학습 접근법 향상: 학생과 교사를 위한 팁 (Med Teach, 2013)

학습 접근법 향상: 학생과 교사를 위한 팁 (Med Teach, 2013)

Enhancing learning approaches: Practical tips for students and teachers

SAMY A. AZER1, ANTHONY P. S. GUERRERO2 & ALLYN WALSH3

1King Saud University, Saudi Arabia, 2University of Hawai, USA, 3McMaster University, Canada

According to Biggs (1994), approaches to learning can be defined as ‘‘ways in which students go about their academic tasks, thereby affecting the nature of their learning out- comes.’’

주제 1: 심층 학습을 촉진하기 위한 구체적 테크닉

Theme 1: Apply specific techniques that foster deep learning 

좋은 질문을 하는 방법을 배우라

Ti p 1 Learn how to ask good questions

표면적 학습을 주로 하는 학생은 배운 지식을 분석하여 새로운 아이디어를 내놓는 것을 어려워한다. 따라서 의미있는 이해를 개발하기 위한 중요한 요소 중 하나는 학생이 스스로 배우고 싶은 것과 관련하여 좋은 질문을 할 줄 아는 것이다.

For example, students who usually use superficial or shallow learning find it difficult to analyze knowledge learnt or present newideas. Therefore, one of the elements of developing meaningful understanding is to learn how to format good questions in relation to what students want to learn (Graig et al. 2006; Zhang et al. 2010).

왜 질문하는 법을 배워야 하는가?

Why do students need to learn how to ask questions? 

Asking good open-ended questions help students to: 

• Make their research for a learning issue more focused. 
• Evaluate the different aspects about a concept. 
• Identify what they know, and what they did not know. 
• Go deeper into an issue and develop a meaningful learning. 
• Weigh supportive evidence for and against each hypothesis. 
• Turn learning to a journey of discovery. 
• Make a purpose for their learning.

어떻게 질문이 심화 이해를 강화할 수 있는가?

How can questions reinforce deep understanding? 

Questions can help in reinforcing deep understanding when students aim at exploring a particular cognitive skill, for example: 

• 가설 설정 Generating hypotheses: ‘‘What are the possible causes for ...?’’ 
• 가설 검증 Testing a hypothesis: ‘‘What if ...?’’ ...‘‘Are there relation-ships between...and...?’’ 
• 추론 Reasoning: ‘‘How can I justify ...?’’ 
• 탐색 계획 수립 Developing an enquiry plan: ‘‘What are my goals? What approach should I take? What questions should I ask to make a hypothesis less likely, more likely, or excluded?’’ 
• 관찰 결과 해석 Interpreting findings: ‘‘How these findings are different from normal? What do they mean?’’ 
• 프로세스 탐색 Examining a process: ‘‘What are the consequences of ...? 
• 설명 Explaining: ‘‘How can we explain...?’’ 
• 임상 변화와 기초과학 연결 Linking clinical changes with basic sciences: ‘‘What does this relate to our knowledge about normal body...?’’ 
• 비판적 평가 Critically evaluate: ‘‘What evidence do I have...?’’ 
• 핵심 개념 파악 Identifying key concepts learnt: ‘‘What is the take homemessage?’’ 
• 학습 요구 파악 Identify learning needs: ‘‘What do I know?’’ ...‘‘What do Ineed to know? How?’’ 

비유 사용하기

Ti p 2 Use analogy

왜 비유를 사용해야 하는가?

Why do students need to use analogy? 

잘 만든 비유는..

A well-constructed analogy: 

• 이해를 돕고 Allows learners to better understand the different compo- nents of a difficult concept. 
• 복잡한 것을 이해하기 단순하고 명확한 것과 비교해주고 Enables learners to take complicated issue/concept and compare it to something simpler that listeners/readers are familiar with and clearly understand. 
• 세 가지 제약(유사성, 구조/기능, 목적)을 다룸 Covers three constraints: similarity, structure/function, and purpose.

어떻게 비유를 통해서 의미있는 이해를 할 수 있을까?

How can analogy help learners to explore meaningful understanding? 

By using analogy, learners can: 

• 익숙한 모델과 관련성 찾기 Identify relationship between the familiar model and the new information they are learning. The more this relation- ship is well established, the more learners are able to comprehend the function and structure of the new system they are studying. 
• 실제 상황에 지식 적용 Apply knowledge learnt in different real-life situations with confidence (Busari 2000). 
• 어려운 개념 이해, 다른 요소들이 기여하는 방식 이해 Comprehend difficult concepts and how the different components contribute to a particular function. 
• 새로운 질문 만들기 Identify new questions in relation to the difficult concept they are learning. 
• 유사한 문제에 적용하기 Build on knowledge learnt and use the analogy in solving similar problems.

메커니즘과 개념지도 그리기

Ti p 3 Construct mechanisms and concept maps

학습자는 지식을 조직화하여 기존의 지식에 새 지식을 통합하고, 의미있는 학습을 위한 한신을 한다. 

Therefore, in this process, the learner deliber- ately seeks to organize his/her knowledge, incorporates new knowledge learnt to what he/she possesses, and demonstrates commitment to meaningful learning. The use of mechanisms and concept mapping is a good example of construction of knowledge, and integration of knowledge in an organized and logical way (Guerrero 2001; Novak 2003).

피어-튜터링에 참여하기

Ti p 4 Join a peer-tutoring group

튜티의 학습에 큰 도움이 되지만 튜터에게도 큰 도움이 된다. 

While peer tutoring could make significant improvement on learning of tutees, it also has benefits for the tutors. For example, Sobral (2002) found that acting as a peer tutor can be an appealing and constructive educational opportunity to further students’ academic development.

왜 피어-티칭을 해야하나?

Why do students need peer teaching? 

Peer teaching can: 

• 배움의 문화 만들기 Help in developing a culture of learning in the college. 
• 능동적 학습 Encourage active learning where students take a deep learning approach. 
• 협력적 학습 Enforce collaborative learning. 
• 어려움 겪는 학생에 대한 지원 Support students struggling with their learning. 
• 가르침과 배움의 책임이 학생에게 있는 파트너십 시스템 Provide a system of partnership in the learning process, where the teaching and learning are owned by students. 
• 의사소통/인간관계/시간관리 등의 전이가능한(transferable) 기술 개발 Enable students to develop transferable skills such as communication, interpersonal skills, and time management. 

어떻게 피어-티칭이 학습을 촉진하나?

How peer teaching can foster student’s learning? 

Peer teaching can help in reinforcing deep understanding by: 

• 격차 발견 Discovering gaps/inadequacies in their knowledge. 
• 잘못 이해한 개념 발견 Identifying misconceptions and correct them. 
• 동기부여 Enhancing motivation to learning. 
• 새로운 기술 습득 Learning new skills. 
• 시간 효율적 관리 Using their time more effectively. 
• 학습 스킬, 협력 학습, 어려운 개념 토론 Enhancing their learning skills, collaborative learning, and discussion of difficult concepts. 
• 의사소통과 대인관계 향상 Improving their communication and interpersonal skills.

비판적 사고 기술 개발

Ti p 5 Develop critical thinking skills

비판적 사고는 이런 것들(self- regulation, analysis, evaluation, interpretation, conceptual, and methodological assessment)을 필요로 한다. 최근, 비판적 사고는 두 가지 주 구성요소(cognitive skill, affective domain)으로 이뤄져있다고 여겨진다. 

Critical thinking is a purposeful process that involves self- regulation, analysis, evaluation, interpretation, conceptual, and methodological assessment as a learning approach. Recently, critical thinking has been viewed beyond cognitive skills and it is believed that it comprises two main components: cognitive skills and affective domains of reasoning and attitude (Scheffer & Rubenfeld 2000). This is because of complexity of processes involved in critical thinking together with the oriental of mind during critical thinking. Such views are supported by other researchers (Simpson & Courtney 2002; Profetto-McGrath 2003).

비판적 사고의 구성요소는?

What are the components of critical thinking? 

According to Scheffer and Rubenfeld (2000), the two components of and critical thinking are cognitive skills affective dispositions, which are as follows: 

• 인지기술 Cognitive skills: Discrimination, analyzing, predicting, logical reasoning, information seeking, applying standards, and transforming knowledge.
• 정동적 요소 Affective dispositions: Intellectual integrity, open-minded- ness, flexibility, contextual perspective, confidence, inquisi- tiveness, reflection, creativity, and intuition.

왜 비판적 사고 기술을 개발해야 하나?

Why do students need to develop critical thinking skills? 

Critical thinking skills enable students to: 

• 자기조절, 분석, 해석능력 개발 Develop their self-regulation, analysis, and interpretation skills. 
• 언급한 인지와 정동 특성 강화 Enhance their skills in cognitive and affective dispositions discussed above. 

어떻게 개발할 수 있나?

How can students develop their critical thinking? 

Critical thinking is a skill that can be developed by students gradually as they keep practicing and working on it. So the willingness of the learner to focus on such approach and work on it is vital. 

• 단순 암기에서 비판적 사고로 학습과정 조정 Readjusting their learning approaches from memorization to critical thinking. 
• 지속적 훈련 Continuous training and working on tasks that can reinforce students’ critical thinking. 
• 비판적 사고 기술을 길러줄 수 있는 학습자료 활용 Using learning resources that encourage learner’s skills such as interpretation of findings, analysis, inferences, explana- tion, and application of knowledge. These resources may include computer-aided learning programs and interactive e-cases. 
• 피드백, 열정을 공유하는 동료와 일하기 Receiving feedback on performance and working with colleagues who share with you a passion about exploring critical thinking in their learning. 
• 이러한 기술이 평생학습의 일부임을 이해하기 Understanding that such skills are part of continuous life- long learning and continuous development.

자기성찰 활용

Ti p 6 Use self-reflection

자기성찰은 모든 단계에서 발생할 수 있다. 자신과 상황을 이해하는데 도움이 된다.

Self-reflection is a metacognitive process that can occur at all stages of an encounter: before, during, and after. It helps the learner to understand both the self and the situation (Azer 2008b; Sandars 2009).

비록 최근 Lew and Schmidt 의 연구는 자기성찰이 학업능력 향상에 주는 도움은 미미하다고 밝혔으나, 다음을 도울 수 있다.

Although a recent study by Lew and Schmidt (2011) found that self- reflection has caused limited improvement in students’ academic performance, there is evidence that reflection can help learners to: 

• 자기조절과 평생학습자가 되게 함 Become self-regulated and life-long learners. 
• 그룹 학습 과정을 리뷰하고, 그 그룹 내에서 자신의 기여를 돌아보게 함 Review their group learning process and their own personal input in their groups. 
• Experiential learning에서와 같이 학습 향상 Improve their learning as it is the case in experiential learning (Kolb 1984). According to Kolb, there are four phases: 
• 1단계: 경험 in the first phase, the learner has an experience; 
• 2단계: 성찰 in the second phase, the learner reflects, which in turn leads 
• 3단계: 자신의 행동/리액션 이해. to the third phase where the learner makes attempts to understand their actions or reactions to the experience. This usually leads to identification of learning needs and skills that need to be acquired before facing a similar situation. 
• 4단계: 배운 내용 학습 In phase four, the learner applies what he/she has learnt. This four-phase cycle may be repeated several times with the purpose of improving the learner’s performance. 
• 새로운 지식을 이전 지식과 연결 Relate new knowledge to prior understanding. 
• 스스로의 발전상황 평가, 성취에 대한 비판적 분석 Help them assess their own progress in learning and critically analyze their achievements.

주제 2: 능동적 학습 마스터하기

Theme 2: Master active learning

능동적 학습은 학생들이 교육과정에서 잘 설계된 다양한 학습 활동에 참여할 것을 필요로 하며, 이것의 목적은 학생의 참여 증진, 관련성 증대, 동기부여, 자기주도학습 향상 등이다.

Active learning requires active participation of students in different learning activities that have been carefully designed in the curriculum (Gleason et al. 2011). The aim is to facilitate student engagement, enhance relevance, and improve motiva- tion for learning and self-directed learning.

적절한 학습자원 활용

Ti p 7 Use appropriate range of learning resources

목적에 맞는 적절한 자원을 찾아야 한다. 서로 다른 자원은 서로 다른 목적에 도움이 될 수 있다. 또한 학생이 발전함에 따라서 필요한 정보나 요구가 변한다. 어떤 단계에서 어떤 목적으로 무엇이 필요한지 이해해야 한다.

Students need to identify resources that can help them learn and meet their objectives: different resources will be helpful for different needs. In addition, information and learning needs change as students advance; it is important to have a realistic understanding of what resources are useful at what stage, and for which purpose.

이런 것들이 있다.

These learning resources may include e-case packages,multimedia, journal articles, review papers, textbooks, educa-tional Web sites, YouTube videos, museum, plastinatedspecimen, bed-side teaching, outpatient clinic, rural services,lecture notes, and so on

적절한 자원을 적절히 사용하면 이렇게 도움이 된다.

The use of a wide range of appropriate learning resources could help students in: 

• 자기평가, 장기기억 촉진 Self-testing and facilitating the process of long-term recall through repeated testing (Larsen et al. 2009). 
• 지식을 평가하고 새로운 관심 찾기 Assessing their knowledge and what they already knowand exploring new aspects of interest to them. 
• 자기주도학습을 더 확대하기 Engaging students more efficiently to expand their self- directed learning and find more answers to their questions. 
• 특정 시간에 배운 내용을 다른 자원에서 토론한 내용과 비교. 개념지도 작성에 도움 Enabling students to compare and contrast between what they learnt from a particular learning session and what they have discussed in other learning resources. The new help students knowledge could to construct concept maps, integrate and synthesize information. 
• 중요한 프로세스/개념을 설명할 기회 Providing students with opportunities to explain important processes/concepts orally and in writing. 
• 배운 내용을 다시 보고 그것이 다른 핵심 과학적 원칙에 어떻게 들어맞는지 설명 Allowing students to revisit what they were taught, organize, relate new knowledge, and explain how topics fit together, and how to relate fine details to a key scientific principle. 
• 학습을 스스로 조절하게끔 함 Enabling students to self-regulate their learning: plan, monitor, and evaluate their own learning (Sandars & Cleary 2011). So some of their learning resources could be designed in a way that allow them to develop their self- directed learning, self-monitoring skills, and how to ask good questions as they prepare for their learning. For example, ‘‘What do I really know about this area?’’ ‘‘What do I need to know?’’ ‘‘What learning resources should I use?’’ ‘‘Do I need to do any further research?’’

피드백을 찾아라

Ti p 8 Ask for feedback

코칭이나 피드백 없이 연습만 해서는 발전이 없다. 피드백은 평가와 달라서, 객관적이고 기대되는 기준과 비교하여 판단이 개입되지 않은 묘사이며, 의미를 가지려면 자주 피드백이 있어야 하고, 수행능력 향상을 촉진하는데 효과적이다. 피드백은 받는 사람을 위한 것이다. 

It has been well shown that practice alone without coaching and feedback does not lead to improvement in performance and the development of expertise (Ericsson et al. 1993). ‘‘Feedback,’’ which is different from ‘‘evaluation,’’ involves the objective, nonjudgmental description of perfor- mance, particularly in relation to the expected standard, and should take place frequently in order to be meaningful and effective in facilitating performance improvement. Feedback is for the benefit of its receiver.

과목 초반에 학생과 교사는 향후 정기적인 피드백을 설정하기 위한 토론에 참여해야 한다. 이 토론은 다음과 같은 구체적인 것 들을 정해야 한다.

We suggest that, early in the course, students and teachers should engage in a discussion that sets the stage for regular, expected feedback. This discussion should address specifics, such as: 

• 언제 피드백이 이뤄지나 when will feedback occur (e.g., at the end of each session, at the end of each week, etc.); 
• 어떻게 기록되고 그 기록은 어떻게 사용되나 how feedback will be recorded if at all and what happens to any documentation of feedback; and 
• 갑작스러운 필요시에 피드백을 구하거나 주는 것은 어떻게 되나 how to ask for or give feedback at any time that it may be necessary.

교실을 넘어선 학습

Theme 3: Practice learning beyond the classroom

새로운 문제에 지식을 적용하라

Ti p 9 Apply knowledge learnt to new problems

왜 학생들은 지식을 새로운 문제에 적용해봐야 하나?

Why do students need to apply knowledge learnt to new problems? 

Applying knowledge learnt helps students in: 

• 지식의 통합 Integrating knowledge learnt from several disciplines. 
• 관계 탐색 Exploring relationships. 
• 비교/분석/평가/가설설정 등등의 인지기술을 비롯한 여러 능력 향상 Practicing a number of cognitive skills such as comparing, analyzing, evaluating, hypothesizing, looking for evidence, linking basic sciences to clinical presentation, questioning, examining possible contributing factors, studying pathogen- esis, explaining, identifying gaps, referring to the literature, researching several resources, interpreting findings, and designing a management plan. 
• 실제 임상에서 기초과학의 중요성 탐색 Examining the significance of basic sciences in clinical situations and real practices. 
• 심화학습 촉진 Enhancing deep understanding. 
• 이해가 미진한 부분 발견 Discovering inadequacies or gaps in their understanding.

지식을 새로운 문제에 적용하는 기술을 어떻게 익힐 수 있을까?

How can students develop their skills in applying knowl- edge to new problems?

스스로의 수행능력을 검토해보도록 권장되어야 한다. 다음과 같은 질문을 활용할 수 있다.

Students should also be encouraged to review their performance as they try to apply knowledge learnt to new problems. They may ask themselves questions such as 

• ‘‘What did I learn from this experience?’’ 
• ‘‘Why did I miss to provide the correct answer?’’ 
• ‘‘Did I miss understand the question?’’ 
• ‘‘Do I need to read and check my resources again in regard to this particular area?’’ and 
• ‘‘I do remember studying this part but this case is not typical as the examples I studied. What did I learn so far?’’

학습한 지식을 새로운 문제에 적용하는 것은 일반적으로 심화 이해와 학습기술 향상에 중요하다

In fact, applying knowledge learnt by students to solve new problems is one of the key elements for enhancing deep understanding and learning skills in general (Metcalfe 2009).

시뮬레이션을 이용한 연습

Ti p 10 Practice learning by using simulation

실천과 봉사를 통한 학습

Ti p 11 Learn by doing and service learning

노력을 유도할 만큼 어려우면서, 학습 의욕을 꺾지는 않을 만큼의 난이도를 가진 활동에 참여함으로써 학습기술을 익힐 수 있다.

There is evidence from research that students could master their learning skills when they engage themselves in activities that are sufficiently difficult to promote mental effort, but not so difficult that could inhibit their desire to learn (Snelgrove 2004).

왜 실천과 봉사를 통해서 배워야 하는가?

Why do students need to learn by doing and service learning? 

Learning by doing and service learning have several educational benefits including: 

• Fostering responsibility, accountability, and caring for others. 
• Extending students’ learning from classroom learning to community services. 
• Enabling students to develop skills that are less likely developed in traditional modes of learning. These skills include contributing to public safety, environmental protec- tion, and public education about common diseases and healthy living habits. 
• Enabling learners to experience the exact meaning of learning and how service learning could add new dimen- sions to their learning experience.

환자로부터 배우기

Ti p 12 Learn from patients

환자와 효과적으로 의사소통하고, 환자-중심적으로 접근하며, 환자와 라뽀를 쌓는 독특한 기회이다. 그러나 이들 기술의 중요성은 종종 학생들이 간과하며, 일상의 임상교육에서 덜 강조되고는 한다. 아래와 같이 진행되어야 한다. 

it is a unique opportunity to learn how to communicate effectively with patients, become patient- centered in approach, and build rapport with patients. The importance of these skills is often ignored by students and less emphasized in the day-to-day clinical teaching. Therefore, learning from patients in bedside teaching and outpatient clinics brings a number of teaching and learning opportunities (Wang-Cheng et al. 1989; LaCombe 1997). 

These can be summarized as follows:

• 학생이 직접 경험을 하도록 Allow students to gain first-hand experience of doctor– patient relationships. 
• 환자-중심 진료를 강화. 단순히 임상진단을 하는 것이 아니라 질병이 인간에게 미치는 영향을 다루고, 질병을 이해하며, 환자가 자신의 상태를 관리하는데 참여할 수 있게 하는 것 Enhance the development of patient-centered care. The aim is not just how to make a clinical diagnosis, but also how to address the human impact of disease, understand illness, and engage the patient to take control of their condition. 
• 실제 환자에 대한 병력청취와 검진 역량 강화 Enhance students’ competence in taking a medical history and examining real patients. 
• 의사가 일상적으로 겪는 문제를 경험하게 함 Experience the reality of clinical practice and challenges that could face doctors and patients on day-to-day practice (e.g., this is completely different from experience with a simulated).

어떻게 환자에게서 배울 수 있는가?

How can students maximize their learning from patients? 

환자에게도 도움이 되게 해야 하며, 편안하게 해줘야 한다. 서두르지 말라.

Be helpful to patients and attend to their comfort. Do not rush. 

• 비언어적 큐(cue)의 활용 익히기 Learn how to use nonverbal cues (both giving and receiving) in your communication. . 
• 환자와 대화하고, 공감하고, 개방형 질문 사용 Engage the patient in the discussion, convey empathy to the patient’s concerns, and use open-ended questions. . 
• 의학전문용어는 사용 지양 Avoid the use of medical jargon, use simple language and in a direct manner. . 
• 환자의 생각/감정/기대를 이야기함에 있어서 진실되고 솔직하게 Be sincere, honest, and interested in talking to the patient about their ideas, emotions, and expectations rather than just asking them to listen to their hearts or take a medical history. . 
• 환자를 보기 전에 동의 구하기. 진찰이 끝나면 잠깐 쉴 수 있는 시간 주기 Ask permission from the patients before examining them. Once you complete your examination, thank them, and leave them to have some rest. . 
• 문화적 교육적 차이에 대한 민감성 기르기 Be sensitive to cultural and educational differences in the way you communicate, build rapport, and express positive attitude. .
• 동료에게 피드백 구하기 Ask a colleague to give you feedback on your communica- tion and approaches with patients. . 
• 스스로 성찰하기 Reflect on your experiences with the patients: 
  ‘‘What did you learn?’’ 
  ‘‘What type of challenges did you face?’’
  ‘‘How did you handle these challenges?’’
  ‘‘What will you do differently next time?’’ and
  ‘‘Why?’’ (Lew & Schmidt 2011).

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Med Teach. 2013 Jun;35(6):433-43. doi: 10.3109/0142159X.2013.775413. Epub 2013 Mar 15.

Enhancing learning approaches: practical tips for students and teachers.

Azer SA1, Guerrero AP, Walsh A.

Author information

• 1Department of Medical Education, College of Medicine, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. azer2000@optusnet.com.au

Abstract

BACKGROUND:

In an integrated curriculum such as problem-based learning (PBL), students need to develop a number of learning skills and competencies. These cannot be achieved through memorization of factual knowledge but rather through the development of a wide range of cognitive and noncognitive skills that enhance deep learning.

AIM:

The aim of this article is to provide students and teachers with learning approaches and learning strategies that enhance deep learning.

METHODS:

We reviewed current literature in this area, explored current theories of learning, and used our experience with medical students in a number of universities to develop these tips.

RESULTS:

Incorporating the methods described, we have developed 12 tips and organized them under three themes. These tips are (1) learn how to ask good questions, (2) use analogy, (3) construct mechanisms and concept maps, (4) join a peer-tutoring group, (5) develop critical thinking skills, (6) use self-reflection, (7) use appropriate range of learning resources, (8) ask for feedback, (9) apply knowledge learnt to new problems, (10) practicelearning by using simulation, (11) learn by doing and service learning, and (12) learn from patients.

CONCLUSIONS:

Practicing each of these approaches by students and teachers and applying them in day-to-day learning/teaching activities are recommended for optimum performance.

PMID:

 

23496121

 

[PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]