 질과 효과성을 판단할 때, 어떤 준거는 서로 경쟁관계에 있음을 알아야 함. 예컨대 이해관계자나 평가자들이 생각하는 acceptability가 높더라도 타당도 근거가 낮을 수 있다. 유사하게, SC의 타당도 근거는 높지만, 비용이 많이 들어 사용하기 힘들다. 이러한 측면에서 선발도구의 질과 효과성을 판단할 때 의과대학은 선발시스템이 작동하는 시스템 내에서의 맥락을 고려해야 한다.

Kreiter and Axelson2 acknowledge that the complexity of admissions goals may also be an obsta- cle to evidence-based progress in medical school admissions because concerns regarding social jus- tice, educational equality, health care and political outcomes are broad and frequently competing. When judging the quality and effectiveness of selec- tion methods, it is noteworthy that some criteria may compete with one another. For example, the stakeholder acceptability of referees’ reports in selection is generally high, but the evidence for their validity is poor. Similarly, regarding other cri- teria, the evidence for the validity of SCs is high, but they are relatively costly to implement. In this respect, when judging the quality and effectiveness of different selection methods, medical schools and employers may choose to weight different features depending on the context within which the selec- tion system is operating.


코칭에 대한 취약성은 모든 평가도구의 공통된 우려사항이다.  

A common central concern for any selection tool is susceptibility to coaching. Research over the last 10 years has increasingly focused on this issue, prob- ably because there has been increasing emphasis on how to validly assess non-academic attributes in selection for medical education.

  • 자기소개서: 코칭에 영향을 받음. 다국적 기업이 있음.  In particular, per- sonal statements are at significant risk of being influenced by coaching, or indeed of being written by somebody other than the applicant; a brief online search reveals a large number of companies internationally that sell pre-written personal state- ments.
  • SJT: 코칭의 효과가 없음. With regard to SJTs, recent studies have found no effects of commercial coaching on SJT scores or the predictive validity of SJTs.87,178 How- ever, ongoing research is required to assess the coachability of the full range of non-academic selec- tion tools in greater depth.

 

미래 연구 아젠다

Scoping a future research agenda



명확한 결론은 내리기 어렵다.

It is clear from our review that it is challenging to draw firm conclusions regarding the relative strength of the different tools given the variety in the quality and design of the currently available research evidence: at present there are insufficient data, and medical education providers’ agendas are too diverse, to propose a fully comprehensive frame- work for international best practice in medical selec- tion methods.


잘 설계된 연구가 필요하다.

There is a clear need for well-planned studies focusing on the long-term follow-up of medical students, tracking students from admission through to assessments in more senior training posts in clini- cal practice, at the point of licensure and beyond.


widening access and diversity 에 관한 연구가 필요하다.

Within the broader sphere of issues of fairness in selection, more research exploring issues of widening access and diversity is required, whether it refers to race, ethnicity or social class, as this remains a chal- lenge within medical school admissions globally, and it is becoming increasingly important politically to reflect society within the health care profes- sions.179,180


O’Neill 등은 선발방법이 socal diversity에 미치는 유의한 영향은 없다고 하면서, 지원자 풀을 다양하게 하는 것이 더 중요하다고 했다. 아직까지 결론은 임시적이다.

O’Neill et al.181 found no significant effect of selection method on social diversity in the medical student population,

and sug- gest that the attraction of a sufficiently diverse appli- cant pool is more important for widening access than which selection tool is used. Therefore, only tentative conclusions can be drawn.



이전 교육성취도는 높은 예측타당도로 인해서 의학교육의 'academic backbone'이라고 불리지만, 어떻게 'contextual data'가 활용될 수 있을 것인가에 대한 연구 필요.

Whereas traditional markers of prior educational attainment have been called the ‘academic backbone’ of medical education because they are highly predictive of subsequent perfor- mance both at medical school and beyond, there is a need to explore how ‘contextual data’ can be used to allow the social and educational backgrounds of applicants to be taken into consideration alongside their educational achievements.


'비인지적'이라는 용어는 문제가 있는데problematic, '생각하지 않음'을 의미하기 때문이다.

A key criticism of selection research is that there is a distinct lack of theory-driven studies that examine issues related to validity and the constructs being measured and that, more broadly, acknowledge con- temporary models of adult intellectual development and skill acquisition, or attempt to integrate cogni- tive and non-cognitive factors.172,173 The term ‘non- cognitive’ is in itself problematic as it arguably implies ‘not thinking’;




다음을 제안함

In summary, we propose the following priorities for a future research agenda over the next 50 years in order to enable schools and employers to make evi- dence-based decisions about which selection tools to use and why:


1 longitudinal research exploring predictive valid- ity and following students throughout the course of their careers within education, train- ing and practice;


2 research enabling greater understanding of how selection tools may impact on widening access and diversity agendas, and


3 theory-driven studies of the construct validity of both academically and non-academically ori- ented selection methods and selection systems that will help us to understand what we are assessing for in both the short and long terms.




Finally, we propose that the following five consid- erations will be integral in shaping the direction of medical education research over the next 50 years:



 

1. 의과대학 입학은 여전히 경쟁이 높을 것이다.

1. Medical school admissions will remain highly compet- itive. The prestige of being a physician is likely to continue to drive a high applicant-to-selec- tion ratio in medical school selection interna- tionally over the next 50 years. However, this is unlikely to be true in all postgraduate spe- cialties; some medical career pathways may be perceived to be of higher status and will there- fore be more competitive than others. Medical selection may become part of a process to facil- itate recruitment into areas of most need. This may, in turn, require varying emphasis on selec- tion for specific attributes and competencies: one size is unlikely to fit all.



2. 비학업적 역량에 대해 더 집중될 것이다.

2. There will be an increased focus on, and value of, non-academic attributes and skills in medical selec- tion, aligned with what wider society wishes from its physicians. The role of the physician’s own well- being and resilience, and how these can best be selected for, then supported and developed, will be of increasing importance. Trainees’ expectations of their work–life balance will also be integral to medical selection over the next 50 years. Consideration must be given during selection to the discourse around how we encourage new generations of medical students to expend discretionary effort in future.This is strongly related to:




3. 다학제간 팀을 이끄는 능력, 제한된 자원으로 '일상의' 혁신 문화를 만드는 능력

3. a growing focus on capability to lead multidisci- plinary teams, and building a culture of ‘everyday’ innovation in an environment of reduced resources.



4. 한두명의 '혁신가'에 집중하기 보다는 모든 구성원의 헌신이 필요함

4. Rather than a focus on just one or two people in a team, who are touted as the ‘innovators’, there is likely to be an increased 책임onus on all health care professionals to innovate and pro- vide leadership in order to engage multiprofes- sional teams and to continue to deliver high- quality and compassionate care in a climate of ongoing health care spending cuts.185,186 This may represent a significant change in how applicants to medical education are selected. This, in turn, relates to:


5. 더 넓은 지원자 풀 확보

5. a focus on attracting a wider selection pool and recruiting a more diverse workforce, reflecting a philosophical shift towards acknowledging that non-traditional students may be able to align themselves with patients from diverse back- grounds and also contribute to the education of their peers by acting to challenge the cur- rent medical culture.187,188 Bringing such ‘non- traditional’ applicants into the health care sys- tem may promote, and indeed necessitate, innovative working practices. However, as we have discussed elsewhere,180 there is currently a multitude of unanswered questions on how this may be best implemented and how outcomes can be measured in a reliable and valid way.













 2016 Jan;50(1):36-60. doi: 10.1111/medu.12817.

How effective are selection methods in medical education? A systematic review.

Author information

  • 1Department of Organisational Psychology, City University, London, UK.
  • 2Work Psychology Group, Derby, UK.
  • 3School of Medicine, University of Dundee, Dundee, UK.
  • 4Barts and The London School of Medicine and Dentistry, Queen Mary University of London, London, UK.
  • 5School of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, UK.

Abstract

CONTEXT:

Selection methods used by medical schools should reliably identify whether candidates are likely to be successful in medical training and ultimately become competent clinicians. However, there is little consensus regarding methods that reliably evaluate non-academic attributes, and longitudinal studies examining predictors of success after qualification are insufficient. This systematic review synthesises the extant research evidence on the relative strengths of various selection methods. We offer a research agenda and identify key considerations to inform policy and practice in the next 50 years.

METHODS:

A formalised literature search was conducted for studies published between 1997 and 2015. A total of 194 articles met the inclusion criteria and were appraised in relation to: (i) selection method used; (ii) research question(s) addressed, and (iii) type of study design.

RESULTS:

Eight selection methods were identified: (i) aptitude tests; (ii) academic records; (iii) personal statements; (iv) references; (v) situational judgement tests (SJTs); (vi) personality and emotional intelligence assessments; (vii) interviews and multiple mini-interviews (MMIs), and (viii)selection centres (SCs). The evidence relating to each method was reviewed against four evaluation criteria: effectiveness (reliability and validity); procedural issues; acceptability, and cost-effectiveness.

CONCLUSIONS:

Evidence shows clearly that academic records, MMIs, aptitude tests, SJTs and SCs are more effective selection methods and are generally fairer than traditional interviews, references and personal statements. However, achievement in different selection methods may differentially predict performance at the various stages of medical education and clinical practice. Research into selection has been over-reliant on cross-sectional study designs and has tended to focus on reliability estimates rather than validity as an indicator of quality. A comprehensive framework of outcome criteria should be developed to allow researchers to interpret empirical evidence and compare selection methods fairly. Thisreview highlights gaps in evidence for the combination of selection tools that is most effective and the weighting to be given to each tool.

© 2015 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

PMID:
 
26695465
 
[PubMed - in process]


의학교육연구의 패러다임 (Med Educ, 2010)

Research paradigms in medical education research

Suzanne Bunniss & Diane R Kelly







최근 몇 년간, 의학교육연구가 의학연구로서 인식되지 않는 것에 대한 논쟁이 있어왔다.

In recent years, there has been much debate about how to ensure that medical education research is not perceived as the poor relation of medical research.1–4


이 논쟁의 한 부분으로서, 일부는 의학교육연구가 사회과학이며(그리고 그래야 하며), 따라서 사회과학 전통의 핵심이 되는 연구 철학적 질문에 비판적으로 관계해야engage critically 한다고 주장한다. 의학교육은 복잡하고 다양한 분야로서 효과적인 교육행위란 그 맥락에 따라 정의된다. 유사하게, 개인적 관계의 강한 네트워크에 의존한다. 그렇다면 다수의 연구자들이 실증주의적 관점이 의학교육연구를 지배하고 있으며, 실험적 방법이 널리 사용된다는 것에 노골적으로 혹은 은밀히 반대하는 것은 놀라운 것도 아니다.

As part of this debate, Some of these have argued that medical education research is (and should be) constructed as a social science7 and therefore must engage critically with the questions of research philosophy that are central to that tradition.4 Medical education is a complex, diverse field and effective practice is often defined by contextual factors; similarly, it relies on powerful networks of personal relationships. Unsur- prisingly then, a number of writers have expressed an explicit or implicit challenge to the dominant posi- tivist paradigm within medical education research and the prevailing use of experimental methods.12,13


그러나  의학교육 전문 학술지에 출판된 논문에 이러한 논의는 널리 퍼져있지 않다. 이론적 프레임워크를 명확하게 언급하는 것이 점점 더 늘어나고 있으나, 대부분의 의학교육 연구(양적이든 질적이든)는 연구 패러다임이나 인식론적 가정을 언급하지 않고 있다. '방법론methodology'은 종종 특정 문제에 대한 applied approach를 지칭함, 의학교육학술지에서는 research methodology를 설명하거나 관련된 인식론적, 존재론적 관점을 설명하는데 사용되지 않는다.

As yet, this discussion has not widely influenced the studies published in dedicated medical education journals. Explicit references to theoretical frame- works are becoming more common;16 however, most peer-reviewed medical education studies (both quantitative and qualitative) still make no mention of the research paradigm or epistemological assump- tions underpinning the work. The term ‘methodol- ogy’ is most often used to refer to an applied approach to a particular issue(e.g. 17,18) and is rarely used within medical education journals to describe research methodology and the related epistemological and ontological perspectives.


여기서는 그것이 반드시 의학교육의 전 영역에서 사실이 아님을 밝히고자 한다. 사회과학 저널에 출판된 교육연구와 특히 간호학 저널에 실린 연구는 보다 비-실증주의적 가정에 기반을 두고 있으며, 그 가정을 명확히 독자들에게 밝히고 있다. 예컨대, 한 최근의 예외는 McNamee 등의 귀납적 현상론적 접근(inductive phenomenological approach)으로, 연구의 결과를 맥락화하기 위하여(contextualise the findings) 연구 패러다임을 묘사하고 있으며, 독자들에게 연구에 깔린 가정을 설명하고자 한다. 더 흔하게, 의학교육 저널에서 경험적 연구empirical studies는 데이터 수집과 분석의 테크닉에 지나치게 초점을 두고 있다.

It is important to note here that this is not necessarily true of the entire field of medical education; educational research published in social science journals and notably in nursing journals is more likely to be underpinned by non-positivist research assumptions and to make those assumptions explicit to the reader. For example, one recent exception is McNamee et al.’s19 inductive phenomenological approach, which describes the research paradigm to contextualise the findings and inform the reader of the underlying assumptions of the work. Most commonly, however, empirical studies in medical education journals continue to focus overwhelmingly on the techniques used for data collection and analysis.20


이는 여러가지 이유에서 문제가 되는데, Lingard는 이렇게 말했다. '우리가 질적연구에 대해서 가르칠 때 도구를 강조하고 있지만, 도구 그 자체는 질적연구 패러다임의 핵심이 아니다' 대신 그녀는 연구의 '지향orientation'의 중요성을 말한다. 

This is problematic for a number of reasons. Lingard4 argues that: ‘…while we emphasise the tools when we teach qualitative research, the tools themselves are not the essence of the qualitative paradigm.’ Instead, she outlines the importance of the research ‘orientation’:


'연구자가 어떤 종류의 지식을 만들고자 하는가? 지식과 인식론에 대한 관점은 어떠한가? 민족지적 관점에서 연구를 하는가, critical theory를 사용하는가, 아니면 사례연구 접근법을 사용하는가? 이러한 차원dimension들은 연구질문을 던지는 방식을 형성한다는 점에서 방법론적 도구보다 더 중요하다.'

‘What kind of knowledge are the researchers setting out to make? What are their views on knowledge, their epistemology? Are they conducting the study from an ethnographic, a critical theory, or a case study approach? These dimensions matter much more than the methodological tools, because they shape the way the research question is asked.’4


 

philosophical tradition of systematic knowledge development, the underlying premise of which is that any knowledge claim 로부터 시작한 학술적 연구만이 a wider set of assumptions about the nature of reality로부터 방어가능하다. Bordage는 한 연구의 conceptual framework가 '연구자가 그것을 의식하고 있든 그렇지 않든, 무엇을 하기로 결정하고 결과를 어떻게 해석하는지를 결정지을 것이다'.라고 했다. 비슷한 것이 연구 패러다임에 대해서도 마찬가지이다. 의학교육연구가 더 넓은 범위로 확장되기를 원하고 그 영향력을 넓히고자 한다면 연구 가정research assumption을 더 넓은 학계 구성원에게 설명하고, 그 분야 내에서 지식의 특성을 비판적으로 고려해야 할 것이다.

Academic research stems from a philosophical tradition of systematic knowledge development, the underlying premise of which is that any knowledge claim is only defensible within a wider set of assumptions about the nature of reality.21 Bordage6 observes that the conceptual framework within a study ‘will dictate, whether you are conscious of it or not, what you choose to do and how you interpret your outcomes and results’. This is similarly true for the research paradigm, which is itself a grand theory.22 As medical education research hopes to extend into wider scope and influence, it will be important to articulate these research assumptions to the wider academic community so that it can critically consider the nature of the knowledge claims within the discipline.


2005년 의학교육의 질적연구방법에 대한 시리즈를 내면서 Britten은 '질적연구에 관해서 참고할 수 있는 책은 매우 많으며, 다양한 독자층을 대상으로 나와 있다. 그러나 질적연구의 주요 방법에 대한 간결하고 접근가능한 accessible 설명은 빠져 있고, 의사practitioner가 연구하고자 하는 연구질문의 유형에 따른 적용법에 대한 것도 빠져 있다'

When introducing the 2005 series on qualitative research methods in medical education, Britten23 observed: ‘…there is an overwhelming choice of textbooks on qualitative research, aimed at a wide variety of audiences. What are missing are succinct and accessible explanations of the major methods in qualitative research, and their potential application to the kinds of research questions that practitioners would like to investigate.’

 

 


본 저자들의 연구 관점

The authors’ research perspective



다음으로 넘어가기 전에, 이 연구의 전반적 관점은 구성주의자적인 것임을 밝히며, 광범위하게는 주석주의interpretivism이라고 할 수 있다. 두 가지 핵심 요소

Before continuing, it is important to note that the overall position of this paper is a constructionist one, which can be broadly characterised as interpretivism. This perspective has two central elements:


  • 주관적 인식론. 현실에 관한 다수의 다양한 해석을 추구
    1 it uses a subjective epistemology which antici- pates multiple, diverse interpretations of reality rather than seeking to reveal an overarching ‘truth’,24–26 and
  • 광범위한 심도있는 설명을 수집하며, 특정 현상이 그것을 경험한 개인의 차원에서 어떻게 이해되는지에 대한 자세한 묘사를 추구함.
    2
     it is associated with an interpretive effort to gather a range of in-depth accounts with the aim of building a detailed picture of how a particular phenomenon is understood by those who have personal experience of it.


어떤 연구 패러다임이 더 우월하다는 것은 없다. 적절한 연구질문에 답하기 위해서 세심하게 사용되기만  한다면 모두 타당하다. 그러나 이 논문은 주석주의적 철학의 관점에서 쓰여졌으며 이 접근이 의학의 실증주의적 전통에 익숙한 교육자와 연구자에게 가장 낯선 것이기 때문이다.

We assert that there is no one superior research approach within the research paradigms outlined here; all are valid and informative when used sensi- tively in context to answer an appropriate research question. However, this paper describes the underly- ing research philosophy of interpretivism in particu- lar depth because this approach is often the least familiar to those who have trained as educators and researchers in the positivist medical tradition.




의학교육에서 연구 패러다임

RESEARCH PARADIGMS IN MEDICAL EDUCATION


'패러다임은 신념과 실천의 집합으로서, 연구 공동체communities에 의해서 공유되는 것이고, 그 학문 내에서 질문inquiry를 조절하는 것이다'. 다양한 패러다임이 연구를 개념화하고 수행하는 접근법에 있어서, 그리고 지식의 구성에 기여하는 방식에 있어서 존재론적, 인식론적, 방법론적 차이로 구분된다.

‘Paradigms are sets of beliefs and practices, shared by communities of researchers, which regulate inquiry within disciplines. The various paradigms are characterised by ontological, epistemological and methodological differences in their approaches to conceptualising and conducting research, and in their contribution towards disciplinary knowledge construction.’27


Table 1. ontology (the nature of 현실), epistemology (the nature of 지식), methodology (the nature of 연구)

Table 1 outlines four major paradigms currently in use within medical education research and describes the assumptions about ontology (the nature of reality), epistemology (the nature of knowledge), methodology (the nature of research) and the related research methods for eachof these perspectives.21,25–30 The term‘paradigm’ is used within this paper to refer to what Morgan describes as an epistemological stance.31 (See Morgan31 for a full critique of this position.)


그러나 의학교육연구에서, 그리고 의학 연구에서 거의 실증주의적 철학이 지배해왔다.

However, medical education re- search, and indeed medical research, has historically been dominated by positivistic philosophies of knowledge, whereas interpretive and critical meth- odologies have enjoyed less popularity.


물론 실증주의적 패러다임이 특정 질문에 대해서는 매우 유용한프레임워크이지만, 이러한 연구방법(RCT)이 '복잡하고, 불안정학, 비선형적 사회 변화를 연구하는데는 부적절하다'라는 지적이 점차 늘고 있다.

Although positivist paradigms are invaluable frame- works within which to answer certain questions, the literature increasingly recognises that the related experimental design research methods (e.g. rando- mised controlled trials) ‘are inadequate tools for studying complex, unstable, non-linear social change’.34


반면, 다른 패러다임(주석주의, 비평critical research)이 복잡하고 불안정하고 비선형적 변화에 매우 좋은 방법이다.

By contrast, research underpinned by other paradigms, such as interpretivism or critical research, provides very good ways to study complex, unstable, non-linear change.



관찰 사례: 방법론적 가정

AN OBSERVATIONAL EXAMPLE: METHODOLOGICAL ASSUMPTIONS AT WORK


이 연구에서는 ‘How do collective learning and change happen in primary care teams?’ 를 질문으로 하였다. 관찰적 연구방법을 도입하고, 질적연구로서, 핵심 관계자들의 인터뷰를 토대로 하였다. 이 방법들은 민족지적으로 활용되었고, 1년의 기간에 걸쳐 자료수집을 위한 방문visits가 이뤄졌다. SB는 명시적 관찰자였으며, 자료 수집은 'naturalistic'했다 즉, 자료 수집은 연구 참가자들과 함께 자연적인 근무환경에서 일상이 진행되면서 이뤄진 것이다.

This research asked: ‘How do collective learning and change happen in primary care teams?’ The study adopted observational research methods, used qualitatively, and supporting interviews with key participants. These methods were used ethnograph- ically36 and extended data gathering visits took place over a 1-year period. (See Bunniss and Kelly34 for a more detailed description of the stages of data collection and analysis.) In this study, SB was an overt observer and the data gathering methods were ‘naturalistic’;27,37,38 that is, data were gathered with participants in their natural working environment as they went about their everyday work.


이러한 연구는 종종 생성적generative (가설 검증적이 아닌)인 것으로 불리며, 왜냐하면 특정 현상이 나타나는 것에 관한 다양한 해석을 가능하게 하기 때문이다. Figure 2는 몇 가지 가능한 해석이다.

Research of this nature is often referred to as generative (rather than hypotheses testing) because it allows different interpretations of a particular phenomenon to emerge. Figure 2 provides some examples of possible interpretations highlighted by this particular observation extract,



연구 패러다임의 다른 해석

Alternative interpretations within research paradigms


현장작업 중 무수한 노이즈와 활동에 둘러쌓이게 될 것이다. 무엇을 포함시키고 어떻게 해석할지를 결정함에 따라서 다른 대안에 대한 마음의 문이 닫힌다mental doors slam shut on the alternatives.

‘During fieldwork you are surrounded by a multitude of noises and activities. As you choose what to attend to and how to interpret it, mental doors slam shut on the alternatives.’ (Agar39)



해석주의적 패러다임에서, 지식의 생성은 ‘relevant insights emerge naturally through researcher–participant discourse’.로부터 나타난다. 따라서, 연구자의 관점이 연구의 결과와 불가분의 관계에 있다는 것이 기본적 가정이며, 왜냐하면 '의미meaning은 자연적 환경에서 연구자-참여자의 상호작용에 따라 구성된다'고 보기 때문이다. 이는 해석주의적 패러다임에서 지식의 형성building에 관한 자연적 특성natural characteristic 으로서, 지식의 형성을 본질적으로 사회적 활동으로 보기 때문이다. 해석주의자들은 연구는 절대로 편향에서 자유로울 수 없다고 가정한다. 따라서 편향을 제거하는 것이 연구의 목적이 아니다. 대신, 연구의 한 가지 목적은 어떻게 연구자의 생각/감정/의견/경험이 그가 관찰하고 기록하는 대상에 영향을 주는가에 관심을 두는 것이다.

Within the interpretivist paradigm, knowledge generation happens when ‘relevant insights emerge naturally through researcher–participant discourse’.40 Therefore, it is a basic assumption that the researcher’s perspective is inextricably bound up within the findings of a study because ‘meaning is constructed in the researcher–participant interaction in the natural environment’.27 This is a natural characteristic of knowledge building within this paradigm (the hermeneutic cycle), which is seen as an inherently social act. Interpretivism assumes that a study can never be bias-free; therefore eliminating bias would not be a research intention. Instead, one of the aims of a study conducted from an interpre- tivist perspective would be to attend to how the researcher’s thoughts, feelings, opinions and experi- ences might influence what he or she observes and records.

 

 

이 연구에서 자료 수집 시트는 관찰한 것과 그 관찰로부터 추론한 것, 연구자의 반응과 대답, 관찰대상이 되는 커뮤니티에 대해 연구자가 가지고 있던 가정이나 기대 등을 구분하여 기록하게 한다. 연구자가 어떻게 참가자와 함께 지식을 구성하는가에 관하여 유연성을 갖는 것이 자료의 비판적 해석에 대단히 중요하다. 주관적 인식론을 가정하는 패러다임이 어떻게 다양한 유형의 지식을 생성하는지를 보여주는데, 왜냐하면 참가자 경험이 참가자가 강조하는 뉘앙스와 새로운 이슈에 따라 검토되기 때문이다. 임상세팅에서 사례연구가 중요한 의미를 가질 수 있는 것과 마찬가지로, 개개인이 세상을 바라보는 관점을 설명하는 것은 독특성idiosyncrasies 의 측면에서 가치가 있다.

Within this particular study, the data capture sheet distinguished between what was observed, the inferences drawn from those observations, the reactions and responses of the researcher, and any pre-existing assumptions or expectations the researcher had about the community he or she was preparing to observe. This reflexivity regarding how the researcher jointly constructs knowledge with participants is crucial to the critical interpretation of the data. This demonstrates how paradigms that assume a subjective ontology create a different type of knowledge because participant experiences are con- sidered for the new issues and nuances they high- light.41 Individual accounts of the world are valuable for their idiosyncrasies in much the same way that case studies would be in a clinical setting.


이는 실증주의적 관점과 대단히 다르다.

This approach contrasts sharply with that of a positivist perspective,


실증주의적 패러다임에서의 연구는 자연주의적naturalistic 세팅에서의 자료 수집을 거부하며, 왜냐하면 이것은 변인variables를 추가하기 때문이다. 유사하게, 실증주의적 패러다임에서의 연구는 특정 현상에 대해서 사전에 정의된 특성을 측정함, 자료 수집에 있어서 참여자에게 즉각 반응responsive할 필요가 없다.

Research within this different paradigm would avoid data collection in naturalistic settings because this introduces further ‘variables’. Similarly, given that research from a positivist paradigm aims to measure predetermined characteristics of a particular phenomenon, there is no methodological need to be responsive to participants in the same way during data collection.


이 가정은 연구자가 던지는 질문과도 관계된다. 어떤 질문들은 현실은관적 설명할 수 있으며, 그에 대해서 정보를 수집하고 그 수집된 정보로부텉 진실의 가치truth value를 판단할 수 있다고 본다.

  • What hypothesis is being tested?
  • How do we know the participant is telling the truth?
  • How do we know the researcher hasn’t biased the data?
  • How can one person’s experience be representative of that of the wider population?

These assumptions are further illustrated by the questions researchers ask of a study. Some questions (e.g. What hypothesis is being tested? How do we know the participant is telling the truth? How do we know the researcher hasn’t biased the data? How can one person’s experience be representative of that of the wider population?) reflect the assumptions that there is an objective account of reality that we can gather information about and that we can judge the truth value of that reported information.

 

그러나 다른 질문은 의미meaning란, 삶의 경험을 이해하는 다양한 - 종종 대립하는 - 방법에 의해 매개된다라고 본다.

  • What is the nature of the experience described by the participant and how has he come to understand it in this way?
  • What aspects of the researcher’s own experience has she brought to the data gathering and interpretation?
  • To what extent does this description of reality resonate with others?
  • What new hypotheses and concepts are being generated?

However, other questions (e.g. What is the nature of the experience described by the participant and how has he come to understand it in this way? What aspects of the researcher’s own experience has she brought to the data gathering and interpretation? To what extent does this description of reality resonate with others? What new hypotheses and concepts are being generated?) reflect the assumption that meaning is mediated through multiple (and often competing) ways to understand lived experience.



서로 다른 연구 관점을 가지고 있는 사람들은 연구 근거의 기준으로 서로 다른 것을 찾는다. 여기에는 신뢰도, 일반화가능도, reflexivity, resonance 등이 있다. 그러나, 모든 패러다임에 있어서 연구의 엄격함rigour에는 다음의 것들이 중요하다는 것은 공통적이다.

Those who hold different research perspectives look for different criteria of quality in research evidence; these may include criteria pertaining to reliability, generalisability, reflexivity or resonance. However, it is common to all paradigms that rigour itself is a product of

  • the soundness of the theory,
  • the transparency of the research assumptions and
  • the integrity of the research processes for data gathering and analysis.

 

실제로 연구의 가정과 무관하게, 연구자의 신뢰성에 핵심 이슈는 연구의 한계를 밝히고, 연구결과의 해석에 영향을 줄 수 있는 정보를 공개하는 것이다.

Indeed, regardless of the research assumptions, the central issue concerns the trustworthiness of the researchers in identifying the limitations of the work and disclosing information that could influence the interpretation of the findings.




CONCLUSIONS



연구방법론이란 단순히 자료 수집 전략에 관한 것이 아니며, 더 중요하게는 그 연구설계의 특성을 결정하는 철학적 신념을 설명한다.

The paper argues that research methodology is not simply about data collection strategies, but, more importantly, that it addresses the philosophical beliefs that determine the nature of the research design.




31 Morgan DL. Paradigms lost and pragmatism regained: methodological implications of combining qualitative and quantitative methods. J Mix Methods Res 2007;1 (1):48–76.



Britten, N. (2005). Making sense of qualitative research: a new series. Medical Education, 39(1), 5-6.












 2010 Apr;44(4):358-66. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2923.2009.03611.x.

Research paradigms in medical education research.

Author information

  • 1Department of General Practice Section, NHS Education for Scotland, Glasgow, UK. Suzanne.bunniss@nes.scot.nhs.uk

Abstract

CONTEXT:

The growing popularity of less familiar methodologies in medical education research, and the use of related data collection methods, has made it timely to revisit some basic assumptions regarding knowledge and evidence.

METHODS:

This paper outlines four major research paradigms and examines the methodological questions that underpin the development of knowledge through medical education research.

DISCUSSION:

This paper explores the rationale behind different research designs, and shows how the underlying research philosophy of a study can directly influence what is captured and reported. It also explores the interpretivist perspective in some depth to show how less familiar paradigm perspectives can provide useful insights to the complex questions generated by modern healthcare practice.

CONCLUSIONS:

This paper concludes that the quality of research is defined by the integrity and transparency of the research philosophy and methods, rather than the superiority of any one paradigm. By demonstrating that different methodological approaches deliberately include and exclude different types of data, this paper highlights how competing knowledge philosophies have practical implications for the findings of a study.

Comment in

PMID:
 
20444071
 
[PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]


상상해보자: 의학교육의 새 패러다임 (Acad Med, 2013)

Just Imagine: New Paradigms for Medical Education

Neil B. Mehta, MBBS, MS, Alan L. Hull, MD, PhD, James B. Young, MD, and James K. Stoller, MD, MS






위대한 돌파구는 필사적으로 필요로 했던 것이 어느 순간 갑자기 달성되면서 생겨난다

Big breakthroughs happen when what is suddenly possible meets what is desperately necessary. 

—Thomas L. Friedman, “Come the Revolution,” New York Times, May 15, 2002


2010년 'Educating Physicians: A Call for Reform of Medical School and Residency는 두 번째 플렉스너 보고서라고도 불리며, 의학교육이 오늘날 마주한 중대한 도전을 지적한다.

The 2010 publication Educating Physicians: A Call for Reform of Medical School and Residency,1 often referred to as the “second Flexner Report,” points out the substantial challenges facing medical education today.


현재 의학교육 모델의 한계

Shortcomings of the Current Model of Medical Education


비효율성, 비유연성, 학습자-중심 결여

A stark inventory of the shortcomings of the current model of medical education includes inefficiency, inflexibility, and lack of learner-centeredness.


지금의 성적은 효과적인 의사가 되기 위해 필요한 진정한 스킬/행동/특성을 반영하지 못한다. 교수가 학생을 평가하는 것은 무척 variable하며, 종종 문제해결능력 또는 비판적 사고능력이 아니라 대인관계의 특성을 반영한다.

Thus, these grades likely do not reflect true skills, behaviors, and attributes needed to be an effective physician. Faculty assessments of students are highly variable and often reflect interpersonal characteristics2 rather than problem- solving and critical thinking skills.


또한, 현대 임상환경은 교수가 교육에 헌신하기 힘들게 한다. 많은 학생들이 임상실습동안 병력청취나 신체검진에 대해서 observed 되지도 못한 채 실습을 마친다.

Also, realities of the modern academic clinical environment can challenge faculty’s commitment to recruitment and teaching. Strikingly, many students go through the required clinical rotations without once being observed taking a history or examining a patient.3


GME도 문제이긴 마찬가지이다. 동료peer to peer 교육의 질은 GME에서 중요한 요소인데, 레지던트의 교육 스킬을 향상시키는데 관심을 두지 않고, 교육병원은 진료와 교육에 대한 의무mission의 균형을 맞추지 못하고 있다. 최종적으로 로테이션 동안에 임상경험은 '운에 맡기는' 상황이다. 이러한 갭은 전공의 근무시간 제한으로 인해서 더 악화된다.

Graduate medical education (GME) is challenged as well. For example, the quality of peer-to-peer teaching, an important element of GME, is compromised by inattention to improving residents’ teaching skills and an unfavorable imbalance between the service and education missions of the teaching hospital.2 Finally, clinical exposure during rotations can be “hit-or- miss,” leaving gaps in trainees’ exposure. These gaps may be exacerbated by limitations on clinical exposure due to resident duty hours restrictions.


의학교육은 사회로부터도 도전을 받고 있다. 의사 부족에 대비하여 더 많은 의사를 양성하라는 요구가 있지만 달성되지 못하고 있다. 또한 의과대학 졸업생의 부채가 $150,000를 넘어서면서 일차의료 전공을 하려는 학생이 줄고 있다.

Medical education faces challenges at a societal level as well. There is a clear but unmet need to train more physicians to meet a massive projected physician shortage.4 Because the debt level of most students graduating from medical schools exceeds $150,000,5 choices to pursue primary care specialties may be undermined by the need to seek more remunerative specialties to pay off debt.6


의학교육의 개혁

Reforming Medical Education


이상적인 상태에서는 모든 학생은 필수적인 입원환자 경험과 외래환자 경험을 쌓을 수 있어야 한다. 환자를 보는 것에 대한 감독을 받아야 하며, 환자를 본 것에 대한 형성적 피드백을 받고, 스스로의 지식, 기술을 쌓고 전문직의 사회화 과정에 활용해야 한다.

In an ideal future state, all students would experience every essential inpatient and ambulatory clinical experience, would be observed during these encounters, and would receive formative feedback on such interactions to guide them in improving their knowledge, skills, and socialization to the profession.


의학교육의 수준을 올리기 위해서 플렉스너는 최소한의 입학요건을 제안하였고, 모든 의과대학이 대학에 affiliation되어야 한다고 권고했다. 플렉스너는 일방적 강의를 비판하고 학생이 learn by doing 해야 한다고 했다. 또한 교육과정이 유연하여 공식적  학습formal learning을 임상경험과 연구와 통합시킬 수 있게 해야한다고 주장했다.

To improve the standards of medical education, Flexner recommended that minimum admission standards should be established and that all medical schools should be affiliated with a university. Flexner criticized didactic teaching in lecture halls and wanted students to learn by doing. He believed that curricula should be flexible and should allow for integration of formal learning with clinical experiences and research.


플렉스너는 이러한 제안이 '현재와 가까운 미래, 길어봐야 한 세대'를 위한 것이다 라고 인식했다.

Flexner realized that his recommendations were for “the present and the near future—a generation at most.”8


현재, 의학교육을 재구조화 하고 향상시키려는 노력이 다시 한 차례 이뤄지고 있다. ACGME는 시간-기반 수련모델을 역량-기반 모델로 바꾸고자 한다. 

Today, efforts are under way to reframe and enhance medical education once again. The Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education (ACGME) Milestone Project is attempting to move from a time-based to a competence-based framework for progression through medical training.


2007년 ten Cate와 Scheele는 EPA개념과 STAR를 주장하며, 현재의 역량 프레임워크와 실제 임상 진료행위의 갭을 연결시키고자 했다. 

In 2007, ten Cate and Scheele10 proposed the concept of entrustable professional activities (EPAs) and statements of awarded responsibilities (STARs) to bridge the gap between the competency framework and practical clinical practice.


AAMC와 NBME는 다른 기관과 협력하여 의학교육과 진료행위의 연속체에 걸쳐 학습을 추적하는 도구를 개발중이다. 

The Association of American Medical Colleges (AAMC) and National Board of Medical Examiners are working with other accrediting agencies to develop a tool for tracking learning across the continuum of medical training and practice.11,12



파괴적 혁신

Disruptive Innovations


이러한 것들 모두 종합하면, 현재의 과제는 '파괴적 혁신'이라 불리는 급진적인 새로운 패러다임을 받아들이는 것이다. 구체적으로 Bower와 Clayton은 '어떻게 새로운 급진적 패러다임이 현재 산업리더 industrial leader로부터 소외받아온 소비자들에게 더 단순하고 더 편리하고 더 맞춤화되고 더 저렴한 방식으로 이득이 되게 할 수 있는가'로 파과적 혁신을 주창했다.

Taken together, current challenges invite radical new paradigms, which have been dubbed “disruptive innovations.” Specifically, Bower and Clayton have introduced the concept of disruptive innovations to describe how new radical paradigms can produce simpler, more convenient, more customizable, or cheaper ways of benefiting consumers who are currently being ignored by industry leaders.13


대학의학은 국가적 문제 해결을 위한 의학교육 개혁의 급박한 필요성을 인정해야 한다. sound한 교육모델에 기반한 혁신은 더 광범위한 보건의료인력을 더 낮은 비용으로 양성할 수 있을 것이다. 이러한 맥락에서 Willliam Bennett은 "테크놀로지 대학의 메카라 할 수 있는 실리콘벨리는 대학과 교육자들이 할 수 없는, 아니 하지 않으려고 하는 방향으로의 고등교육 혁신을 진행중에 있다"라고 지적했다.

Academic medicine must recognize the urgent need for medical education reform that will help solve the nation’s problems. Innovations must be rooted in sound pedagogic models that can help create a larger health care workforce at a lower cost. In this context, William Bennett,14 the former U.S. secretary of education, has pointed out that the “mecca of the technology universe (Silicon Valley) is in the process of revolutionizing higher education in a way that educators, colleges and universities cannot, or will not.”



거꾸로 교실과 MOOC

Flipped classrooms and massive open online courses


의학교육 외 분야에서 다수의 강력한 파괴적 변화가 이미 일어나고 있다. Khan Academy 등

In nonmedical education, a number of powerful disruptive changes already under way are changing the educational landscape. For example, the Khan Academy15 started in 2006


Open access online courses는 이미 20년 전에 가능했으나 MOOC이란 개념은 2008년 “Connectivism and Connected Knowledge” 에 관한 강의가 전 세계 2300명의 지원자를 모집하며 유명해졌다. 이후 MOOC은 Sebastian Thurn 가 2012년 1월 스탠포드 대학의 테뉴어를 반납하고 Udacity를 시작한 것을 계기로 세계를 매료시켰다.

Open access online courses have been available for at least two decades,18,19 but the concept of massive open online courses (MOOCs) was popularized by a group of learning researchers when a course on “Connectivism and Connected Knowledge” in 2008 attracted over 2,300 worldwide participants.20 However, MOOCs did not take the world by storm until Sebastian Thurn ceded his tenured position at Stanford University in January 2012 to start Udacity, a start-up offering MOOCs at low or no cost.21



Khan Academy and Udacity로 인해서 전통적인 교육 역할을 잃을까 두려웠던 대학들은 이제 무료 온라인 코스를 제공하기 위해 협력하고 있다. Udacity가 런칭되고 얼마 지나지 않아 Coursera가 설립되었다. Coursera의 초기 파트너는 Stanford, the University of Pennsylvania, the University of Michigan, and Princeton University였으며, 이제는 190개국에서 150만명 이상이 Coursera의 198개 MOOC(33개 대학)을 수강중이다 이후 하버드와 MIT는 edX collaboration을 발표했다.

Stimulated and possibly threatened by the fear of losing their traditional role in education by initiatives like the Khan Academy and Udacity, universities are now collaborating to offer free online courses. Shortly after Udacity launched, Coursera22 was founded by two Stanford faculty members with expertise in machine learning and artificial intelligence and their application to biomedical sciences. Coursera’s first university partners were Stanford, the University of Pennsylvania, the University of Michigan, and Princeton University. Currently, over 1.5 million students from 190 countries are enrolled through Coursera in 198 MOOCs from 33 universities.23 Soon after Coursera began, Harvard University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology announced their edX collaboration,24 which will offer free content from the two universities to anyone in the world. Both Coursera and edX will offer certificates of mastery.


 

이전 세대의 learning management systems 와 달리 새로운 시스템은 학생-중심적이며 타당한 교육적 이론에 기반을 두고 있다.

Although previous generations of learning management systems faltered because they focused more on tracking and managing instruction and content, these new systems are student-centered and are based on sound pedagogic principles. They aim to

  • promote active, retrieval-based learning;
  • customized feedback based on analysis of vast amounts of data created by students’ performance;
  • real-time collaboration; and
  • peer learning while also creating an experience mimicking one-on-one tutoring.

디지털 배지

Digital badges


디지털 배지는 또 다른 파괴적 혁신이다. 디지털 배지는 학습자에게 수여되는 전자 이미지로서, 지원서나 레쥬메에 포함될 수 있고 웹사이트나 블로그에 들어갈 수도 있다. 이 개념은 2010년 바로셀로나 컨퍼런스에서 처음 시작되었는데, 다양한 formal and informal 학습공간에서의 학습을 capture하는 것을 도와준다. 이후 곧 디지털배지는 MacArthur Foundation 로부터 2백만달러의 투자를 받게 된다.

Digital badges are another disruptive innovation in the education world27 with implications for medical education. Digital badges are electronic images that follow learners through their lifetimes and can be included in applications and resumes or displayed on Web sites and blogs. The concept originated in 2010 at a conference in Barcelona, Spain, to help capture learning that occurs in multiple formal and informal learning spaces. Soon thereafter, digital badges received a substantial endorsement when the MacArthur Foundation funded a $2 million “Badges for Lifelong Learning Competition.”28


베지에는 메타데이터가 들어있어서 수여자의 이름, 수여 기관, 수여기관의 정보, 수여자가 이 배지를 받기 위해서 해야 했던 것들, 이 배지를 받기 위하여 수여자가 충족시킨 기준의 근거 등이 포함된다. 따라서 디지털 배지는 스킬/성취/퀄리티를 더 섬세한granular 방식으로 보여준다. 디지털 배지는 실제 상황에서의 스킬을 마스터했다는 것을 보여주는 것으로, 고용주에게는 (일반적으로 학위에서는 잘 드러나지 않는) 전문성의 근거가 될 수 있다. 디지털배지를 수집하고 보여주는 것은 테크놀로지 세대에 있어서 동기부여 요인이 될 수 있다. 표준화된 온라인 플랫폼이 개발된 바 있다.

Badges encode metadata containing information such as the badge recipient’s name, the institution (or individual) awarding the badge, information about the endorser (i.e., the organization that certifies or approves the badge or the badge provider), information about what the recipient had to do to get the badge, and evidence that the recipient met the criteria to earn the badge. Thus, digital badges can provide concrete evidence of skills, achievements, and qualities in a more granular manner than traditional grades and degrees. They reflect mastery of real-life skills and are valued by employers looking for evidence of expertise not often reflected by college degrees.28 Collecting and displaying electronic badges can be motivating for a generation that has grown up with technology. Standardized online platforms have been developed (e.g., Openbadges.org) for badge sponsors, badge issuers, and badge earners, allowing the issuing, collection, management, and sharing of badges across multiple Web sites and learning management systems.



 

의학교육의 새로운 모델을 위한 비전

Vision for a New Model for Medical Education



우리는 협력적 온라인 학습환경을 위한 central environment를 만들 수 있다.

We could develop a central online collaborative learning environment


우리는 다학제간 협력을 구축할 수 있다. MOOC을 수강하는 무수한 학생은 가상의, 다학제적, 협력적 환경을 언제나 제공받을 수 있을 것이다.

We could ensure multidisciplinary collaboration by building communities of learning. The vast numbers of students in these MOOCs would ensure that they would always have other students online at the same time helping to build a virtual, and most likely multidisciplinary, collaborative environment.


MOOC은 교수들의 교육방식도 바꿔놓을 것이다. 예를 들어 교수들은 단순 강의를 제공하는 역할에서 벗어나, 면대면, 온라인 소그룹, 온라인 일대일 토론을 제공할 수도 있다. 이는 "거꾸로 교실"의 한 형태이며, 학생들은 기본적 학습 자료를 스스로 수업 전후에 공부하고, 아주 귀중한 (그리고 비싼) 교수들의 시간은 문제해결을 위한 협력적 학습에 사용될 수 있을 것이다.

Massive online learning could also affect faculty practices. For example, faculty members freed from providing didactic sessions could be available for face- to-face, online small-group, or online one-on-one discussion. This would “flip the classroom”—that is, students could learn basic didactic material on their own before and after class, and valuable (and expensive) faculty time could be used for collaborative learning or problem- solving.29


학생들은 배지 공급자를 선택할 수 있고, 의과대학과 궁극적으로는 인증기구가 설정한 파라미터에 따라서 스스로의 스케줄을 결정할 수 있다.

Students could choose their badge providers and schedule their advancement through the curriculum guided by the parameters set by the medical school and ultimately by the accreditation bodies.


임상실습 스케줄은 학생들이 house staff, allied health personnel, and faculty 들과 더 많은 시간을 보내게끔 바뀔 수 있으며, 이들이 로테이션동안의 학습목표에 대한 배지수여자가 된다. 의과대학의 역할은 철저한 교육훈련이 확실히 이뤄지게끔 하고, 배지수여자들에 대한 교수개발을 하고, 교육과정동안 학생의 모니터링과 자문 역할을 하는 것이다.

The clerkship schedules would be modified to ensure that students spend more time with house staff, allied health personnel, and faculty who are certified badge providers for the learning objectives of the rotation. The role of the medical school would be to ensure rigorous training, certification, and continuing faculty development for the badge providers as well as close monitoring and advising of students throughout the curriculum. 


디지털 배지는 EPA로 정의된 특정 기술을 마스터했음을 보여주눈데 사용될 수 있으며, 디지털 STAR이다.

Digital badges could be used to record and display mastery of specific skills as defined in EPAs and thus would be the digital equivalents of the STARs.


스킬의 유지를 위해서 배지는 유효기간이 설정될 수 있다. 또한 새로운 프로세스와 절차procedure가 진료의 새로운 기준이 될 수 있는 것처럼, 배지가 추가적으로 업데이트 될 수 있다.

To support maintenance of skills, the specific badges could carry expiration dates. Also, as new processes and procedures become standard of care, the certification in women’s health would be updated with a need for additional badges.


학생은 MOOC과 디지털배지의 데이터를 바탕으로 전자 포트폴리오를 유지한다. 이는 고용주, 대학, 동료, 환자, 면허기관과 공유된다. 교수자-중심에서 학생-중심으로, 선형적, 시간-기반 교육에서 숙달-기반mastery-based 진전progression으로 바뀐다.

Students could maintain an electronic portfolio with data from MOOCs and digital badges they earn during their medical training. They would share this with employers, privileging hospitals, colleagues, patients, and state licensing boards. The focus would shift from teacher-centered to student-centered learning and from linear, temporal-based teaching to mastery-based progression.


파킨슨병을 위한 온라인 학습 커뮤니티가 ParkinsonNet이라는 이름으로 네덜란드에 만들어진 바 있다. 아홉 단계 프로세스로서 지역 커뮤니티를 통해 저비용으로 파킨슨병 환자를 지원한다.

A model for establishing an online learning community focused on Parkinson disease has been set up in the Netherlands.30 The program, called ParkinsonNet, is a nine-step process to help provide multidisciplinary care for patients with Parkinson disease in a cost-effective regional community network.


the AAMC, the Khan Academy, and the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation 는 MCAT준비를 위한 무료 온라인 교육비디오를 만들고 있다.

In a visionary move, the AAMC, the Khan Academy, and the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation are collaborating to create videos as a free online resource for students preparing for the Medical College Admission Test. This is an effort to help students from diverse and economically and educationally challenged backgrounds to enter the medical profession.31




가능성을 상상하라

Imagine the Possibilities


두 번째 플렉스너 리포트는 네 가지 감탄할 만한 목표를 제시한다.

The “second Flexner Report” identifies four laudable goals to improve medical education:

(1) standardization of learning outcomes and individualization of the learning process,

(2) integration of formal knowledge and clinical experience,

(3) development of habits of inquiry and innovation, and

(4) focus on professional identity formation.1





 





8 Ludmerer KM. Commentary: Understanding the Flexner Report. Acad Med. 2010;85: 193–196.





Just imaginenew paradigms for medical education.

Author information

  • 1Dr. Mehta is associate professor of medicine and director of education technology, Cleveland Clinic Lerner College of Medicine of Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio. Dr. Hull is professor of medicine and associate dean for curricular affairs, Cleveland Clinic Lerner College of Medicine of Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio. Dr. Young is professor of medicine and executive dean, Cleveland Clinic Lerner College of Medicine of Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio. Dr. Stoller is Jean Wall Bennett Professor of Medicine and Chairman,Education Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio.

Abstract

For all its traditional successes, the current model of medical education in the United States and Canada is being challenged on issues of quality, throughput, and cost, a process that has exposed numerous shortcomings in its efforts to meet the needs of the nations' health care systems. A radical change in direction is required because the current path will not lead to a solution.The 2010 publication Educating Physicians: A Call for Reform of Medical School and Residency identifies several goals for improving the medical education system, and proposals have been made to reform medical education to meet these goals. Enacting these recommendations practically and efficiently, while training more health care providers at a lower cost, is challenging.To advance solutions, the authors review innovations that are disrupting higher education and describe a vision for using these to create a new model for competency-based, learner-centered medical education that can better meet the needs of the health care system while adhering to the spirit of the above proposals. These innovations include collaboration amongst medical schools to develop massive open online courses for didactic content; faculty working in small groups to leverage this online content in a "flipped-classroom" model; and digital badges for credentialing entrustable professional activities over the continuum of learning.

PMID:
 
23969368
 
[PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]


의과대학생을 위한 건강 관련 문화 요소 교육(Acad Med, 2003)

Components of Culture in Health for Medical Students’ Education

Melanie Tervalon, MD, MPH






글로벌한 이민과 이주 패턴은 미국의 인종/민족/문화/언어적 특성을 지속적으로 바꾸어 왔다.

Global migration patterns have forever changed the racial, ethnic, cultural, and linguistic character of the United States.1,2 


예컨대, 대체보완의학 사용이나 영적 치유자, 건강 유지를 위하여 지역사회-기반 지지 메커니즘을 주로 사용하는 것에 대한 환자의 의견은 의사의 견해와 다를 수 있으며, 의사는 건강과 질병에 대한 접근은 생의학과 테크놀로지의 원칙에 기반을 두어야 한다고 생각할 것이다.

For example, patients’ opinions of the use of complementary and alternative healing practices, spiritual healers, and communitybased support mechanisms as primary sources for health maintenance or healing can be at odds with the perspective of those U.S. providers whose explanations and approaches to health and illness originate in training heavily infused with the principles of biomedicine and technology.3–7


많은 건강정책 전문가들과, 최근 IOM까지, 의학교육에서 문화에 대한 교육을 잘 개념화하여 다루는 것이 인종과 민족 간 건강격차를 줄이는 국가 전략들 중 중요한 한 가지가 될 수 있다고 제안한다.

Many health policy experts, and most recently the Institute of Medicine, suggest that a well-conceptualized focus on culture in medi- cal education could serve as one of several important national strategies to eliminate racial and ethnic health disparities.4,8–14a


일한 교육에는 건강에 대해서 문화마다 어떠한 개념을 가지고 있는지, 문화적 상호작용에 내제된 힘의 역학은 어떠한지, 문화는 지속적으로 변하기에 한 그룹의 건강 신념, 규범, 행동, 가치 등이 고정관념적 묘사로 환원될 수 없다는 것 등을 다룰 수 있다. 또한 문화적으로 불협화음 혹은 시너지를 내기 위한 목적으로 문화적 신념이나 문화적 시스템을 파해치는 것이 - 의사에 대한 것이든 환자에 대한 것이든 - 얼마나 어려운 일인지 등을 다룰 수도 있다.

For example, part of this educational process includes providing students with information that deepens their understanding of the concept of culture in health, the power dynamics inherent in cultural interactions, and the reality that culture is ever-changing and thus cannot be reduced to stereotypic descriptions of population groups’ cultural health beliefs, norms, behaviors, and values.7 It also includes the difficult work of examining cultural beliefs and cultural systems of both patients and providers to locate the points of cultural dissonance or synergy that contribute to patients’ health outcomes.15–18


도입

INTRODUCTION


지난 20년간 건강에 대한 비교-문화적, 다문화 에 관한 프로그램이 개발되어 왔다.

Over the past two decades, residency programs, hospitals, community organizations, and medical schools have developed courses and programs focused on cross-cultural, or multicultural, education in health.3–6,17–33









핵심 요소

THE CORE COMPONENTS



 

근거

Rationale


왜 문화의 영향력을 배워야 하나?

Why learn about the impact of culture in health and health care delivery?


  • 무한한 인구구조 변화
    the ever-changing demographic patterns in the United States; 
  • 건강결정요인으로 문화를 무시했을 때의 부정적 영향
    literature indicating negative health outcomes when cul-ture is dismissed as an influencing factor in health; 
  • 생의학 이외의 다른 - 보완대체의학 등 - 헬스케어 시스템이 다수 환자에 의해 사용중
    the use of health care systems other than biomedicine, such as complementary and alternative medicine, by large numbers of patients; 
  • 의사에게 문화에 대해 교육하는 것이 인종/민족 간 건강 격차를 줄이는데 기여함
    evidence that increasing provider education about cul- ture in health can contribute to reducing racial and ethnic differentials in health outcomes; and 
  • 법적, 제도적, 인증기준적 요구조건
    adherence to the legislative, regulatory, and accreditation n mandates requiring that providers be knowledgeable about the applications of culture in health and health care delivery.5,8,9,37



문화의 기초

Culture Basics


문화를 '신념, 행동, 태도, 행위를 포괄하는 것으로서, 구성원 사이에 학습되고, 공유되고, 전달되는 것'으로 보는 관점이 "문화가 무엇인가?"라는 기본적 질문에 대한 시작점이 될 수 있을 것이다.

An exploration of culture as encompassing beliefs, behav- iors, attitudes, and practices that are learned, shared, and passed on by members of a group should serve as the starting point in answer to this section’s basic question: What is culture?


어떻게 문화와 문화적 정체성에 대한 정의가 역동적이고 계속 변하는가를 보여주는 것이 중요하다.  age, dis- ability, or gender identity가 texture가 되고 context가 된다.

It is important to illustrate in this process how culture and definitions of cultural identity are dynamic and ever- changing.

  • For example, exploring the complexity of each individual as a cultural being with multiple af- filiations based on common characteristics such as age, dis- ability, or gender identity can give texture and everyday context to the implications of culture for health out- comes.7,10–12,14–16,19,22–26,28,29,31,32,40,41,49–51


유사하게, 어떻게 헬스케어시스템이 문화적 시스템으로서 작동하는가를 아는 것도 중요하다. 이는 미국에서 환자들이 사용하는 세 가지 주요 헬스케어시스템 각각의 특징과 정의를 배우는 것에서 시작한다.(biomedicine, complementary and al- ternative medicine (CAM), and integrative medicine.)

Similarly, the opportunity exists here to explore how health care systems operate as cultural systems, by learning the definitions and distinguishing features of the three prominent health care systems used by patients in the United States today: biomedicine, complementary and al- ternative medicine (CAM), and integrative medicine.


건강에서 문화에 대해 논의할 때 사용되는 다양한 용어 sociocultural, multicultural, cultural competence, race, ethnicity, gender, socioeconomic status, diversity, and diverse populations.의 정의를 포함한다.

This component should also clarify the definitions and meaning of the many words and terms used in the discussion of culture in health care such as sociocultural, multicultural, cultural competence, race, ethnicity, gender, socioeconomic status, diversity, and diverse populations.


헬스케어 세팅에서 문화의 역할에 대하여 지속적 학습을 가능하게 구성요소building block이 될 것이다.

Teaching and dialogue on these basic culture topics formthe building blocks for ongoing learning about the role of culture in the health care setting.5,22,27,31,49




건강 상태

Health Status


모든 인구집단의 건강 상태에 대한 자료를 보여주고 분석하는 것을 통해서 문화를 이해하는 것이 얼마나 시급한지를 보여줄 수 있다. 교수자와 학생들에게 이들 자료와 문화 간 연결이 갖는 의미에 대해서 비판적으로 사고할 수 있는 무한한 장소venues가 될 수 있다. 가능한 질문들.

Presenting and analyzing data on the health status of all population groups along with close examination of the United States’ dynamic demographic changes demonstrates the urgency of understanding the role of culture in health. These materials offer endless venues for critical thinking among medical students and instructors about the sources and meanings of the links between data on differential health status and culture. For example,

  • are the group classifications in data presentations such as ‘‘black,’’ ‘‘white,’’ ‘‘Hispanic,’’ and ‘‘other’’—which are currently used in well respected, peer-reviewed research studies—based on bi- ological, cultural, or social classifications?
  • What do the terms biological, cultural, and social mean in health care research and clinical practice today?
  • Why does it make a difference, when conducting, reporting, and explaining research data about groups today, to be clear about the meanings of these terms?
  • How do we begin to untangle the contributions of culture when reviewing current health data on cardiovas- cular disease, diabetes, or organ transplants, where the racial and ethnic differentials are so stark?


건강 상태에 대한 자료를 미국의 사회적 불평등의 시간의 변화나 역사적 맥락에 따라서 배워야 한다. HIV/AIDS 유행, C형간염, 당뇨, Tuskegee 매독 연구 등을 통해서 어떻게 역사적으로 권력/경제/정치/지리/법/문화시스템의 복잡한 관계가 건강전달체계, 건강 상태, 건강 성과에 영향을 주었는지 배울 수 있다.

Review of the data on health status, over time and in the historical context of longstanding social inequities in the United States, is an equally important facet of this compo- nent. Thoughtful historical presentations of the current health epidemics of HIV/AIDS, hepatitis C, and diabetes, and careful instructional presentation of the Tuskegee syphilis studies can show students how the complex relation- ships of historical forces, economics, politics, geography, legal, and cultural systems affect health care delivery sys- tems, influence health status, and shape health out- comes.2,7,10–12,15,22,26,29,32,49,50,51,54


 

임상과의 연결: 지식, 도구, 스킬

Clinical Encounter: Knowledge, Tools, and Skills



세 가지가 있다. (1)핵심 문화 이슈에 대한 학습 (2)환자의 사회 문화적 맥락에 관한 정보를 얻기 위한 면담의 접근법과 방법 (3)의료해설자(medical interpreters)의 참여에 관한 효과적인 활용원칙과 실천

Three distinct yet related segments focused on culture in the clinical encounter are included here: (1) learning about core cultural issues, (2) learning interviewing approaches and methods that elicit information about the patient’s social and cultural context, and (3) demonstrating the effective use of the principles and practices associated with the parti- cipation of medical interpreters in the clinical encounter.


(1)핵심 문화 이슈에 대한 학습

Core cultural issues.


핵심 문화 이슈는 그 문화권 내에서 광범위하게 작동하는 주제theme이며 여기에는 다음이 있다.

Core cultural issues are universal themes that operate within cultural groups, such as

  • gender roles and positions of authority within a family system;
  • views about birth, dying, advance directives, and death;
  • etiology and the meaning of illness;
  • religion and spirituality;
  • folk illnesses and practices of traditional healers.7,15,16,22,41,50


이 교육에서 중요한 것은 문화적 이슈에 대하여 사례와 함께 기초적 지식을 제공하여 학생들로 하여금 임상상황에서 핵심 문화적 이슈가 자연스럽게 떠오르게끔 하는 것이다. 핵심 문화이슈를 강조하는 것은 특정 문화와 관련된 특징을 세세히 열거하는 비효과적 방법을 지양하게끔 해준다. 민감한 학생이나 교사는 그러한 목록에 대해서 부정적으로 반응하는데, 왜냐하면 그러한 정보가 개개 환자의 문화적 신념에 대해서 면밀한 탐사 없이, 그리고 문화적 신념이 개별적 임상상황에서 얼마나 중요한지에 대한 고려 없이 환자에 대한 선입관assumption을 가지게 만들기 때문이다.

The educational point here is to present basic knowledge about core cultural issues with examples that alert students to the kinds of key cultural issues that may arise in the clinical encoun- ter.1,20–22,26–31,35,36,44,49,50,55,56 Emphasizing core cultural issues avoids the problematic approach of presenting detailed lists of traits or characteristics associated with particular cultural groups as knowledge items for students. Sophisticated students and teachers react negatively to such listings in coursework because of the potential to take this information and make assumptions about the cultural be- liefs of individual patients without engaging in the careful exploration with each individual about his or her particular cultural belief system and to what extent cultural beliefs are important for each individual in the health care en- counter.20,22,26,30,32,49



(2)환자의 사회 문화적 맥락에 관한 정보를 얻기 위한 면담의 접근법과 방법

Interviewing approaches.


효과적인 면담기법은 우수한 진료행위의 기반이다. Arthur Kleinman의 Explanatory Model 이나 다른 변형인 LEARN,57 BATHE,17 and SMARTS32  등이 학생들에게 각각의 환자가 가진 건강과 질병의 서사를 발견해낼 수 있는 좋은 접근법과 방법을 알려줄 수 있다.

Effective and skillful inter- viewing is a cornerstone of excellent clinical practice. Arthur Kleinman’s Explanatory Model and other variations on this theme such as LEARN,57 BATHE,17 and SMARTS32 offer students several approaches and methods to respect- fully elicit each patient’s story of wellness or illness, through core cultural issues and a defined social context.


또한 이러한 면담 접근법이 dogma가 아니라는 것을 강조해야 한다. 임상상황마다 문화가 얼마나 많은 혹은 얼마나 적은 영향을 주었는지에 대해서는 각 환자가 전문가이다. 개별적 스킬 세트로서 학생들에게 이 면담모델을 가르치는 것은 필수적이다. 의사의 역할은...

It is also important to reinforce that these are interviewing approaches, not dogma, and that each patient is the expert on how little or how much culture has to do with each clinical encounter. Teaching students these interview- ing models as a discrete skill set is essential. The role of the provider is

  • (1) to thoughtfully and respectfully elicit this information from the patient alone or in partnership with interpreters,
  • (2) to skillfully utilize social and cultural profiles when interviewing patients, and
  • (3) to consider how the cultural beliefs of the patient will be incorporated into the provider’s decision-making processes when neg- otiating treatment and referral plans with patients and fa- milies.9,20,22,26–28,30–33,44,49,55,56,58–60

(3)의료해설자(medical interpreters)의 참여에 관한 효과적인 활용원칙과 실천

Interpreters.


영어가 주 언어가 아닌 사람은 미국에서 주요 소외계층이다.

Patients who speak a language other than English as their primary language are at a distinct dis- advantage in the health care setting in the United States.


통역가interpreter 서비스 제공은 기관 차원의 문제이나, 통역가와 능숙하게 파트너십을 맺는 것은 중요하게 가르쳐야 할 것 중 하나이다. 세 가지 핵심 요소가 있다.

While establishing interpreter services is an institutional matter, skillful partnership with interpreters in the health care setting is an instructional matter of great importance. Three elements are key in this instruction:

  • (1) exposing students to the roles that translators/medical interpreters from a local community may play as cultural brokers and ‘‘truth tellers’’ in the clinical setting;
  • (2) teaching the code of ethics that guides the work of language and interpretative services in health care; and
  • (3) demonstrating how to establish an effective working relationship with medical interpreters in the clinical encounter, from pre- and post- medical interview discussions with the interpreter, to guidance from the interpreter about cultural beliefs and practices in the community, and to how to physically position the interview triad of patient, provider, and translator in the room for optimal communication.


의사의 관점: 태도와 행동

Provider Focus: Clinician Attitudes and Behaviors


이 요소는 의사가 가지는 부정적 편견과 고정관념이 임상상황에서 유의미한 요인이 되지 않게끔 의사의 태도와 행동을 만들어 주는 의학교육의 표준화가 중요함을 강조한다. 의사가 이러한 요인에 대해서 스스로 인지하고 있을 때, 의사는 명확하고 정직하게 서로 다른 환자군 간 어떠한 생의학의 자원을 활용할 것인지 구별하여 결정하 수 있다.

This component is aimed at highlighting the importance of standardizing instruction in medical education that can shape providers’ attitudes and behaviors so that providers’ own negative biases, prejudices, and stereotypes about cul- tural groups become insignificant factors in the health care encounter. When providers become aware of these factors, they can clearly and honestly determine when they are differentially closing the doors to resources in biomedicine for distinct patient populations.8



의사가 가진 편견 - 의식적이든 무의식적이든 - 을 반성하지 않았을 때 unexamined, 치명적일 수 있는 차별 deathly differentials 이 생길 수 있다.

Unexamined provider bias, whether conscious or unconscious, supports the continua- tion of what I see as deathly differentials for diverse populations.20,21,27,28,49,55,56


학생들은 스스로가 다면적 문화적 정체성을 가지고 있다는 것을 생각해볼 기회가 있어야 하며, 생의학의 문화에 대한 그들의 관점이 다양하다는 것을 알아야 하며, 이들 요소가 헬스케어 세팅에서의 행동과 태도에 영향을 줄 수 있는 방식을 알아야 한다.

students need the opportunity to examine and understand their own multifaceted cultural identities, their perspectives and views on the culture of biomedicine, and the ways in which these elements may influence their attitudes and behaviors in health care set- tings.


학습 프로세스는 이렇다. 

Several features exist in this learning process for students.

  • 먼저  학생은 자기 자신의, 종종 다차원적인 문화적 정체성을, 그리고 동료와 커뮤니티의 문화적 정체성을 인정하고 묘사한다. 문화적 정체성의 영향과 생의학의 문화가 그들 자신의 건강 신념 시스템에 영향을 준다는 것을 인정한다. 이들 영향력이 가지는 잠재적 갈등과 공존가능성을 인정한다.
    First, students are encouraged to acknowledge and describe their own individual, often multidimensional cultural identi- ties and those of peers, patients, and communities, the in- fluence of cultural identity and the culture of biomedicine on their health belief systems, and the sources of potential conflict and compatibility that arise from these influences in health care settings.22,35,36,47
  • 학생들은 이러한 편견과 차별의 원인이 될 수 있는 잠재적 근원을 찾아본다. 자신의 경험으로부터 찾아보고, anti-bias, anti-isms (반-편견, 반-이념) 훈련을 통해서 이 한계를 극복할 수 있음을 안다.
    Second, students are encour- aged to identify potential or actual sources of bias, prejudice, and discrimination that arise from their lived experiences and to remediate identified limitations though anti-bias, anti-isms training with a focus pertinent to health care.
  • 이러한 자기성찰 도구와 기술을 의사/연구자/학자로서 평생 유지할 수 있게끔 한다.
    Finally, students are encouraged to utilize these self-reflec- tion tools and skills in their lifelong work as health clinicians, researchers, and scholars, and as part of their personal participation as health professionals in the elimination of health care disparities.28,33,49,56



지역사회 참여

Community Participation


지역사회 인사들이 교사로서 참여한다면, (직장에서, 음식과 주거에 관해서, 다른 삶의 스트레스에 대해서) 지역사회 구성원의 우선순위가 되는 문화적 요인에 대한 일상적 표현을 의료로 가져올 수 있다.

Community teachers in culture curricula bring the daily expressions of cultural factors in health care to life in the context of the priorities of community members’ carrying out their jobs, obtaining food and shelter, and dealing with other life stressors.


용어의 내용과 의미를 학생/교사/지역사회 인사의 관점에서 보는 것이 필요하다.

An exploration of the content and meaning of the term community, by students, teachers, and community members, must occur in order to proceed in a useful manner.


입원했던 혹은 의료와 관계된 지역사회의 전문가와 환자가 참여할 때 설득력 있는 local information을 가르칠 수 있으며, 생생한 자신의 경험을 바탕으로 학생이 문화적 요인의 맥락/뉘앙스/퀄리티/결과 를 환자의 관점에서 "listen and learn" 하게 만들어준다.

When community experts and patients from the immedi- ate hospital or medical school community participate as edu- cators they oftenbring to the teaching experience compelling local information and vivid personal stories that invite stu- dents to ‘‘listen and learn’’ about the context, complexities, nuances, quality, and consequences of cultural factors from the patient’s point of view in encounters with the health care systems and health care personnel.6,20,26,28,32,38,47,49


유사하게, 의과대학생을 지역사회-기반 클리닉에 배치하거나, 비영리 지역사회 조직에 배치하는 것은 환자를 실제 경험하여 다양한 패러다임에 노출되게끔 해준다. 이러한 유형의 단기 실습 교육도 잘 관리되기만 한다면 '이론에서 실제로 연결되는' 고리를 만들어줄 수 있으며, 학생이 능동적으로 교실에서 배운 내용을 의료현장에 통합시킬 수 있다. 그러나 여러 차례에 걸쳐서, 각각 단기간으로 진행되는 지역사회 경험에의 노룿른 근본적으로 개몽enlightening 시키지 못하며, 학생들을 '참여자'의 입장이 아니라 '방관자, 관찰자'의 입장에 놓이게 함으로써 문화적 인공물로 채워진 박물관을 관람하는 것과 비슷한 수준의 영향만을 끼칠 뿐이다. 장기간에 걸쳐서 지역사회-기반 세팅에 참여하게끔 하는 것이 훨씬 더 좋다. 이러한 유형의 학생실습은 지역사회 구성원과의 지속적인 관계를 촉진시켜주고, 학생들이 지역사회의 문제해결에 책임감과 책무성을 더 느끼게 해준다.

Similarly, course work that immerses medical students in community-based clinics or nonprofit community organiza- tions can expose students to the multiple paradigms at play in the lives of patients. Experiential short-term instruction of this nature, if well supervised, can close the loop ‘‘from theory to practice’’ in the culture portions of the curriculum, with students actively integrating the for- mal classroom instruction in a contemporary health care workplace.6,20,24,26,28,44,49 However, multiple short-term ex- posures to community-based experiences are not inherently enlightening and can run the risk of placing the student in the position of spectator, not participant, thus reducing the impact of the experience to something akin to a walk through a museum filled with cultural artifacts. Long-term engagements in community-based settings are far preferable for medical student education. Placements of this type en- courage students to foster ongoing relationships with com- munity members and help students gain a deeper sense of responsibility and accountability to actively participate in community-led problem solving and advocacy efforts.



그럼에도, 지역사회 구성원들과 긴밀히 협조하는 것은 교사와 학생 모두에게 종종 자신이 더 지식적으로 우월하고 더 힘과 통제권을 가진다는 비합리한 생각에 대해 반성하끔 해준다.

Nonetheless, working closely with community members in teaching partnerships can help students and faculty alike re-examine and redirect their often-inappropriate assumptions of su- perior knowledge and their often-inappropriate exercise of power and control with regard to issues of culture and health care.1,2,12,20,21,26,30,33,49,50,52,54




기관의 문화와 정책

Institutional Culture and Policies


기관의 리더십이 UME에서 문화를 배우는 것이 중요하다는 메시지를 명확히 전달할 필요가 있다. 교육과정과 교육환경을 문화/인종/인종차별/민족/젠더/계층/성적지향/장애/언어/이민 등에 대한 비판적 담화를 하게끔 지원해야 한다.

Visible institutional leadership can send the message that the study of culture in undergraduate medical education is not only important but also here to stay. The creation of curricula and environments that support critical dialogue on the potentially contentious issues of culture, race, racism, ethnicity, gender, class, sexual orientation, disability, lan- guage, and immigration is not a minor matter.


다른 것으로는...

Several other institutional processes should simul- taneously be present and include

  • (1) formal and unapolo- getic efforts to expand the social and cultural composition of faculty, employees, and students;
  • (2) training for all faculty in the issues of culture in health; and
  • (3) careful institutional review of clinical practice patterns to identify and redress existing institutional processes of patient discrimination in diagnosis, treatment, referral, or resource allocation.





 2003 Jun;78(6):570-6.

Components of culture in health for medical students' education.

Author information

  • 1University of California, San Francisco, School of Medicine, San Francisco, California, USA. mtervalon@earthlink.net

Abstract

Medical educators across the United States are addressing the topics of culture, race, language, behavior, and social status through the development of cross-cultural coursework. Dramatic demographic changes and nationwide attention to eliminating racial and ethnic health disparities make educating medical students about the importance of the effects of culture on health a 21st-century imperative. Despite the urgent need for including this topic material, few medical schools have achieved longitudinal integration of issues of culture into four-year curricula. The author makes the practical contribution of describing key themes and components of culture in health care for incorporation into undergraduate medicaleducation. These include teaching the rationale for learning about culture in health care, "culture basics" (such as definitions, concepts, the basis of "culturein the social sciences, relationship of culture to health and health care, and health systems as cultural systems), data on and concepts ofhealth status (including demographics, epidemiology, health disparities, and the historical context), tools and skills for productive cross-cultural clinical encounters (such as interviewing skills and the use of interpreters); characteristics and origins of attitudes and behaviors of providers; community participation (including the use of expert teachers, community-school partnerships, and the community as a learning environment); and the nature of institutional culture and policies.

PMID:
 
12805035
 
[PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]


의과대학에서 사회통합이라는 달성하기 힘든 목표(Med Educ, 2013)

The elusive grail of social inclusion in medical selection

Nancy Sturman & Malcolm Parker






이 이슈에서 O'Neill 등은 덴마크의 의과대학생의 사회적 구성이 고등학교 성적을 기반으로 하든 'attribute-based' (자질-기반) 트랙으로 선발하든 차이가 없음을 밝혔다. 후자는 학업성취도가 사회경제적 요인으로 제약되었던 학생들을 위한 것으로, 의과대학에 들어올 수 있는 기회를 '성적 외 중요한 자질과 자격'을 바탕으로 제공한 것이다.

In this issue, a study by O’Neill and colleagues reports that the social composition of Danish medical students was similar whether they were selected according to school-leaving grades or on an ‘attribute-based’ track.1 The latter was designed to afford students whose academic grades may have been limited by socio- economic disadvantage, a chance of entry on the basis of ‘other valuable qualifications and attri- butes’.1


선발에 관한 2010년의 Ottawa Conference Consensus Statement를 살펴보면, 환자군의 인구집단을 반영할 수 있도록 사회문화적 포용이 필요하며, 이것이 과소-대표성이 '차별'과 비슷한 '정치적' 타당성과 관련되기 때문이라고 했다. 이러한 평등에 관한 주장은 다른 것과도 연결되는데 치료자와 환자의 관계, patient outcome등이 환자와 의사의 '매칭'이 잘 되었을 때 더 향상된다는 것, 그리고 더 나아가서 의사와 환자 사이의 사회적 계급의 차이가 의사소통 장애의 근간이 되며, 낮은 SES 환자에게 더 열악/열등한 치료를 제공하게 되는 원인이라는 것 등이 있다.

The 2010 Ottawa Conference Consensus Statement on selection for the health care professions argued that wider social and cul- tural inclusion to reflect the patient populations to be served has a ‘political’ validity in that under-representation is tanta- mount to discrimination.4 This argument for equity is accompa- nied by other equity-related con- cerns, including the proposition that therapeutic relationships and patient outcomes are strength- ened by better ‘matching’ of patients and doctors.5 Further- more, there is at least some evidence that differences in social class between doctors and patients underlie difficulties in communication and the delivery of inferior treatment to patients of lower socio-economic status.6


명백하게, 이러한 취약계층 환자의 진료와 진료성과를 향상시키는 것은 의과대학의 사회적 책무성이라는 의제에 속하는 것이다. 그러나 극단적으로 다원주의적인 이 사회에서, 과소-대표되거나 취약계층이라 할 수 있는 사회적 그룹이 숫자는 아주 많다. '사회통합'이라는 의제는 arbitrary하거나 unwieldy하거나 아니면 그 둘 다이다. 불리한 배경 출신의 의사들이 불리한 배경 출신의 환자들을 더 보려고 할 것이라고 가정하지도 않아야 한다. 이들 의사는 의과대학 졸업 후에 그 자신들이 더 높은 사회경제적 계층으로 이동하게 된다. 낮은 SES 그룹에서 더 많은 의과대학생을 모집하는 방법은 모든 의과대학생에게 문화적, 사회적 역량을 기르게 하는 것이며, 여기에는 다양한 사회적 그룹과의 효과적인 의사소통 등이 포함된다. 대부분의 의사는 자신이 속한 배경과 다른 배경을 가진 환자를 진료하게 될 것이며, 이에 대한 교육훈련이 모든 의과대학에 필수적이어야 한다. 또한 의학이 소외집단에 효과적인 의료를 제공하고 건강을 증진시키기 위한 유일한 진로가 아니라는 것을 지적할 필요가 있다.

Clearly, improving care and out- comes for disadvantaged patients falls within the social accountabil- ity agenda of medical schools. However, in increasingly pluralist societies, there are many under- represented and disadvantaged social groups which might reason- ably lay claim to inclusion in med- ical student quotas. A ‘social inclusion agenda’ might become arbitrary or unwieldy, and perhaps both. It should also not be assumed that doctors from disad- vantaged backgrounds will be more likely to work with disadvan- taged patients. Most of these doc- tors will themselves shift to a higher socio-economic bracket after medical qualification.6 An alternative to recruiting more medical students from lower socio-economic strata is to train all medical students in cultural and social competence, including effective communication with dif- ferent social groups.7 As almost all doctors will work with patients from backgrounds which differ from their own at some stage dur- ing their careers, this training should be fundamental to all medical school programmes. It should also be noted that medi- cine is not the only career open to talented young people with a commitment to promoting health and providing health care effec- tively in disadvantaged communi- ties.


성공적인 사회통합을 위해서 들어가는 의학교육의 비용은 높다. 의과대학 수업을 듣는 것은 만만치 않고, 낮은 학업능력을 가진 학생들은 학업적으로, 종종 사회적으로까지 힘들어한다. 이들 학생이 선발단계에서부터 더 경쟁력을 갖추게끔 하려는 upstream 전략과 더불어 의과대학 기간의 학업 지원 프로그램 등이 도움이 될 것이다. 그러나 의과대학 입학 전 'pipeline' 혹은 의과대학 대비 특별 프로그램을 만드는 비용이나, 이들을 의과대학에서 유지하고 지원해주는 교육과정에 드는 비용은 상당하다.

A successful social inclusion agenda for medical education is also costly. Medical courses are challenging, and students with lower academic qualifications are more likely to struggle academically and sometimes also socially.8 Deliberate upstream strategies to support students from identified groups to become more competitive at selection,9 as well as targeted academic support pro- grammes during medical school training,10 appear to be successful. However, the costs of pre-medical ‘pipeline’ and special preparation programmes within these comprehensive strategies of recruitment, retention and support in the curriculum are considerable.5


사회 통합과 관련하여 다른 주장이 또 있을까? 의과대학생 코호트의 다양성이 높아질 때 사회적으로, 지적으로 풍요로운 교육환경을 만들어주며, 의과대학에서의 전통적인, 위해한hamrful 패러다임이 도전을 받을 것이라는 주장도 있다. 이러한 주장은 직관적으로 옳은 것으로 보이며, 반박하기 힘들다. 그러나 어쩌면 의과대학의 잠재교육과정에 만연한 위해한 조직구조, 위계적 문제, 윤리적 과실 등을 해결하는데 더 비용-효과적인 방법이 있을지도 모른다.

Are there other arguments for the social inclusion agenda? There is also the suggestion that greater diversity in student cohorts is likely to produce a socially and intellec- tually richer educational environ- ment in which traditional, potentially harmful paradigms of medical culture are more likely to be challenged. This argument is also intuitively compelling and probably irrefutable. However, there may be other, more cost- effective strategies for addressing the harmful institutional struc- tures, hierarchical relationships and ethical lapses that have been identified as comprising a perva- sive hidden curriculum in medical education.



의과대학에 지원하는 것은 지원자는 물론 가족에게도 고부담의 결정이며, 모든 선발절차는 지원자와의 gaming이며 우수한 의사가 될 잠재력을 지닌 일부를 떨어뜨리게 된다. 의과대학생 선발과 훈련은 이미 비용이 많이 들고 자원-집중적resource-intensive이다. 따라서 일견 타당해보이더라도 달성하기 어려운 사회적 책무성 목표는 reflective, finite, practical해야 한다.

The stakes are high for medical applicants and their families, and any selection process will both attract its share of gaming from applicants and deny admission to some with the potential to become excellent doctors. Medical student selection and training are already expensive and resource-intensive. Quests for plausible but elusive social accountability goals should therefore be reflective, finite and practical.




비록 정치적 타당성이 명백해 보이더라도, 코호트와 다른 연구에서 의과대학에서의 사회통합이라는 목표가 장점이 있음을 보여줄 수도 있지만, 반대로 비현실적이며, 자리를 잘못 잡은 것이고 형편이 되지 못함unaffordable을 보여줄 수도 있다.

Cohort and other studies may demonstrate benefits, or they may show that, despite its apparent political validity, the quest for social inclusion in medical selec- tion is impractical, misplaced and unaffordable.





 2013 Jun;47(6):542-4. doi: 10.1111/medu.12211.

The elusive grail of social inclusion in medical selection.

Author information

  • 1School of Medicine, University of Queensland, 8th Floor, Health Sciences Building, Royal Brisbane Hospital, Herston, Brisbane, Queensland 4068, Australia. n.sturman1@uq.edu.au


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