강의하기[Teaching Anatomy: A Practical Guide, 2015, Chapter 8]

강의하기[Teaching Anatomy: A Practical Guide, 2015, Chapter 8]

Giving a Lecture 

Lap Ki Chan

강의는 "정보가 교수자와 학습자의 생각minds of either은 거치지 않은 채로 강의자의 노트에서 학생의 노트로 넘어가는 과정"

A lecture has been defi ned as “a process by which information is transferred from the notes of the lecturer to the notes of the student without going through the minds of either” (by Sir Joseph Barcroft, cited by Book [ 2 ]).

교육의 초점을 정보를 전달하는 것에서 학생들이 정보material을 통합assimilate하게 도와줘야 한다는 근거는 넘쳐난다. 나의 유일한 후회는 내가 강의를 사랑했다는 것이다.

“So, evidence is mounting that readjusting the focus of education from information transfer to helping students assimilate material is paying off. My only regret is that I love to lecture.” Mazur [ 1 ]

강의 전에 할 것

What to Do Before a Lecture

ILO 작성

Formulate the Intended Learning Outcomes

성과-바탕 접근 도입

Adopt the Outcome-Based Approach

우리가 무엇을 하느냐가 아니라 학생이 무엇을 하느냐가 중요하다.

“It’s not what we do, but what students do that’s the important thing” [ 3 p. 19].

This alignment of activities and assessments with the intended learning outcomes is called constructive alignment

ILO작성

Write Intended Learning Outcomes

Bloom’s taxonomy

Bloom’s taxonomy [ 4 ] provides a useful list of such verbs for cognitive learning,

 

강의 내용 결정

Determine the Content of a Lecture

학생이 성과를 달성하게 돕기

Help Students to Achieve the Outcomes

강의의 내용은 학생이 ILO를 달성하게 도와주어야 하며, 모든 다른 목표는 부수적인 것이다.

The content of a lecture should help students to achieve its intended learning outcomes. All other goals are secondary.

강의를 맥락 안에 두기

Put the Lecture in Its Context

교수자는 자신의 강의가 전체 프로그램 내에서 어떻게 위치하는지 알아야 한다.

The teacher needs to know how his/her lecture fi ts into the course or the whole program:

 

 

오버패킹 지양하기

Avoid Overpacking

강의를 정보로 오버패킹 하는 것은 학습을 저하시킬 수 있다. Russell 등은 정보밀도가 낮은 강의에서 학생들이 오히려 더 잘 배운다는 것을 발견했다. 그들은 수업시간의 절반을 새로운 내용을 전달하는데introducing 쓰고, 나머지 절반은 설명/강화/적용explana- tions, reinforcement, and applications 해야 할 것을 권고했다.

Moreover, overpacking a lecture with information may actually decrease learning. Russell et al. [ 5 ] found that students in lectures with low informa- tion density actually learned more than those in lectures that conveyed more information. They suggested that only half of the time in a lecture should be used for introducing new information and the other half should be devoted to explana- tions, reinforcement, and applications.

연습

Rehearse

준비가 덜 된 것은 교수자에게도 부정적인 영향을 준다. 교수자가 강의 슬라이드를 리드하는 것이 아니라, 강의슬라이드에 교수가 끌려다니게 된다.

Such a lack of preparation refl ects negatively on the teacher, who is now being led by the slides, instead of leading the slides and the lecture.

슬라이드를 왔다갔다 할 수 있다.(숫자 누르고 엔터)

They can even jump from one slide to another in response to the audience’s needs or questions (by pressing the slide number and then “enter”).

강의 도중에 해야 할 것

What to Do During a Lecture

어떻게 스스로를 프리젠테이션 할 것인가.

How to Present Yourself

열정 보여주기

Show Enthusiasm

열정적으로, 명확하게 말하기

Speak Enthusiastically and Clearly

• 1. Conveying enthusiasm. Variations in the tone and speed, among other things, convey enthusiasm. 
• 2. Emphasizing points. You can emphasize important points by saying them more loudly, at a higher pitch; by lengthening certain syl- lables; or by pausing before and after the important words. 
• 3. Speaking clearly. A good teacher should avoid halting speech, false starts, redundancy, and fi llers (e.g., um er ah uh eh right like you know ). The best way to self-diagnose fi ller is to listen to a recording of one’s own lecture. 
• 4. Pausing appropriately. Pauses are important, not only for emphasis but also to leave room for students to think, to digest, and to raise questions. Pausing is also important after you ask a question. Most teachers do not pause long enough before they give the answers themselves. Such self-answering behavior indicates to the students that they do not need to answer your questions since they know you will give them the answers. 
• 5. Being humorous. Appropriate use of humor can relax both the teacher and the student and shorten the perceived psychological distance between them. 
• 6. Using a wireless microphone. When the audi- ence is large, you need a microphone. However, speaking into the microphone fi xed to the podium immobilizes and limits your performance on stage. A wireless microphone is much preferred.

 

눈맞춤

Make Eye Contact

제스쳐

Gesture

하지 말아야 할 제스쳐 

There are, however, some gestures that you should avoid, e.g.,

• 학생 손가락으로 가리키기 pointing at the students (peo- ple in general do not like being pointed at),
• 연단 한쪽 짚고 서있기 hold- ing onto the side of the podium,
• 주머지에 손 넣기 putting your hands in your pockets (both give the impression that you feel insecure), or
• 동전 짤랑거리기 any gestures and man- nerisms that might distract students’ attention, such as jiggling coins or keys in your pocket.

돌아다니기

Walk Around

연단은 전쟁에서 터렛과 같다. 연자를 청중으로부터 보호해준다.

A podium can be compared to a turret during battle: it defends the speaker from the audience.

적절한 복장

Dress Appropriately

여러 차례 연속된 강의를 하는 것이라면, 처음에는 보다 포멀하게 입고(신뢰 구축), 점차 보다 편안한 복장을 입음으로서 power distance를 줄일 수 있다.

If you are giving a series of lectures, you can wear more formal clothing for the fi rst few lectures to establish your credibility and then switch to more relaxed attire when you want to decrease the perceived power distance between you and the students.

도구 사용

Use Tools

• 1. A pointer allows the teacher to indicate the point of interest on the slide.
• 2. A presenter (or remote presentation clicker) remotely controls the progression of computer slides.
• 3. A visual presenter (or document camera) con- sists of a video camera connected to the pro- jector or a computer.
• 4. An on-screen drawing device allows the teacher to digitally draw on the screen of the computer at the podium or even on the pro- jected image.
• 5. Audience response systems (ARS) or clickers allow all students in a lecture to indicate their responses to, say, a question.

강의의 각 부분별로 무엇을 하면 좋을까

What to Do in Different Parts of a Lecture

도입부

The Introduction of a Lecture

첫 몇 분이 학생과의 관계 형성에 중요

The fi rst few minutes of the lecture are very important since you establish your relationship with the students and prepare them for learning.

• 자기소개 A self-introduction
• 비형식 대화 An informal conversation
• 이전 강의에 대한 짧은 리뷰 A short review of how the current lecture relates to previous ones
• 강의의 ILO 설명 The intended learning outcomes should be stated.

중간부

The Body of a Lecture

1. 핵심 포인트 중심으로 나누기

Divide it into key points.

• In the classical method a lecture is divided into sections and each section into subsections, each with its own key points. In anatomy lectures delivered using this method, a region is divided into subregions or a struc- ture into its parts, each with its own elabora- tion and summary.
• The problem-centered method starts with a problem that forms the focus of the lecture, with the solutions form- ing the parts of the lecture. This method can be intellectually stimulating and motivating, can stimulate students to refl ect on their prior knowledge, and can be used for illustrating the clinical aspects of anatomy.
• The sequential method consists of a series of linked state- ments, eventually leading to the conclusions. This method is commonly used in lectures on management of clinical problems.

 

These three methods of organizing a lecture are not mutu- ally exclusive. One can have a classical lec- ture, with one of the sections being organized by the problem-centered method or the sequential method.

 

 

2. 핵심 포인트 설명하기

Elaborate the key points.

이야기, 자격요건(qualifications), 사진, 적용사례 등

A well-delivered lecture should not be completely packed with key points. Each key point needs elaboration, which can be explanations, examples, stories, qualifi cations, photos, applications, etc.

3. 핵심 포인트 연결하기

Link the key points.

by using such words as “thus,” “there- fore,” “consequently,” etc.

4. 속도 조절하기

Manage the pace.

The best way to avoid getting into this situation of being forced to go fast at the expense of student learn- ing is to avoid overpacking the lecture.

강의 마무리

The Conclusion of a Lecture

강의는 갑작스럽게 끝나서는 안된다. 학생의 집중력은 강의 종료 직전 몇 분간 가장 높다.

A lecture should not end abruptly. The attention of the students is usually the highest in the last few minutes of the lecture.

 

학생과 교사의 상호작용

Interaction Between the Teacher and Students

심리적, 물리적 거리가 작다고 느낄 때 학생들은 더 상호작용하게 됨(teacher immediacy)

Interactions are possible and should be encour- aged in lectures. But students are more likely to interact with teachers who are perceived as hav- ing less physical and psychological distance from them (called teacher immediacy ),

1. 질문

Questions.

질문을 한 다음 10초간 기다림. 대답이 없으면 질문을 다시 말해주거나(다른 방식으로) 더 구체적으로 말해줌. 학생에게 더 가까이 다가갈 수도 있음 답이 나오면 지지적이어야 하며 nonjudgemental해야 함

But after asking a question, the teacher should pause for at least 10 s, to allow students to think and prepare the answer. If there is no response, the teacher should restate the question differently or more specifi cally. The teacher can move closer to the students, lean forward, and open his/her arms to invite answers. When an answer comes, the teacher should be supportive and nonjudgmental ( verbally and in your facial expression and gestures),

2. Think–pair–share and write–pair–share.

2~3분간. 그룹지어서.

the students form groups of two to exchange their responses. After 2 or 3 min,

3. Demonstration.

4. Role-playing.

5. One-minute paper.

마지막 몇 분간 학생들에게 다음에 대해서 종이에 써서 제출하게 함.

In the last few minutes of a lecture, the teacher asks the students to write down on a piece of paper their answers to such questions as follows:

(a) 가장 중요한 부분은? What are the most important points that you learned today?

(b) 가장 어려웠던 부분은? What are the most confusing points?

(c) 명확하지 않았던 부분은? Are there points that are not clear to you?

 

 

PPT슬라이드 만들기

How to Prepare Presentation Slides

배경

Background

solid color 배경이 가장 좋다.

Therefore, a solid color background is the best. A picture should not be used as a background. When a picture must be used, it should be dimmed or blurred.

텍스트

Text

Short Bullet Points

메시지는 교수자가 전달해야지 슬라이드가 전달해서는 안된다.

The messages of the lecture should be delivered by the teacher, not by the presentation slides.

6 x 6 법칙. (6줄, 줄당 6단어)

PPT노래방 이 되어서는 안됨

But the “six-by-six” rule, which states that a slide should contain at most six lines of text, each with at most six words, should not be taken too literally in presenting complex content to students. On the other hand, one should not put everything one wants to say on the slides and use them as script (a presenta- tion style jokingly referred to as “PowerPoint karaoke”).

Simple and Consistent Text Format

두 개 이하의 포트만 사용. Sans serif 사용

Therefore, a teacher should use only one or at most two fonts. Sans serif fonts are pre- ferred,

Platform Compatibility

맥과 윈도우 모두에서 가능한 것으로. 폰트도 Arial, Times New Roman, or Courier등 사용

If the slides are created on a Mac but will be pre- sented on a PC (or vice versa), it is best to use a font which is available on both platforms, such as Arial, Times New Roman, or Courier.

멀티미디어

Multimedia

Use Good and Relevant Graphics

Elaborate and Progressively Reveal Complex Graphics

Avoid Animation

Use Video

Avoid Chart Junk and Junk Charts

Chart junk 표에서 메시지 전달에는 도움이 되지 않고 방해만 되는 것.

Chart junk is elements of a chart that do not con- tribute to its message and therefore serve only to distract.

 

Junk charts 는 잘 그려지지 않아서 의도한 메시지를 전달하지 못하는 표

Junk charts are charts that are poorly designed to convey their intended message.

슬라이드

Slides

텍스트와 멀티미디어의 통합

Integrate Text and Multimedia

근접성 원칙con- tiguity principle : 텍스트와 관련 그래픽을 인접하게 두어서 학생이 머리속으로 그 작업을 하지 않게 하는 것.

Integrating text and graphics means doing this mental integration for the students by putting the parts of the text next to the corre- sponding parts of the graphic. This recommendation is called the con- tiguity principle [ 14 ].

그래픽을 말로 설명하기

Explain Graphics Orally

modality principle:

The modality principle tells us that students learn better when the graphics are explained in spoken words than with written text accompanying the graphics [ 14 ].

redundancy principle:

The redundancy principle says that when a graphic is explained orally and is accompanied by textual explanation, student learning may be impaired [ 14 ]. The reason is that the graphic and the textual explanation are both jammed into the visual component of the working memory, which may thus be overloaded.

Leave Space

Use a Consistent Layout

The layout refers to the position of the text, graphics, titles, etc., on the slide.

Use B and W Keyboard Functions

Avoid Fancy Slide Transitions

결론

Conclusions

 

 

 

---

Chapter

Teaching Anatomy

pp 61-71

Date: 21 November 2014

Giving a Lecture

• Lap Ki Chan 

Abstract

Lectures, when appropriately delivered, can promote effective student learning. During preparation of a lecture, an outcome-based approach helps the teacher to plan the content and activities to help students achieve the intended learning outcomes. The teacher also needs to consider the relationship of the lecture to the rest of the course or program so that the lecture builds on what students have learned and prepares them for further study. In the introduction of a lecture, the teacher needs to establish a closer relationship with the students and prepare them for learning. In the body of a lecture, the teacher needs to organize the content into key points and link them to give students the big picture. But the teacher must not pack excessive information into a lecture, sacrificing elaborations. There should also be an effective conclusion in which the teacher can summarize the key points and outcomes and stimulate further self-directed learning. Apart from the careful organization of the lecture content, the teacher’s enthusiasm will also significantly affect student learning and attitude toward the subject, and it is reflected in the way that the teacher speaks, moves, makes eye contact, and interacts with the students. The teacher also needs to prepare the presentation slides carefully, if he/she chooses to use them, so that they do not distract the students from the content and the interactions with the teacher.