성공적인 성인학습의 요소[Teaching Anatomy: A Practical Guide, 2015, Chapter 1]

성공적인 성인학습의 요소[Teaching Anatomy: A Practical Guide, 2015, Chapter 1]

Elements of Successful Adult Learning

Lap Ki Chan and Miriam Uhlmann

노울즈는 성인학습과 아동학습을 비교하면서 아동학습을 "아이들을 가르치는 예술과 과학"이라고 부르며, 학습자들이 무엇을 어떻게 배울지에 대해서 선생님에게 의존하며, 학습절차에 대한 개인적 경험이 거의 없고, 학습요구를 다른 사람이 대체로 결정해주며, 대상-중심적subject centered 라고 했다. 그러나 성인학습과 아동학습은, 서로 다른 상황에 놓였을 때, 동일한 학습자에 대해서도 적용될 수 있는 두 가지 서로 다른 가정assumption으로 보아야 한다.

Knowles [ 1 ] contrasted andragogy with peda- gogy, which he defi ned as “the art and science of teaching children” (note that it is different from the general usage of the term nowadays) wherein the learners are assumed to be more dependent on the teachers in determining what and how they learn,have little personal experience to bring to the learn-ing process, have learning needs largely deter-mined by someone other than themselves, and are more subject centered. However, andragogy and pedagogy should be considered as two separate sets of assumptions that can sometimes be applied to learners of any age under different situations [ 1 ]. 

요구에 기반함

Based on Needs

Abraham Maslow 의 욕구 피라미드

A theory of motivation based on human needs was described by Abraham Maslow and is known by many as Maslow’s pyramid/hierarchy of human needs [ 2 ].

노울즈가 묘사한 것과 연관지어보자면..

The relation to edu- cation was described by Knowles in 1980 [ 1 ]:

 

“These basic needs have relevance to education in that they provide the deep motivating springs for learning, and in that they prescribe certain conditions that the educators must take into account if they are to help people learn…. An educational need, therefore, is the discrepancy between what individuals (or organizations or society) want themselves to be and what they are; the distance between an aspiration and a reality.”

 

 

동기

Motivation

동기는 교육적 요구가 있을 때 생긴다. 그리고 동기에는 '인식'이 중요한 역할을 한다. 인식은 "왜 의료전문직들이 유사한 주제와 프로그램에 대해서 서로 다른 요구를 갖는지를 이해하는 핵심"이다.

Motivation to learn arises from an educational need. Perception plays a major role in motivation and “…is the cornerstone of understanding why health professionals may have different levels of motivation related to similar topics and pro-grams…” [ 4 ].

 

 

Table 1.1 Advantages/disadvantages of several need assessment methods (adapted from Kern et al. [ 3 ])

 

 

현실적으로 적용하기 위해서, 학습자의 동기부여를 위해서는 다음의 두 가지를 고려해야 한다.

For practical application, it is crucial to consider the following two points to motivate your learners:

1. 학습자들이 지식과 수행능력의 gap을 인식하게 하라
Help your learners to realize their gaps in knowledge and performance by, for example: 

• Online self-assessments: Based on your defi ned outcomes, ask your learners about their perceived present level and their desired level. This can easily be done with an online survey tool. It is important that learners can see their results to recognize their gaps. 
• On-site small group discussions: During small group discussions, you can fi nd out about the present level of knowledge, and you can help learners to understand where they are and where they should be. This is important in situations where learners think they already know a lot (although they in fact do not) and would therefore not be highly motivated to learn. 
• Reflection (see also section on “Refl ection”): Refl ective practice helps learners to identify their gaps.

2. 다양한 교육법을 활용하여 학습자들이 동기부여된 상태로 유지되게끔 하라

Help your learners to stay motivated by using a variety of teaching methods: 

• Use interactive methods for teaching such as interactive lectures and small group discussions. 
• Use new technologies to allow for self- directed learning, e.g., provide online resources such as readings or recorded lec- tures/webinars. 
• Provide learners with clear goals and outcomes. 
• Provide time and opportunities for reflection. 
• Blend traditional strategies with technology, e.g., self-assessment tests can be completed online and linked to discussion forums.

성과

Outcome Driven

한 가지는 SOLO(Structure of Observed Learning Outcomes) taxonomy가 있다.

One is the SOLO (Structure of Observed Learning Outcomes) tax- onomy [ 5 ], which describes several levels of complexity in the learner’s understanding of a subject:

• 전-구조 prestructural (learners have unconnected information),
• 단일-구조 unistructural (learners are able to make simple and obvious connections between facts),
• 다(층)-구조 multistructural (learners see more connec- tions but miss the signifi cance to the whole),
• 관계적 relational (learners appreciate the signifi cance of the parts to the whole), and
• 확장된 추상 extended abstract (learners make connections beyond the subject and are able to generalize).

 

또 다른 것으로 Bloom’s taxonomy가 있다.

Another model is the revised Bloom’s taxonomy [ 6 ], which identifi es six sub- categories in the cognitive domain of learning activities:

• knowledge,
• comprehension,
• applica- tion,
• analysis,
• synthesis, and
• evaluation. 

밀러의 피라미드도 있다.

Miller’s pyramid can also help teachers to formulate learning outcomes for their learners(Fig. 1.3 ) [ 7 ].

평가방법은 의도한 성과를 염두에 두고 결정하여야 한다. 이러한 교수/학습 활동과 평가의 alignment를 constructive alignment라 한다.

They also need to decide on the assessment meth-ods and standards with the intended outcomes in mind. Such an alignment of teaching/learning activities and assessment with the outcomes is called constructive alignment [ 8 ] 

 

 

 

'이해한다'는 적절한 동사가 아니며, 관찰가능하지 않고, 간접적으로만 평가가능하기 때문이다.

On the other hand, “under- stand” will not be an appropriate verb, because it is not observable and can only be indirectly assessed.

 

 

능동 학습

Active Learning

능동학습에서 성인학습이 더 잘 배운다는 근거가 있으며, 능동학습이란 일반적으로 '학습자가 유의미한 학습활동에 참여하고, 그들이 무엇을 하고 있는가에 대해서 mindful한 학습 프로세스'로 정의할 수 있다.

There is evidence that adults learn better with active learning, which can generally be defi ned as a learning process in which the learners are engaged in meaningful activities in the classroom and are mindful of what they are doing [ 12 13 ].

전통적 강의는 일방향적으로 이뤄지며 상호작용어 없어서 '능동학습이 빠져있을 때 학습이 어떠한가'를 보여주는 예시로 쓰인다.

A traditional lecture, which is delivered in a unidirectional manner without interactions between the teacher and the learners, is often used to illustrate what learning is like when active learning is absent.

성찰

Reflection

성찰이 먼저 정의되어야 한다.

Before a meaningful discussion can proceed, “refl ection” must fi rst be defi ned because this term is used in everyday life and has different meanings in specifi c circumstances.

• Moon [ 17 ] defi ned it as “a form of mental processing with a purpose and/or anticipated outcome that is applied to relatively complex or unstructured ideas for which there is no obvious solution,” while
• Boud et al. [ 18 ] defi ned it as “a generic term for those intellectual and affective activities in which indi- viduals engage to explore their experiences in order to lead to a new understanding and appre- ciation.” A more inclusive defi nition is given by
• Sanders [ 19 ]: “Refl ection is a metacognitive pro- cess that occurs before, during and after situations with the purpose of developing greater under- standing of both the self and the situation so that future encounters with the situation are informed from previous encounters.”

따라서 이 과정은 '생각에 대한 생각'이며(메타인지), 이것은 새로운 지식과 스킬의 습득에 관한 것일 뿐만 아니라, 자신과 상황에 대한 이해도 포함되며, 학습자가 미래에 닥칠 (지금과 다른) 상황에 대응하기 위한 것이다.

It is thus considered a process of thinking about thinking (metacogni- tion) that involves not only the acquisition of new knowledge or skills but also an understanding of both the self and the situation, so that the learner will respond differently in future encounters.

학습에 있어서 성찰이 중요함을 고려하면, 성찰이라는 것이 필요한 만큼 자연스럽게 일어나는 것이 아니고, 적극적으로 장려(촉진)되어야 하는 것이라는 사실은 놀랍다. Moon 은 과제가 challenging하고 ill-structured 되어 있을 때, ordering of thougths를 필요로 할때, 평가가 동반될 때, 이전 학습에 새로운 것을 통합해야 할 때 성찰이 더 잘 일어난다.

Given the important role of refl ection in learn- ing, it is surprising that it does not spontaneously occur as often as desired and needs to be actively promoted. Moon [ 23 ] pointed out that learner refl ection can be promoted when the tasks are challenging and ill structured (e.g., real-life examples), demand ordering of thoughts (e.g., following exposure to disorganized data), involve evaluation, and require integration of the new into previous learning.

 

 

피드백

Feedback

피드백의 목적은 수행능력과 성찰의 향상이며, 비판이나 판단이 아니다. 

Therefore, the purpose of feedback is to improve performance [ 26 ] and refl ection [ 25 ], not to criticize or judge.

흔한 피드백의 모델은 Pendleton 모델

A common model for giving feedback in clini- cal education settings was developed by Pendleton [ 27 ]. Pendleton’s rules consist of the following steps:

Elements of Effective Feedback

• 1. Check if the learner wants and is ready for feedback. 
• 2. Allow the learner to give comments/back- ground to the material that is being assessed.
• 3. The learner states what was done well.
• 4. The observer states what was done well.
• 5. The observer states what could be improved.
• 6. The teacher states how it could be improved.
• 7. An action plan for improvement is made together.
  

샌드위치 모델

One of these is the “sandwich” model, which

• starts with identi- fying the learner’s strength, is
• followed by identi- fying the learner’s areas in need of development, and
• concludes by reinforcing the strengths again.

 

 

 

 

 

 

---

Chapter

Teaching Anatomy

pp 3-10

Date: 21 November 2014

Elements of Successful Adult Learning

• Lap Ki Chan 
• , Miriam Uhlmann

Abstract

Most adult learners are self-directed, attach high value to learning through experience, prefer learning that helps them to deal with real-life situations or problems, are more interested in immediate, problem-centered approaches, and are more motivated to learn by internal drivers than by external drivers. To promote successful adult learning, faculty needs to understand the needs of learners and to motivate them by enabling them to perceive any gaps that exist between their present level of ability (what is) and their desired level (what ought to be). Motivation and learning can be improved by informing learners about the intended outcomes of learning activities and how achieving these outcomes will help them to bridge the gap between their present and desired levels of ability. Teaching and learning activities and assessment methods and standards should all be designed to help learners to achieve these outcomes. Learners should be actively engaged in the learning process, instead of passively receiving information. They should be given frequent, accurate, and specific feedback at the appropriate time and should be given time and opportunities for reflection.