(출처 : http://www.mikethearchitect.com/2012/02/its-not-about-complexity-its-about-simplicity.html)


19세기 물리학에서 다뤘던 고전적인 단순성과 예측가능성의 모델보다 근래에 나온 더 복잡한 구조들이 교육학적 맥락을 더 잘 묘사한다. 모든 것을 단순화시키려는 노력은, 모든 것이 서로 상호작용할 때 그 어떤 것도 '단순하지 않다'라는 문제가 있다.


현실적인 관점에서, 이 복잡성은 교육학에서의 흔한 문제를 해결하기 위한 의미있고 단순하며 일반화가능한 해결책은 근본적으로 불가능하다는 것을 말해준다. 한 교육적 영역과 다른 영역은 환경이 다르고, 맥락이 다르고, 교수-학생 관계가 다르고, 간섭하는 요소들도 달라서 서로 다른 맥락에서 예측을 한다는 것 자체가 의미가 없다.


"우리는 서로 비슷하거나 다른 아홉 개의 학교에서 이 연구를 환자 중심적 학습 환경에 대한 연구를 하고자 했다. 연구 결과는 우리가 던진 질문보다 더 복잡한 현실만을 보여줬다." 현실은 복잡하다. 19세기 물리학을 따라서 복잡한 세계를 단순하게 만들려고 하다가는 다양성의 아름다움을 놓치게 될 것이다.





교육 커뮤니티가 암암리에 받아들인 두 번째 과학의 필수요소는 '단순함'이다.

A second, equally important imperative that our community has implicitly adopted in its model of science is the imperative of simplicity.


이러한 특징은 Bryson이 "물리는 궁극적인 단순함에 대한 연구다"라고 했던 것처럼, 초기 물리학 모델에서 가장 두드러지게 나타난다.

This process is nowhere more deeply systematised than it is in the early models of science in physics. As Bryson commented: ‘…physics is really nothing more than the search for ultimate simplicity.’10


그러나 물리학조차 '단순함'의 계속 따르지는 못했다. 20세기에 원자보다 작은 수준으로 사고의 전환이 이뤄지는 과정에서 특히 그러했으며 Gino Segre는 이를 "물리학의 혼의 투쟁"이라고 불렀다.

It is worth noting, however, that physics itself has not necessarily followed this path of simplicity for some time. During the 20th century, there occurred a major shift in thinking within physics that evolved with the developing field of subatomic physics. It was a shift so fundamental that Gino Segre` dubbed it ‘a struggle for the soul of physics’.20


이러한 과정에서 물리학의 기본적인 요구사항은 단순함으로부터 불확실성으로 옮겨갔다. 리차드 파인만의 말에서 잘 드러난다. "한 철학자가 "과학이란 같은 조건에서 같은 결과를 내는 것이다" 라고 말한 적이 있다. 하지만 사실 그렇지 않다. 매번 같은 조건을 구성해두어도 어느 구멍에서 전자를 발견할지 예측하는 것은 불가능하다."

Through the discovery of these and other phenomena, the basic imperative of physics shifted from the construct of simplicity to a construct of uncertainty. This new understanding of physics was perhaps best captured by Richard Feynman, who wrote: ‘A philosopher once said, ‘‘It is necessary for the very existence of science that the same conditions always produce the same results.’’ Well, they do not. You set up the circumstances, with the same conditions every time, and you cannot predict behind which hole you will see the electron.’21


이러는 동안 거시 물리학의 세계에서는 카오스 이론이 등장하기 시작한다. 초기 상태에서 매우 짧은 거리만 벗어나도 대단히 예측불가능하다는 것이다. 이러한 카오스 시스템은 기본적으로 불안정하고 초기 상태에 대단히 민감해서 '동요(perturbation)의 기하급수적 증가'로 나타난다. 

Meanwhile, in the world of macro physics, the concept of chaos theory was being evolved to explain how certain dynamic systems can be highly deterministic (i.e. they have a clear and simple set of rules to describe their behaviour), but still be highly unpredictable just a short distance out from their initial state.22 These chaotic systems are inherently unstable because of their extreme sensitivity to initial conditions, which manifest as an ‘exponential growth of perturbations’. In short, for such systems, the simplifying assumption that ‘error’ cancels out simply does not hold. Rather ‘error’ multiplies, so the most minute deviations at the initial state manifest as massive deviations in a very short time.


이러한 '최근의' 물리학의 움직임은 교육학 영역과 유사성 갖는다.

The discoveries and descriptions found in these more ‘recent’ movements in physics have a ring of familiarity in the education domain.


19세기 물리학에서 다뤘던 고전적인 단순성과 예측가능성의 모델보다 근래에 나온 더 복잡한 구조들이 교육학적 맥락을 더 잘 묘사한다. 모든 것을 단순화시키려는 노력은 모든 것이 서로 상호작용할 때, 그 어떤 것도 '단순하지 않다'라는 문제가 있다.

These more complex constructs may be better descriptions of education contexts than the classic models of simplicity and predictability that were the organising principles of 19th century physics. The problem with trying to define everything simply is that when everything interacts, nothing is simple. 


따라서 '가정을 단순화'하고자 하는 환원주의의 목적은 달성할 수 없는 목표이다. 대신 Bryson은 '우리가 가질 수 있는건 기껏해바야 우아한 혼란일 뿐이다' 라고 했다. 아마 이것이 우리가 기대할 수 있는 최선일 것이다.

So the goal of reductionism by way of ‘simplifying assumptions’ may be a chimera. Instead, as Bryson concluded about physics, ‘…so far all we have is a kind of elegant messiness’.10 And perhaps this elegant messiness is the best we can hope for


현실적인 관점에서, 이 복잡성은 교육학에서의 흔한 문제를 해결하기 위한 의미있고 단순하며 일반화가능한 해결책은 근본적으로 불가능하다는 것을 말해준다. 한 교육적 영역과 다른 영역은 환경이 다르고, 맥락이 다르고, 교수-학생 관계가 다르고, 간섭하는 요소들도 달라서 서로 다른 맥락에서 예측을 한다는 것 자체가 의미가 없다.

From a practical perspective, this complexity probably indicates that meaningful, simple, generalisable findings that address common problems in education are fundamentally unachievable.14 Environmental differences between one education domain and the next, between one education context and the next, between one student–teacher dyad and the next, and even between one interaction in a student–teacher dyad and the next may involve a set of unique perturbations sufficient to render cross-context predictions meaningless.


Howell은 'Context는 줄일 수 없는 공변량이다' 라고 했다. 이는 Haidet 등의 논문에서 잘 강조되어 있다. "우리는 서로 비슷하거나 다른 아홉 개의 학교에서 이 연구를 환자 중심적 학습 환경에 대한 연구를 하고자 했다. 연구 결과는 우리가 던진 질문보다 더 복잡한 현실만을 보여줬다." 현실은 복잡하다. 19세기 물리학을 따라서 복잡한 세계를 단순하게 만들려고 하다가는 다양성의 아름다움을 놓치게 될 것이다.

Howell suggested that ‘context is the irreducible covariate’.23 This was highlighted wonderfully in the conclusions of a paper by Haidet and colleagues, who wrote: ‘We conducted this study to ask whether patient-centred learning environments at nine schools were substantially similar or different, both in strength and character. Our results indicate a more complex reality than the question would suggest.’24 The world is a complex and complicated place. By adopting the imperative of representing this complex and complicated world simply, in an emulation of 19th century physics, we have failed to represent the beauty and richness of variation and context.


우리가 단순하고 일반화가 가능한 해답을 얻기 위해 이 복잡함을 무시한다면, 복잡성을 잘 설명할 수 있는 방법을 만들어 낼 기회도 놓치는 것이다.

And we have missed the opportunity to evolve methods by which we can represent this complexity well, choosing instead to dismiss it as noise in our eagerness to achieve simple, generalisable solutions.









 2010 Jan;44(1):31-9. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2923.2009.03418.x.

It's NOT rocket sciencerethinking our metaphors for research in health professions education.

Source

Centre for Health Education Scholarship, Faculty of Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. glenn.regehr@ubc.ca

Abstract

CONTEXT:

The health professional education community is struggling with a number of issues regarding the place and value of research in the field, including: the role of theory-building versus applied research; the relative value of generalisable versus contextually rich, localised solutions, and the relative value of local versus multi-institutional research. In part, these debates are limited by the fact that the health professional educationcommunity has become deeply entrenched in the notion of the physical sciences as presenting a model for 'ideal' research. The resulting emphasis on an 'imperative of proof' in our dominant research approaches has translated poorly to the domain of education, with a resulting denigration of the domain as 'soft' and 'unscientific' and a devaluing of knowledge acquired to date. Similarly, our adoption of the physical sciences''imperative of generalisable simplicity' has created difficulties for our ability to represent well the complexity of the social interactions that shape education and learning at a local level.

METHODS:

Using references to the scientific paradigms associated with the physical sciences, this paper will reconsider the place of our current goals for education research in the production and evolution of knowledge within our community, and will explore the implications for enhancing the value of research in health professional education.

CONCLUSIONS:

Reorienting education research from its alignment with the imperative of proof to one with an imperative of understanding, and from the imperative of simplicity to an imperative of representing complexity well may enable a shift in research focus away from a problematic search for proofs of simple generalisable solutions to our collective problems, towards the generation of rich understandings of the complex environments in which our collective problems are uniquely embedded.




(출처 : http://aveneca.com/yesno.html)


과도하게 근거만을 추구하게 되면 결과 중심적인 연구에만 집착하게 될 수 있다. 왜 그렇게 되었는가에 대한 질문은 건너뛰고, 효과가 있는지 없는지만 보려고 하게 된다. '아니오'라는 답이 나오면 자꾸 이것저것 수정만 해보고, '예'라는 답을 얻자마자 그걸로 만족해버린다.


이렇게 되면 결국 교육 연구 커뮤니티에서 우리가 공유하게 되는 정보는 마치 "각자 물건 하나씩 가져와 발표하기"처럼 되어버리며, 학습 과정과 교육 방법에 관한 범커뮤니티적 이해에는 아무런 도움이 되지 못한다.


이러한 관점에서 보면 '효과가 있었는가?' 라는 질문보다 더 나은 질문은 언제나 존재하며, 단순히 '효과가 있다'라는 답보다 더 나은 답도 항상 존재한다. 






교육을 연구하는 사람들에게 '가설 검증 패러다임'은 대단히 실용적인 방향으로 발전해서, 연구의 목적이 '노출(exposure)과 결과(outcomes) 사이에 타당한 연결고리를 만드는 것'이 되었다. 특히 큰 범위에서 '근거중심의학'의 범주 안에 들어있다고도 볼 수 있는 의학교육에 있어서는, 이와 같은 목적은 어떤 교육학적 개입 방법의 효과에 대한 근거를 요구하는 방향으로 더 나아갔다. Eva의 말을 빌리자면 "효과가 있다는 근거"를 찾는 것이라고도 할 수 있다.

Yet, in the hands of education researchers, the hypothesis-testing paradigm developed in a highly practical direction,13 and the approach came to be defined less by the epistemology (the elaboration of causal theories through hypothesis testing) and more by the methodology by which the epistemology was enacted (the randomised control trial).14 With this shift, the goal of research in this tradition was reinvented as a much more practical desire ‘to establish credible links between exposures and outcomes’.15 Particularly in medical education, which has been functioning for some time in the larger context of the evidence-based medicine movement, this goal evolved further into a demand for evidence of the efficacy for education interventions, which, again as Eva has suggested, has been equated with ‘proof that something works’.9 


많은 교육 프로그램 개발자들에게 있어서, 이렇게 증거를 요구하는 것은 프로그램 평가를 '총괄평가'의 특성을 갖도록 했을 뿐만 아니라, 그 개입방법이 실제로 효과가 있었는가(worked)에 대해서만 집중을 하게 만들었다. '총괄평가'를 하는 전형적인 접근 방법은 아래와 같다.

For many programme developers, this imperative of proof has led to summative models of programme evaluation and to an almost exclusive focus on the question of whether the intervention ‘worked’16 (i.e. whether those who received the intervention improved on a predetermined outcome measure). One implication of this summative approach to programme evaluation is that a typical process of education innovation looks something like this:



1 identify a content area that needs to be taught;

2 develop a teaching module to match the content and implement the module;

3 test to see if it ‘works’;

4 try to figure out what went wrong;

5 tweak the design and delivery;

6 test to see if it works now (if it does not, go back to step 4 or, eventually, give up), and

7 publish the success as demonstrating that the content area can be taught in this way.


프로그램 개발에 대한 이와 같은 접근 방법의 결과는 프로그램 수정이 총체적인 데이터 수집을 기반으로 이뤄지는 것이 아니라, 우선 도입한 후 사후 짐작을 바탕으로 이뤄진다는 것이다. 따라서 프로그램은 기껏해봐야 차선의 수준에서 개선이 이뤄지며, 더 흔하게는 종합적이고 지속적인 개선이 이뤄지기도 전에 폐기되기 일쑤이다.

The result of such an approach to programme development is that any iterative modifications made to the programme are based on post hoc guesses rather than on systematically collected data. Thus, programmes are, at best, improved in a suboptimal way and, more often, are abandoned before they have a chance to mature effectively through systematic and sustained innovation.17 


더 심각한 것은 프로그램이 '효과가 있든' 아니면 버려졌든, 우리는 효과가 있는지에만 집중을 했기 때문에 그 결과로부터 아무것도 배우지 못한다. 

More importantly for the science of education, regardless of whether the programme ultimately ‘works’ or is abandoned, we don’t learn anything meaningful from these efforts because we are more focused on whether a programme works than on why it does or doesn’t and the implications of its ‘success’ or ‘failure’ both for our  understanding of learning and, through this understanding, for future education practices.


교육 프로그램 개발자만이 이렇게 증거를 따지고 드는 것이 아니다. '가설 검증'의 전통을 바탕으로 이론을 연구하는  연구자들도 이론이 일반화될 수 있고 적용가능한지에 대한 검증을 하는 대신 증거만 만들어내고자 한다. 이러한 식으로 이론적 연구를 하는 사람들은 안타깝게도 앞서 프로그램 개발자들이 밟았던 전철을 그대로 밟는다. 

Interestingly, the limitations of having adopted an imperative of proof are not restricted to the developers. Even for those who focus on the study of theory in the hypothesis-testing tradition, there has been some gravitational pull towards producing proof of a theory rather than a test of its applicability and generalisability. Thus, for many who attempt to engage in theoretical work in the context of this imperative, a distressingly similar road to theory ‘development’ can be travelled:


1 identify a data pattern expected from the theory;

2 develop a study to demonstrate that result;

3 run the pilot subjects to see if the experimental manipulation ‘works’;

4 if it does not, try to figure out what went wrong;

5 tweak the materials and instructions;

6 test to see if it works now (if not, go back to step 4 or, eventually, give up), and

7 publish the success as demonstrating that the theory is plausible.


이 과정에서, 우리는 종종 확증편향에 빠지게 되고, 가지고 있는 데이터를 설명할 수 있는 다른 요소를 찾거나, 더 시간을 들여서 깊이 들여다보고자 하지 않는다. 다시 한번, 우리는 그 이론이 작동하는 조건만을 찾으려고 들기 때문에 아무것도 배우지 못한다. 그 이론이 언제 작동하고 언제 작동하지 않는지, 또는 더 넓은 이해를 바탕으로 성공 / 실패에 담긴 함의가 무엇인지를 알아내는 것에는 관심을 갖지 않았기 때문이다.

In the process, we often fall prey to the confirmation bias (i.e. if our results are predicted by our theory, then our theory must be right)13 and spend little time looking deeper into what else might explain our data or what else might be going on in our dataset. But again, importantly for the science of education, we don’t learn anything meaningful from the ultimate result because we are more focused on finding the conditions that prove our theories than we are on when they do or don’t work and the implications of the ‘success’ or ‘failure’ of our studies for our broader understanding of the theories we are exploring.


따라서 과도하게 근거만을 추구할 때에 지나치게 결과 중심적인 연구에만 집착하게 될 수 있다. 왜 그렇게 되었는가에 대한 질문은 건너뛰고, 효과가 있는지 없는지만 보려고 하게 된다. '아니오'라는 답이 나오면 자꾸 이것저것 수정만 해보고, '예'라는 답을 얻자마자 그걸로 만족해버린다.

Thus, by having adopted too completely the imperative of proof for determining the quality and value of our research efforts, we have brought about a general movement towards a ‘decision-oriented’ model of education research.17 Rather than dwelling on the questions of what is going on, we jump straight to the issue of whether it worked. We keep tweaking when the answer is ‘No’, but are satisfied as soon as the answer is ‘Yes’.


그 결과로 교육 연구 커뮤니티에서 우리가 공유하게 되는 정보는 마치 "각자 물건 하나씩 가져와 발표하기"처럼 되어버려서 학습 과정과 교육 방법에 관한 범커뮤니티적 이해에는 아무런 도움이 되지 못한다.

As a result, the information we share with the larger education research community through the talks we give and the studies we publish tends to feel more like a ‘show-and-tell’ exercise than an engaging and challenging contribution to the community’s understanding of learning processes and education practices.


이러한 관점에서 보면 '효과가 있었는가?' 라는 질문보다 나은 질문은 언제나 존재하며, 단순히 '효과가 있다'라는 답보다 더 나은 답도 항상 존재한다. 다만 증거에 대한 요구가 알게 모르게 우리를 통과/실패의 이분법적인 가치만을 가장 좋은 '근거'로 생각하도록 만드는 것이다. 

From the perspective of improving our education science, therefore, there is always a better question than ‘Did it work?’ and there is always a better answer than ‘Yes’. Yet the imperative of proof that underlies much of this work implicitly and explicitly values these dichotomous pass ⁄ fail questions as representing the highest form of ‘evidence’, creating one of the gravitational pulls that shape much of the work carried out in the field.









 2010 Jan;44(1):31-9. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2923.2009.03418.x.

It's NOT rocket sciencerethinking our metaphors for research in health professions education.

Source

Centre for Health Education Scholarship, Faculty of Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. glenn.regehr@ubc.ca

Abstract

CONTEXT:

The health professional education community is struggling with a number of issues regarding the place and value of research in the field, including: the role of theory-building versus applied research; the relative value of generalisable versus contextually rich, localised solutions, and the relative value of local versus multi-institutional research. In part, these debates are limited by the fact that the health professional educationcommunity has become deeply entrenched in the notion of the physical sciences as presenting a model for 'ideal' research. The resulting emphasis on an 'imperative of proof' in our dominant research approaches has translated poorly to the domain of education, with a resulting denigration of the domain as 'soft' and 'unscientific' and a devaluing of knowledge acquired to date. Similarly, our adoption of the physical sciences''imperative of generalisable simplicity' has created difficulties for our ability to represent well the complexity of the social interactions that shape education and learning at a local level.

METHODS:

Using references to the scientific paradigms associated with the physical sciences, this paper will reconsider the place of our current goals for education research in the production and evolution of knowledge within our community, and will explore the implications for enhancing the value of research in health professional education.

CONCLUSIONS:

Reorienting education research from its alignment with the imperative of proof to one with an imperative of understanding, and from the imperative of simplicity to an imperative of representing complexity well may enable a shift in research focus away from a problematic search for proofs of simple generalisable solutions to our collective problems, towards the generation of rich understandings of the complex environments in which our collective problems are uniquely embedded.





(출처 : http://www.amee.org/index.asp?tm=23)



교육에 대한 연구는 어떻게 가르쳐야 하는가에 대한 논쟁을 해소시키는 역할과 실제로 교육적 향상이 있음을 입증하는 역할을 할 수 있어야 한다. 또한 전통을 축적, 확립하여 오래된 지혜가 일시적인 유행에 의해 흔들리지 않으면서도 교육적인 발전을 이룰 수 있어야 한다.


Education research should be capable of ‘…settling disputes regarding educational practice, …verifying educational improvements, and … establishing a cumulative tradition in which improvements can be introduced without the danger of a faddish discard of old wisdom in favour of inferior novelties’


Stanley JC, Campbell DT. Experimental and Quasi-experimental Designs for Research. 1966.





2008년 1월, Robert Slavin은 이렇게 말했다. "교육의 역사를 통틀어, 교육 프로그램은 '근거'보다는 이데올로기, 유행, 정치, 마케팅에 따라서 바뀌어왔다. 근거 중심의 정책을 펴는데 가장 중요한 것은 복제가능한(replicable) 교육 프로그램에 대해서 과학적으로 타당하고, 해석가능한 연구를 수행하는 것이다"


그의 주장이 최근에 나온 것이긴 하지만 새로운 것은 아니다. 사실, 이미 40년 전 Campbell과 Stanley는 교육에 관한 연구는 "새롭기만 하고 열등한 것이 오랜기간 축적된 지혜를 위협하지 않는 선에서 발전이 이뤄질 수 있도록" 할 수 있어야 한다고 주장했다.


근거중심의 교육과 그 근거라는 것이 무엇인가를 밝히려는 노력은 오래 전부터 있어왔다. Tom Russell은 1999년 그의 책 "The No Significant Difference Phenomenon"에서 "이미 10년 전부터 나는 기술이 교육을 향상시킨다는 근거를 모으기 위한 연구를 해왔다. 내가 내린 놀라운 결론은, 엄청난 수의 연구가 있지만 그 대부분은 유의미안 차이를 보여준 것은 거의 없다는 사실이다" 라고 했다. 즉, 교육자들은 스스로 난제를 만들었다. 별다른 향상을 이뤄내지 못했다고 결론을 내거나, 그렇지 않으려면 스스로를 위해서 세운 이 목표를 위해 수행한 연구들의 가치에 대한 의문을 제기해보아야 한다.


의학교육 분야 역시 이 문제로 고심하고 있다. 연구를 하는데 있어서 무언가 잘못되어 가고있고, 이에 대한 우려를 표하는 사람들도 있지만, 정확히 무엇이 문제인지를 짚어내지 못하고 있다. 연구를 위한 과학적 모델이 있지만 이 모델을 따르려는 노력에도 불구하고, 과연 달성하려는 목표를 향해 제대로 가고 있는지, 우리가 달성하려는 목표가 옳은 것인지에 대한 확신이 없다.


이와 같은 문제에 대한 다양한 관점이 있다. 방법론적 관점에서는 여러 연구가 교육과정에 대한 개입과 장기적인 성과를 효과적으로 연결짓지 못한다는 우려가 있다. 또 어떤 사람들은 사람들은 광범위한 교육적 실험은 무용지물이며, 교육의 진보는 '여러 개의 작은, 잘 통제된, 여러 실험실에서 이루어지는, 개입 요소의 약간의 변조(variation) 속에서도 반복적으로 증명되는' 연구에 의해서 이뤄진다고 주장한다.


여러 대중들의 논쟁은 교육에 있어서 '좋은'연구란 무엇인가에 대한 논쟁과 연결되어 있다. 이것은 자연과학에서 말하는 '타당한' 연구에 대한 은유(metaphor)이기도 하다. 그리고 이것은 두 가지 특징을 가진다.


첫 번째는, 전통적인 자연과학의 '가설검증'이란 프레임이다. 이는 '증거에 대한 요구(imperative of proof)'라고도 할 수도 있다.

두 번째는, '궁극적인 단순함을 추구하는 것(ultimate search for simplicity)' 이다. 이는 '단순함에 대한 요구(imperative of simplicity)'라고도 할 수 있다.


이 두 가지 요구가 합쳐져서 의학교육에 '과학'이라는 것이 생겨났고, 단순하고, 일반화될 수 있는 '근거'를 제시하는 것이 그 목적이 되었다.


의학교육도 점차 자연과학의 필수요소(imperatives)를 연구의 목적으로 삼게 되면서, 이는 의학교육 연구의 아젠다에 영향을 주게 되었다. 

종종 이러한 영향은 매우 노골적으로 의학교육연구의 '기준(standard)'를 확립할 것을 요구하고 있다. 

또 가끔은 매우 소소한 부분에 영향을 줘서 의학교육 저널들은 다른 사회과학 저널들과 달리 논문의 길이를 훨씬 더 제한하고 있다. 


이렇게 노골적이든, 소소하게든, 종합적으로 봤을 때 자연과학에서 차용한 기준이 영향을 주고 있는 것 만큼은 분명해보인다.


따라서 우리 의학교육 커뮤니티가 연구의 기저에 깔려있는 '필수요소'를 어떻게 해석하고 받아들이고 있는지 조사해볼 필요가 있다. 여기서는 '교육의 과학'에 대해서 다르게 생각해 볼 수 있는 프레임을 제시하고, 이를 바탕으로 어떻게 우리가 좀 더 발전적으로 대처해갈 수 있을가를 이야기해보고자 한다.


또한 본격적으로 들어가기에 앞서서, 이러한 우려가 단지 '양적 연구'에만 해당되는 것은 아님을 밝히고자 한다. Lingard가 말한 것처럼 질적 연구까지도 이 분야에 팽배해있는 인식론적인 영향으로부터 자유롭지 못하다. 단순화(simplification)에 대한 압박에 있어서 특히 더 그렇다.  따라서 양적 연구 패러다임에 대해서만 비판을 하고자 하는 것은 아니며, 단지 인식론적 힘이 미치고 있는 영향을 보여주기 위한 사례로서 사용하고자 하는 것이다.








 2010 Jan;44(1):31-9. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2923.2009.03418.x.

It's NOT rocket sciencerethinking our metaphors for research in health professions education.

Source

Centre for Health Education Scholarship, Faculty of Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. glenn.regehr@ubc.ca

Abstract

CONTEXT:

The health professional education community is struggling with a number of issues regarding the place and value of research in the field, including: the role of theory-building versus applied research; the relative value of generalisable versus contextually rich, localised solutions, and the relative value of local versus multi-institutional research. In part, these debates are limited by the fact that the health professional educationcommunity has become deeply entrenched in the notion of the physical sciences as presenting a model for 'ideal' research. The resulting emphasis on an 'imperative of proof' in our dominant research approaches has translated poorly to the domain of education, with a resulting denigration of the domain as 'soft' and 'unscientific' and a devaluing of knowledge acquired to date. Similarly, our adoption of the physical sciences''imperative of generalisable simplicity' has created difficulties for our ability to represent well the complexity of the social interactions that shape education and learning at a local level.

METHODS:

Using references to the scientific paradigms associated with the physical sciences, this paper will reconsider the place of our current goals for education research in the production and evolution of knowledge within our community, and will explore the implications for enhancing the value of research in health professional education.

CONCLUSIONS:

Reorienting education research from its alignment with the imperative of proof to one with an imperative of understanding, and from the imperative of simplicity to an imperative of representing complexity well may enable a shift in research focus away from a problematic search for proofs of simple generalisable solutions to our collective problems, towards the generation of rich understandings of the complex environments in which our collective problems are uniquely embedded.









(출처 : http://www.psmag.com/health/evidence-of-a-need-for-change-4241/)




근거중심의학(EBM)이 학부 의학교육(UGME)에 도입된지는 20년이 지났지만, 많은 의사와 레지던트들은 실제 진료에 근거를 활용하는 지식이나 기술이 부족하다. EBM은 의학적 의사결정을 하는데 있어서 가장 최신의 근거를 신중하게 사용하는 것으로서 의료 과오를 줄이고, 개별화된 진료를 향상시키며, 최선의 진료를 하는 것과 연결된다.

Although evidence-based medicine (EBM) has been included in undergraduate medical education (UGME) for more than 20 years,1 many physicians and residents lack the knowledge and skills to incorporate evidence into practice.2 EBM is the judicious use of the best current evidence in making decisions about the care of individual patients3 and has been linked to reduction of medical errors, promotion of individualized care, and increased application of best practices.4,5 


EBM의 개념이 1991년 도입된 이후로, 전세계 의과대학에서는 이를 빠르게 받아들였다. EBM을 할 수 있는 역량(Competence)은 이제 보건의료 관련 면허를 발급받기 위해서는 반드시 필요하다.

Since the concept of EBM was introduced in 1991,5 it has been adopted by medical schools worldwide. Competence in EBM (also known as evidence-based practice) is now required by many health profession organizations for licensing and certification purposes.6


많은 의과대학이 EBM을 교육과정에 도입하고 있으나, 표준화되어있지 않다.

Today most medical schools include EBM in their curricula,6,7 but its implementation is not standardized.8–10


여기서는 의과대학 학생들의 EBM기술을 향상시키기 위한 교육적 이니셔티브를 집중적으로 다뤄보고자 한다.

We conducted this literature review to characterize educational initiatives targeting the improvement of medical students’ EBM skills






보건의료에 미치는 영향과 관련된 제언

Implications for health care and related recommendations


환자 중심적 진료

Patient-centered care

2010년 법안에 따라서 정부는 상호 합의된, 근거중심 의사결정을 내리는 의사와 환자에게 돈을 지원한다. 학생들이 환자의 상황에 맞춰서 임상적 질문을 던지고, 그 근거를 환자 진료에 어떻게 적용해야 할지를 가르치는 것은 많지만, 그 근거들을 놓고 환자와 함께 상의(토론)하는 방법을 가르치는 훈련은 없다. 우리는 학생들이 환자와 근거를 공유하여 의사결정을 내리는 것을 연습할 기회를 주어야 한다.

In the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act of 2010, the United States committed funding to support patients and clinicians in making shared, evidence-based decisions.53 Although a handful of included interventions7,8,16,28,29,33 required students to generate clinical questions based on their patient encounters and contemplate how they might apply evidence to patients’ care, none included training on discussing evidence with patients. We suggest that medical educators consider how to provide opportunities for students to engage in sharing evidence with patients to facilitate decision making activities.


환자들이 근거의 공급원(bearer)가 되어가는 시나리오에 맞춰 준비하는 프로그램도 없었다. 최근의 연구에서 의사들은 "환자들이 인터넷에서 정보를 가져와 상의를 하는 것에 엄청난 불안감을 느낀다"라고 밝혀진 바가 있다. 이 부분에 있어서 좀 더 성숙한 자세가 필요하다. 환자가 이런식으로 정보를 가져올 가능성이 점차 높아지는 만큼, 학생들은 환자로부터 받은 정보를 평가하고, 생산적인 대화를 통해서 학생과 의사가 그 정보에 대해 심사숙고하고, 필요한 경우 환자 진료에 포함시키는 것을 연습해야 한다.

The related scenario of the patient as the bearer of evidence was also absent from the reviewed interventions. Recent research has demonstrated that physicians “experience considerable anxiety in response to patients bringing information from the internet to a consultation,”54 which suggests that this is an area ripe for improvement. As it is probable that patients will increasingly bring information to appointments, we recommend that medical educators train students to evaluate the evidence retrieved by patients and to engage in productive conversations in which the student and patient can reflect on the information and, if appropriate, integrate it into the patient’s care.



전자의무기록

Electronic health records. 

대부분의 개입방법이 어떻게 전통적인 정보원(PubMed 등)에서 자료를 찾는가를 다루고 있지만, 전자의무기록으로부터 정보를 모으는 방법은 다루고 있지 않다. 전자의무기록은 점차 널리 퍼지고 있고, 정보를 제공하고 경고를 띄움으로서 중요한 임상적 질문을 하도록 하는 식으로 의료의 질을 향상시키고 있다.

Although all of the reviewed interventions included instruction on how to search the literature using traditional resources (e.g., PubMed), none addressed how to access information via electronic health records (EHRs). EHRs are becoming increasingly prevalent in medical practice, and their capabilities are improving with regard to delivering information and prompting clinical questions within the workflow via alerts and “infobuttons.”55 


따라서 이렇게 발전하는 전자의무기록을 활용할 수 있게 해주는 EBM훈련이 필요하다. 

Educators therefore need to ensure that EBM training accommodates these evolving resources. For example, they may need to shift emphasis from PubMed search skills to information management skills, such that students learn to manage or triage point-of-care information presented within EHRs. Additionally, educators should seize the opportunity to use EHRs to facilitate EBM teaching.


전자의무기록의 사용은 활용가능한 정보의 종류를 확장시켜준다. 어려운 케이스가 생겼을 때 기존의 환자 정보를 근거로 치료 방침을 결정하는 방식이 지금은 '새로운' 방식이지만, 이러한 전자의무기록의 활용이 점차 많아질 것이다. 

The increasing use of EHRs may also expand the types of available evidence. Recently, a physician team at Stanford was temporarily stymied by the lack of published evidence related to the treatment of a complicated pediatric case. However, by querying the EHR system, they identified a cohort of similar patients and analyzed outcomes data to make an informed treatment decision.56 Although this is currently considered a “novel” process, such use of EHR data is likely to become increasingly prevalent.




 2013 Jul;88(7):1022-1028.

Evidence-Based Medicine Training in Undergraduate Medical Education: A Review and Critique of the LiteraturePublished 2006-2011.

Source

Ms. Maggio is director of research and instruction, Lane Medical Library, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California. Ms. Tannery is senior associate director, Health Sciences Library System, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Dr. Chen is professor of clinical pediatrics, Department of Pediatrics, University of California, San Francisco, School of Medicine, San Francisco, California. Dr. ten Cate is professor of medical education and director, Center for Research and Development of Education, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, the Netherlands, and adjunct professor, Department of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, School of Medicine, San Francisco, California. Dr. O'Brien is assistant professor of medicine, Department of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, School of Medicine, San Francisco, California.

Abstract

PURPOSE:

To characterize recent evidence-based medicine (EBM) educational interventions for medical students and suggest future directions for EBM education.

METHOD:

The authors searched the MEDLINE, Scopus, Educational Resource Information Center, and Evidence-Based Medicine Reviews databases for English-language articles published between 2006 and 2011 that featured medical students and interventions addressing multiple EBM skills. They extracted data on learner and instructor characteristics, educational settings, teaching methods, and EBM skills covered.

RESULTS:

The 20 included articles described interventions delivered in 12 countries in classroom (75%), clinic (25%), and/or online (20%) environments. The majority (60%) focused on clinical students, whereas 30% targeted preclinical students and 10% included both. EBM skills addressed included recognizing a knowledge gap (20%), asking a clinical question (90%), searching for information (90%), appraising information (85%), applying information (65%), and evaluating practice change (5%). Physicians were most often identified as instructors (60%); co-teachers included librarians (20%), allied health professionals (10%), and faculty from other disciplines (10%). Many studies (60%) included interventions at multiple points during one year, but none were longitudinal across students' tenures. Teaching methods varied. Intervention efficacy could not be determined.

CONCLUSIONS:

Settings, learner levels and instructors, teaching methods, and covered skills differed across interventions. Authors writing about EBM interventions should include detailed descriptions and employ more rigorous research methods to allow others to draw conclusions about efficacy. When designing EBM interventions, educators should consider trends in medical education (e.g., online learning, interprofessionaleducation) and in health care (e.g., patient-centered care, electronic health records).






(출처 : http://www.psmag.com/health/evidence-of-a-need-for-change-4241/)





근거중심의학(EBM)이 학부 의학교육(UGME)에 도입된지는 20년이 지났지만, 많은 의사와 레지던트들은 실제 진료에 근거를 활용하는 지식이나 기술이 부족하다. EBM은 의학적 의사결정을 하는데 있어서 가장 최신의 근거를 신중하게 사용하는 것으로서 의료 과오를 줄이고, 개별화된 진료를 향상시키며, 최선의 진료를 하는 것과 연결된다.

Although evidence-based medicine (EBM) has been included in undergraduate medical education (UGME) for more than 20 years,1 many physicians and residents lack the knowledge and skills to incorporate evidence into practice.2 EBM is the judicious use of the best current evidence in making decisions about the care of individual patients3 and has been linked to reduction of medical errors, promotion of individualized care, and increased application of best practices.4,5 


EBM의 개념이 1991년 도입된 이후로, 전세계 의과대학에서는 이를 빠르게 받아들였다. EBM을 할 수 있는 역량(Competence)은 이제 보건의료 관련 면허를 발급받기 위해서는 반드시 필요하다.

Since the concept of EBM was introduced in 1991,5 it has been adopted by medical schools worldwide. Competence in EBM (also known as evidence-based practice) is now required by many health profession organizations for licensing and certification purposes.6


많은 의과대학이 EBM을 교육과정에 도입하고 있으나, 표준화되어있지 않다.

Today most medical schools include EBM in their curricula,6,7 but its implementation is not standardized.8–10


여기서는 의과대학 학생들의 EBM기술을 향상시키기 위한 교육적 이니셔티브를 집중적으로 다뤄보고자 한다.

We conducted this literature review to characterize educational initiatives targeting the improvement of medical students’ EBM skills






Data extraction and full-text review

To facilitate our full-text review of articles, we created a modified version of the Best Evidence in Medical Education (BEME) data extraction tool for systematic reviews.17 This was available to all of us online via the Qualtrics18 survey tool and enabled us to collect information on 

• educational settings (classroom, clinical, online),

• study participants: instructor type (e.g., physician, librarian) and learner level (preclinical, clinical, both),

• EBM skills covered (four traditional steps13 plus recognizing a knowledge gap and evaluating the change in practice), and 

• teaching methods used.


We used Qualtrics18 to generate summary reports and descriptive statistics to characterize the educational interventions





Educational settings

These 20 studies presented a global sample of interventions and included 7 (35%) from the United States, 2 (10%) each from the United Kingdom and Thailand, and 1 (5%) each from Australia, China, Czech RepublicIran, Japan, Jordan, Malaysia, Nigeriaand Pakistan


Study participants

Learner levels. 

Interventions targeted medical students at all years of study. 

Six interventions (30%) were aimed at preclinical students

whereas 12 (60%) focused specifically on clinical students


Instructors

We were not able to determine the instructor’s profession from the descriptions provided in 8 (40%) of the included studies, including the online-only intervention.30 

All 12 (60%) of the articles that provided this information identified physicians as instructors, and more than half of these interventions (n = 7) also included collaborating librarians,21,26,28,32 medical educators,35 business school faculty,29 or nurses and pharmacists.25


EBM skills addressed

Each study described an intervention that addressed a combination of EBM skills: 

recognizing a knowledge gap (n = 4; 20%), 

asking a clinical question (n = 18; 90%), 

searching for literature (n = 18; 90%), 

appraising evidence (n = 17; 85%), 

applying evidence to patient care (n = 13; 65%), 

and evaluating the change in practice (n = 1; 5%).


Teaching methods

Five (25%) of the articles described a one-time educational intervention, such as a three-hour workshop designed to improve clerkship students’ clinical question formulation and literature search skills.31 

Twelve (60%) included a series of interventions occurring over a single year.


Using Khan and Coomarasamy’s20 three-level hierarchy of EBM teaching and learning methods, we determined that

8 (40%) of the 20 interventions used level 1 (interactive, clinically integrated), 

8 (40%) used level 2 (interactive, classroom-based or didactic, but clinically integrated), and 

4 (20%) used level 3 (didactic, classroom-based, or standalone) methods.



Discussion

이제 EBM을 하지 못하면 대중들로부터 역풍을 맞게 되었다. 

따라서 의과대학에서 EBM에 대한 기본적인 훈련을 받는 것이 중요하다.

Physicians’ failure to engage in EBM has repercussions for the health of individuals and populations.4,5 It is therefore essential that medical students receive foundational training in EBM. To provide medical educators with an overview of current EBM training, which has become a common topic covered in medical education,36 we reviewed 20 recent studies describing a range of educational interventions taught in a variety of settings and aimed at students at all levels of UGME.



학부 의학교육에 미치는 영향과 제언

Implications and recommendations for UGME


EBM을 가르치는 시기

Timing of EBM instruction

EBM을 가르치는 가장 이상적인 시기에 대한 근거는 부족하다. 하지만 이 리뷰에서는 EBM교육이 대부분 임상실습을 도는 시기에 시행된다는 것이 다시 한번 확인되었다. 이 시기를 선택하는 논리적 근거는 임상실습의 환경과의 연계성이 훈련의 효과를 높일 것이라는 생각 때문이다. 하지만, 점차 더 일찍 임상 경험을 하는 쪽으로 추세가 변하고 있고, EBM도 preclinical year의 환경에 맞춰서 더 일찍 가르쳐야 할 것이다.

There is little evidence as to the most efficacious timing for EBM instruction.37 Yet, our review confirms earlier findings that most EBM educational interventions take place in the clinical years of medical school.38,39 This timing is generally based on the rationale that the clerkship setting enhances the clinical relevance of the training.40 However, the trend toward providing students with early clinical experiences41 may provide opportunities for introducing EBM earlier, in the context of patient care in the preclinical years.


우리는 EBM을 임상경험의 초기에 가르칠 것을 권한다. 그 과정에서 학생들은 임상환경에을 처음 접하더라도 불확실성에 잘 대처할 수 있는 뼈대(framework)과 자기효능감을 가질 수 있을 것이다.

We suggest that medical educators consider integrating EBM instruction into early clinical experiences, as doing so may increase students’ self-efficacy and provide a framework that helps students deal with the uncertainty of being new to the clinical setting.



장기적이고 지속적인 EBM훈련

Longitudinal EBM training. 

EBM훈련에 반복적으로 노출되는 경우가 흔했지만, 장기적이고 지속적인(longitudinal) 교육과정을 갖춘 경우는 별로 없었다. 대부분은 짧고 집중적으로 교육되었으며, 이러한 압축된 교육환경에서는 EBM skill을 학생의 발달에 맞춰서 가르치기가 힘들다.

Although multiple exposures to EBM training were common in the studies reviewed, longitudinal curricula were lacking. In 75% of the included interventions, medical students received EBM training on more than one occasion, a practice that has been linked generally with increased learning.42 Yet most of the interventions were delivered over short, intensive time periods. The compressed nature of these learning opportunities limits medical educators’ ability to successively build EBM skills across levels of student development. 


나선형 교과과정에서 학습자는 여러 차례 반복적으로 서로 다른 수준의 개념에 노출됨으로써, 앞서 했던 경험을 바탕으로 새로운 경험을 쌓아간다. 우리는 EBM 훈련과정을 이러한 나선형 교과과정식으로, 모든 단계의 UGME에 도입할 것을 권한다.

In a spiral curriculum43—a format that has been adopted to teach some components of medical education—learners are provided multiple, successive exposures to a concept at different levels of their development so that each encounter builds on the previous encounter.44 We suggest that integrating EBM training as a spiral curriculum across all levels of UGME may be an effective model.



다직업군적 접근법

Interprofessional approach. 

의학교육의 추세가 전문직업군간 교육을 권장하고, 여러 보건의료 전문직이 함께 근거중심 진료를 하는 방향으로 가고 있기 때문에 의학교육도 전문직업군간 접근을 시도해야 한다.

We identified only one intervention that included both medical students and learners from other health professions.25 Given the trend in medical education toward recommending the use of interprofessional education (IPE)45 and the adoption of evidence-based practice by a spectrum of allied health professions, we encourage medical educators to consider taking an IPE approach to EBM instruction.


또한 다양한 전공의 교육자를 포함시킬 것과 더불어, 이 때 교육 환경적 측면에서 교실 셋팅을 벗어나는 사고를 해 볼 것을 권고한다. (다른 전공의 전공자가 가장 자신의 교수능력을 잘 발휘할 수 있는 환경의 활용)

We recommend that medical educators consider including instructors from a variety of disciplines and think beyond the classroom setting when integrating multidisciplinary teachers.



능동적 온라인 학습 환경

Active and online learning environments. 

최근, Prober와 Heath는 "의사를 가르치는 방법을 바꿀 때다"라고 하며, 강의 중심의 형태에서 온라인 학습을 중심으로 교실에서는 사례 학습과 같이 더 많은 상호작용을 유도하는 방식으로 바꿔야 한다고 주장했다.

Recently, Prober and Heath47 declared, “It’s time to change the way we educate doctors,” and advocated a shift from a lecture-based format to an active learning approach that blends online learning with more interactive classroom activities, such as case studies.47 


의과대학생들에게 EBM을 가르치는 것에 있어서 이미 인터엑티브한 교수방법, 온라인 교육이 사용되고 있다. 온라인 형식을 활용하여 수업시간의 압박을 줄이고, 제한된 교수자원을 더 확대하고, 스케쥴의 한계를 극복하고, 학생들을 더 많이 임상 현장으로 보낼 수 있다.

We found that EBM interventions for medical students are already using interactive teaching methods and online learning. Three interventions28,30,32 employed an online format to decompress classroom time, extend the reach of strained faculty resources, mitigate scheduling difficulties, and/or reach students at diffuse clinical sites.



지식의 공백

Gaps in knowledge


마지막으로 의학교육자들은 의사들이 스스로에 대한 평가를 통해, 특정한 상황에서 자신의 지식이나 기술이 부족할 수도 있다는 것을 인지하도록 해야 한다.

Finally, medical educators have dedicated much attention to the physician’s ability to self-monitor, that is, to recognize the limitations of one’s skill and knowledge to act in a specific situation.49,50


이러한 지식의 공백을 인지하는 것은, 그렇게 함으로써 EBM과정을 더 촉진시키고, 의사들로 핵심적인 질문을 던 그 다음 단계를 진행할 수 있도록 해주기 때문에 중요하다.

Being able to identify awareness of a knowledge gap is critical, as doing so acts as the fuel that ignites the EBM process and prompts the physician to ask clinical questions and proceed through the subsequent steps


우리 리뷰와 여러 연구에 따르면 의사들은 임상적 의문을 가졌을 때, 그 사실(의문을 가졌다는 사실)을 인지하는 것에 약점을 보인다.  따라서 우리는 EBM훈련을 통해 이러한 지식의 공백을 인지하는 기술을 익힐 것을 권고한다.

On the basis of our review findings, and research showing that physicians tend to be weak in recognizing when they have clinical questions,52 we suggest that all EBM training should cover the essential skill of recognizing a knowledge gap.




 2013 Jul;88(7):1022-1028.

Evidence-Based Medicine Training in Undergraduate Medical Education: A Review and Critique of the LiteraturePublished 2006-2011.

Source

Ms. Maggio is director of research and instruction, Lane Medical Library, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California. Ms. Tannery is senior associate director, Health Sciences Library System, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Dr. Chen is professor of clinical pediatrics, Department of Pediatrics, University of California, San Francisco, School of Medicine, San Francisco, California. Dr. ten Cate is professor of medical education and director, Center for Research and Development of Education, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, the Netherlands, and adjunct professor, Department of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, School of Medicine, San Francisco, California. Dr. O'Brien is assistant professor of medicine, Department of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, School of Medicine, San Francisco, California.

Abstract

PURPOSE:

To characterize recent evidence-based medicine (EBM) educational interventions for medical students and suggest future directions for EBM education.

METHOD:

The authors searched the MEDLINE, Scopus, Educational Resource Information Center, and Evidence-Based Medicine Reviews databases for English-language articles published between 2006 and 2011 that featured medical students and interventions addressing multiple EBM skills. They extracted data on learner and instructor characteristics, educational settings, teaching methods, and EBM skills covered.

RESULTS:

The 20 included articles described interventions delivered in 12 countries in classroom (75%), clinic (25%), and/or online (20%) environments. The majority (60%) focused on clinical students, whereas 30% targeted preclinical students and 10% included both. EBM skills addressed included recognizing a knowledge gap (20%), asking a clinical question (90%), searching for information (90%), appraising information (85%), applying information (65%), and evaluating practice change (5%). Physicians were most often identified as instructors (60%); co-teachers included librarians (20%), allied health professionals (10%), and faculty from other disciplines (10%). Many studies (60%) included interventions at multiple points during one year, but none were longitudinal across students' tenures. Teaching methods varied. Intervention efficacy could not be determined.

CONCLUSIONS:

Settings, learner levels and instructors, teaching methods, and covered skills differed across interventions. Authors writing about EBM interventions should include detailed descriptions and employ more rigorous research methods to allow others to draw conclusions about efficacy. When designing EBM interventions, educators should consider trends in medical education (e.g., online learning, interprofessionaleducation) and in health care (e.g., patient-centered care, electronic health records).


















(출처 : http://psychcentral.com/news/2008/09/12/train-young-physicians-on-emotional-intelligence/2927.html)

정서지능의 네 영역 

- 감정 인지, 감정 활용, 감정 이해, 감정 관리 - 

는 대인관계와 의사소통 기술의 구성요소이다.


The four components of emotional intelligence 

— the abilities to perceive, use, understand and manage emotions — 

are building blocks for interpersonal and communication skills.




정서지능(EI)는 스스로의 감정에 대해 인지하는 능력과 다른 사람의 감정을 인지하는 능력, 그리고 그것을 적절히 다루는 능력을 포괄한다. Payne은 공포, 고통, 욕망에 대한 EI를 분석하여 개인지능(personal intelligence)라는 용어로서 논의했다. 

Emotional intelligence (EI) is refers to an individual’s awareness on his or her own emotions, together with an awareness of the emotions in others and the ability to manage them and act appropriately. The term is usually attributed to Payne [1] who explored EI with respect to fear, pain and desire, and it was discussed in terms of personal intelligences [2] at a similar time. 


정서지능은 "자신과 타인에 대한 감정을 정확히 평가하고 표현할 수 있는 능력, 자신과 타인의 감정을 통제할 수 있는 능력, 그리고 동기부여, 계획, 성취을 위해 감정을 활용할 수 있는 능력에 대한 종합적인 기술" 이라고 정의되기도 한다. 이러한 개념은 그 후 IQ 또는 직장에서의 우수한 수행능력과 연결되기도 했다.

A robust explanatory framework as defined as “a set of skills hypothesized to contribute to the accurate appraisal and expression of emotion in oneself and in others, the effective regulation of emotion in self and others, and the use of feelings to motivate, plan, and achieve in one's life.” [3]. The concept was then linked to IQ and superior performance at work [4-6].


EI를 측정하기 위한 도구는 EI를 어떠한 특질(trait)나, 능력(ability)로 개념화한다. 특질로서의 EI(Trait EI)는 개인적 성격의 다섯 가지("Big Five")요소들과 연결된다 

Neuroticism, Agreeableness, Openness, Extraversion, and Conscientiousness

Instruments for measuring EI include those that conceptualize EI as a trait [7], and as an ability [8,9]. Trait EI strongly correlates with the “Big Five” personality traits (Neuroticism, Agreeableness, Openness, Extraversion, and Conscientiousness) [10]. 


TEIQue는 네 개의 요소로 구성되어 있다. Petrides와 Furnham은 Trait EI와 Ability EI를 구분하는 근본적인 것은 측정에 대한 접근법이라고 하였다. Trait EI는 자기기입식 설문지로 측정되며, Ability EI는 정답과 오답이 있는 시험으로서 측정된다고 하였다.

The Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire (TEIQue) [11] is composed of four factors (well-being, self-control, emotionality and sociability). Petrides and Furnham [7,11] proposed that the primary basis for discriminating between trait EI and ability EI is the measurement approach and not theoretical domains. The trait EI is measured through self-reported questionnaires, whereas ability EI should be measured through maximum performance tests with correct and incorrect answers.














이 연구 결과는 TEIQue-SF(Short Form)의 측정이 아시아 의과대학생에게 적절하게 활용될 수 있음을 보여준다. 정신건강 워크숍은 의과대학생들의 EI를 발달시키는데 도움이 되었고, 성별이나 국적에 따른 약간의 차이가 있었다. 정서 인지의 즉각적 효과는 특히 남학생들과 비일본인 그룹에서 두드러졌다. 장기적인 효과는 여학생들과 일본인에서 두드러졌다. 일본 여학생들은 정서(emotionality)에 대해서 특히 민감(conscious)했다. 정서 기반(emotion driven) 의사소통 훈련은 학생의 EI발달에 장기적으로 영향을 줄 것이다.

This study found the measurement of TEIQue-SF is appropriate and reliable to use for Asian medical students. The mental health workshop was helpful to develop medical students’ EI but showed different results for gender and nationality. The immediate impact on the emotional awareness of individuals was particularly significant for male students and the non-Japanese group. The impact over the long term was notable for the significant increase in EI for females and Japanese. Japanese female students were more conscious about emotionality. Emotion-driven communication exercises might strongly influence the development of students’ EI over a year.






 2013 Jun 7;13:82. doi: 10.1186/1472-6920-13-82.

Expressing one's feelings and listening to others increases emotional intelligence: a pilot study of Asian medical students.

Source

School of Medicine, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK. Phillip.Evans@glasgow.ac.uk.

Abstract

BACKGROUND:

There has been considerable interest in Emotional Intelligence (EI) in undergraduate medical education, with respect to student selection and admissions, health and well-being and academic performance. EI is a significant component of the physician-patient relationship. Theemotional well-being of the physician is, therefore, a significant component in patient care. The aim is to examine the measurement of TEIQue-SF inAsian medical students and to explore how the practice of listening to the feelings of others and expressing one's own feelings influences an individual's EI, set in the context of the emotional well-being of a medical practitioner.

METHODS:

A group of 183 international undergraduate medical students attended a half-day workshop (WS) about mental-health and well-being. They completed a self-reported measure of EI on three occasions, pre- and post-workshop, and a 1-year follow-up.

RESULT:

The reliability of TEIQue-SF was high and the reliabilities of its four factors were acceptable. There were strong correlations between the TEIQue-SF and personality traits. A paired t-test indicated significant positive changes after the WS for all students (n=181, p= .014), male students(n=78, p= .015) and non-Japanese students (n=112, p= .007), but a repeated measures analysis showed that one year post-workshop there were significant positive changes for all students (n=55, p= .034), female students (n=31, p= .007), especially Japanese female students (n=13, p= .023). Moreover, 80% of the students reported that they were more attentive listeners, and 60% agreed that they were more confident in dealing withemotional issues, both within themselves and in others, as a result of the workshop.

CONCLUSION:

This study found the measurement of TEIQue-SF is appropriate and reliable to use for Asian medical students. The mental health workshop was helpful to develop medical students' EI but showed different results for gender and nationality. The immediate impact on the emotional-awareness of individuals was particularly significant for male students and the non-Japanese group. The impact over the long term was notable for the significant increase in EI for females and Japanese. Japanese female students were more conscious about emotionality. Emotion-driven communication exercises might strongly influence the development of students' EI over a year.





(출처 : http://dartmed.dartmouth.edu/fall12/html/back_to_basics/)





의학교육자들은 인지심리학, 교육심리학과 관련된 이론들을 찾아서 어떠한 학습후 행동(post-learning activities)의 특성이 기억의 장기보존(long-term retention)이나 지식의 전달(transfer of knowledge)에 어떤 정보를 줄 수 있는가를 연구해왔다.

Medical educators increasingly look to related disciplines, particularly those of cognitive and educational psychology, to inform the critical nature of post-learning activities with respect to, for example, long-term retention and the application or transfer of knowledge.


자기설명(self-explanation)이나 시험 강화 학습(Test-enhanced learning)과 같은 학습 기술들의 적절성이나 효과성을 다룬 연구들이 있다. Larsen등은 TEL이 SE와 비교하여 기억의 장기보존에 어떠한 영향을 주며, 두 방법을 혼합했을 때 효과는 어떠한지를 연구했다.

Research has aimed to investigate the appropriateness and efficiency of several learning techniques, such as self-explanation (SE) and test-enhanced learning (TEL). In this issue of Medical Education, Larsen et al.1 investigate how TEL compares with SE with regard to long-term retention and explore the added value to be gained by combining the two learning methods.


시험은 대개 평가를 위해 활용되지만, 정보의 보존을 더 높여줄 수 있고 이를 시험효과(testing effect)라고 한다. 기억의 인출(retrieval)은 이 효과의 핵심 기전이며, 기존의 지식에 대한 접근 경로를 더 강화시킨다.

Tests are usually used for assessment, but they can directly influence learning by promoting better retention of information, a phenomenon known as the testing effect.2 Retrieval, presumed to be the central mechanism mediating the effect, is seen as an active process that strengthens the pathway to the given knowledge.


기억의 인출은 지식을 능동적으로 재구성함으로써, 자기 모니터링(self-monitoring)을 하게 되고, 특정 기억을 반복하도록 하는 것으로 알려져있다.

It has been suggested that retrieval may involve the active reconstruction of knowledge3 and may induce targeted rehearsal through self-monitoring.4


또한 기억의 인출에 더 많은 노력을 쏟을수록 학습에 대한 효과도 더 높다.

it has been noted that the more ‘effort’ students put into the retrieval process, the more effect it has on learning.2,5


자기설명은 어떤 학습자료가 주어졌을 때 스스로에게 설명을 함으로서 이해를 높이는 것이다. 이 과정에서 추론을 하거나 정보간 고리를 만들면서 지식의 재구조화가 일어나고 학습자는 더 일관성있고 통합된 학습을 하게 된다. 자기설명의 긍정적 효과는 다양한 영역에서 보여진 바 있고, 피드백이 없는 상태에서도 효과가 있다고 밝혀져 있다. 자기설명의 이러한 효과는 자기설명에 대한 훈련이 되어 있을 때나 추가적인 단서가 주어질 때 더 효과적이다.

Self-explanation involves generating explanations to oneself while working through given learning material with the purpose of deepening one’s understanding.6,7 As a result of the generation of inferences, or the creation of new links between pieces of information or prior knowledge, and monitoring, knowledge restructuring takes place, allowing the learner to build a more coherent and integrated representation that facilitates the transfer of learning.6 The positive effect of SE on learning has been shown in various domains and even in the absence of specific content feedback. The effects of SE are increased when students are trained to self-explain8 and by the addition of prompts and cues.9 


의학교육에서 자기설명은 임상실습 기간에 익숙하지 않은 케이스에 대한 진단 수행능력에 도움이 되나, 이미 익숙한 케이스에는 별 도움이 안 되는 것으로 나타났다. 자기설명이 강력하긴 하나, 장기적 효과는 알려져 있지 않다.

In medical education, SE has been shown to have beneficial effects on students’ diagnostic performance on unfamiliar cases during clerkships, but not on familiar ones.10 Despite the robustness of SE, its long-term effects are unknown.


의학의 전문가는 지식을 기반으로 하지만, 단순히 오랜 시간동안 지식을 축적하는 것 이상이다. 의사는 생의학적 지식과 인과관계에 대한 설명, 임상 지식, 질병에 대한 지식들의 상호 네트워크를 구성해서, 질병과 임상표현에 대한 일관된 심적 표상(mental representation)을 가지게 된다.

Medical expertise is knowledge-based, but is much more than an accumulation of retained knowledge over time. It is characterised by complex networks in which biomedical knowledge and causal explanations, clinical knowledge, illness scripts and instances are interconnected and form coherent mental representations of diseases and clinical presentations.11 


의사는 단순히 지식을 적용하거나 기존의 해답을 활용해서 문제를 푸는 사람이 아니다. 더 중요한 것은 지속적으로 변하는 환경과 개별 환자의 특성에 맞춰 해답을 적용하는 것이다. 이는 우수한 의과대학 학생들에게조차 엄청난 양의 학습을 필요로 하며, 다양한 효과적인 학습 기술을 필요로 한다.

Clinicians not only apply knowledge and solve problems using existent solutions, but, more importantly, adapt solutions to the ever-changing context and uniqueness of each patient.12 This represents a tremendous learning challenge, even for highly selected medical students, and thus a variety of effective learning techniques are welcome.


Larsen 등은 의학교육에 있어서 TEL과 SE이 상호 보완적인 역할을 한다는 것에 덧붙여서 이것들의 장기적인 효과를 언급했다. 저자는 TEL과 SE가 합해지면 교육 성과에 엄청난 효과를 낼 수 있다는 것을 보였다.

Larsen et al.’s study1 adds to the evidence for the long-term effects of TEL and SE in medical education, in addition to providing insight into their abilities to complement one another, despite their differences. The authors observed that TEL and SE combined produced the greatest impact on the educational outcome


실제로 학생들은 '시험에서 답을 할 수 있는 것은 학습자료에 있는 지식을 충분히 갖추고 있다는 것을 의미하지만, 반드시 이해의 수준이 높은 것은 아니다' 라고 말했다. 이것은 SE가 익숙하지 않은 환경에서는 효과적이나 익숙한 환경에서는 그렇지 않다는 연구결과와 일치한다고 볼 수 있다.

In fact, students commented that ‘the ability to answer the question on a test indicated that they had sufficient knowledge of the material and giving an explanation did not add significantly to their understanding’.1 This is in line with previous studies showing that SE works when it is used in unfamiliar but not in familiar contexts. 10


의학교육자로서 우리는 학생들이 목적의식이 있는 학습을 하고, 지식을 실습할 수 있는 기회를 주고, 활용할 수 있는 자원을 효과적으로 사용해야 한다. 그러기 위해서 우리는 우리가 가진 형성평가에 TEL을 효과적으로 할 수 있는 요소들이 포함되도록 만들어야 한다. 시험은 반복적으로, 자주, 일정 기간을 두고 이뤄져야 한다.

As medical educators, we should pursue endeavours that provide purposeful learning and practice retrieval opportunities 

for students, and use available resources efficiently. To do so, we can revisit our formative assessment practices and make sure they incorporate the critical elements that make TEL so effective. Testing should be repeated, frequent and spaced over time. 


또한 시험은 효과적인 기억의 인출과 긍정적 피드백 작용을 하도록 만들어져야 한다. 의학교육자들은 실기시험과 자기설명을 활용할 수 있도록 해야 하며, 효율성이 낮은 강조(highlighting) 반복해서 읽기(rereading), 요약하기(summarising)등의 사용은 지양해야 한다.

It should include production tests that require effortful retrieval on the part of students and provide feedback. Medical educators should promote the use of practice testing and self-explanation and discourage the exclusive use of techniques that have proven to be of low utility, such as highlighting, rereading and summarising.13


선생님으로서, 우리는 TEL과 SE에 더 익숙해져야 하며, 학생들이 학습방법에 대한 조언이 필요하다면 같이 이야기할 수 있어야 한다. 이들 두 기술을 활용하는데는 복잡한 기술이나 학습자료가 필요한 것이 아니다.

As teachers, we should become familiar with TEL and SE, and should be able to engage in discussions with students and to give advice on learning and study habits when it is required. The implementation by students of these two techniques does not necessarily require advanced technologies or complex materials, and they can be relatively easy to use. 





 2013 Jul;47(7):641-3. doi: 10.1111/medu.12218.

Back to basicskeeping students cognitively active between the classroom and the examination.

Source

Sherbrooke, Quebec, Canada.

PMID:

 

23746152

 

[PubMed - in process]









(출처 : http://www.kirkpatrickpartners.com/OurPhilosophy/TheKirkpatrickModel/tabid/302/Default.aspx)




손에 쥔게 망치밖에 없으면, 모든 문제가 못으로 보인다. - 에이브러햄 매슬로

I suppose it is tempting, if you only have a hammer, you tend to see every problem as a nail - Abraham Maslow (1966)


'도구의 법칙'이라 불리는 위 명제는, 망치의 문제를 말하려는 것이 아니라, 망치에 대한 우리의 과도한 의존성을 지적하는 것이다. 이 개념은 근래의 보건의료 교육에 대한 프로그램 평가에 적용될 수 있을 것이다. 결과중심의(outcomes-driven) 커크패트릭 4단계 모형은 보건의료 교육 프로그램을 평가하는데 주로 사용되는 모델이다.

Known as the law of the instrument, the metaphor does not cast a poor light on the hammer, but on our over-reliance on it. This concept is currently applicable to the field of programme evaluation in health care education. Currently, the four-level, outcomes-driven Kirkpatrick model is the dominant model used to evaluate health care education programming.


그러나 우리는 이 한계가 뚜렷한 모델에 과도하게 의존하고 있다. 여기에 대해서 우리는 "이 커크패트릭 모형을 발전시켜야 할까? 아니면 우리의 '도구상자', 즉 우리의 사고를 더 확장시켜서 어떻게 복잡한 프로그램이 의도한(또는 의도치 않은) 결과를 야기하는지를 이해하도록 노력해야 할까?" 라는 두 가지 질문을 모두 해볼 필요가 있다.

However, we have become over-reliant on this limited outcomes-driven model, which leads to the query; are we to continue to improve our use of Kirkpatrick (build better hammers) or do we expand our thinking, and thus our ‘toolbox’, to understand how complex programmes work to bring about both intended and unintended outcomes?


지금까지 보건의료 교육 프로그램을 평가하기 위한 모형은 수백가지가 있었지만, 네 단계를 모두 평가하는 것이 여전히 프로그램 평가의 기준처럼 생각되고 있다.

To date, the model has been used to evaluate hundreds of health care education programmes and the measurement at all four levels is still considered the reference standard in programme evaluation.2


커크패트릭이 원래 그러한 의도로 만든 것은 아니겠지만, 이 모델은 기본적으로 인과관계를 상정한다는 한계가 있다. 각 단계의 성과가 소위 '더 높고 가치로운' 단계를 예측할 수 있다는 인과관계를 가정하는 한, 이 모델은 문제가 있다. 최근의 조직개발과 관련한 연구 결과를 보면 3단계의 성과는 훈련 그 자체보다 외부적 요인에 의해서 더 잘 예측된다는 결과가 있다.

Although not Kirkpatrick’s original intent, the model’s shortcomings lie in its conceptualisation as causal; that outcomes at each level can predict outcomes at the so-called ‘higher and more valuable’ levels. With this conceptualisation, the model is flawed. Recent work in the field of organisational development found that changes in Level 3 outcomes were better predicted by factors external to the training itself.3


이 모델의 한계점은 이미 잘 알려져있기 때문에, 그것을 발전시키기 위한 노력이 끊임없이 있었다는 사실도 전혀 놀라울 것이 없다. 1단계에서는 반응(reaction)보다는 동기와 참여(motivation and engagement)를 측정해야한다는 점, 1단계를 측정하는 방법이 향상될 여지가 있으며, 3단계 측정은 행동(behavior)보다는 수행능력(performance)라는 점 등이다.

Challenges with this model have been known for some time, so it is perhaps not surprising that efforts continue to improve it; arguing that Level 1 should measure motivation and engagement rather than reaction,4 methods to measure Level 1 can be improved1 and Level 3 should measure performance rather than behaviour.5


또한 이 모델을 변형한 모델도 많다.

Furthermore, variations of the model are countless


하지만 모델을 개선시키거나 적용시키려는 노력에도 불구하고 최고 단계의 성과를 측정하기 위한 노력은 여전히 엇갈린다.

Despite efforts to improve or adapt this model, our attempts to measure outcomes at the highest levels are mixed at best.6


의학교육 분야에 대한 최근의 담론은 왜 이것이 이러한지를 보여준다. 의학교육 프로그램과 그 프로그램이 수행되는 시스템은 너무 복잡하고, 그래서 의학교육 연구에 대해서는 이러한 복잡성을 반영할 수 있는 새로운 패러다임이 필요하다는 것이다.

A recent conversation in the field of medical education can shed light on why this is. It has been argued that medical education programming and the system in which it lives is complex and that we need to consider alternative paradigms in medical education research that reflect that complexity.7


1950년대에 스푸트니크호의 발사에 따라, 미국 정부는 전(全) 시스템적 교과과정의 개혁을 시도했고, 이 새로운 교과과정의 평가를 의무적으로 수행하도록 했다. 그러나 이와 같은 결과중심적 평가에 대한 노력이 실패하면서, 1960년대에 수행 평가(practice evaluate)에 대해 새로운 생각을 하게 된 분수령이 되었다.

In response to the launch of the Sputnik satellite in the 1950s, the US Government engaged in system-wide curriculum reform and created legislation that mandated the evaluation of this new curricula. 9 The failure of these outcomes-driven evaluation efforts to generate information that was useful for curriculum developers contributed to a watershed decade in the 1960s around new ways to think about and practice evaluation. 


이 때 등장한 프레임이 프로그램의 과정(process)와 성과(outcome)을 같이 측정하는 것이다. 이 프레임에서는 어떻게 프로그램이 관찰된 성과를 유발시켰는지를 조사함으로써, 이해관계자들이 평가와 프로그램 개발을 포괄하여 프로그램에 대한 의사결정을 내릴 수 있게 도와주었다.

Frameworks emerged that measured both a programme’s processes and outcomes, examined how the programme worked to bring about observed outcomes and helped stakeholders make decisions about their programmes by seamlessly interweaving evaluation and programme development. 10 


프로그램 평가에서 '복잡성'에 대한 개념은 1990년대에 와서야 등장했다. Michael Patton은 "만약 인과관계 라는 것이 '모기와 모기에 물린 자국'의 관계라면, 프로그램 평가에 대한 우리의 사고는 귀인(행동의 변화가 프로그램에 의한 것인가?)에서 기여(우리가 지금 보고있는 결과에 대해서 이 프로그램은 무슨 역할을 했는가?)로 바뀌어야 한다.

The concept of complexity in programme evaluation emerged in the 1990s. Michael Patton, an advocate of complexity thinking in programme evaluation, argues, if ‘causality is the relationship between mosquitos and mosquito bites’, then our questions in the field of programme evaluation need to shift from questions of attribution (‘can we attribute behaviour change to our programme?’ or ‘did we meet our intended outcomes?’) to questions of contribution (‘what role did our programme play in the outcomes that we are noticing?’).


여기서 주장하는 것은 커크패트릭 모델을 더 이상 사용하지 말자고 하는 것도 아니고, 도구상자에서 망치는 빼버려야 한다고 말하는 것도 아니다. 오히려 반대로, 더 나은 망치를 만들고 어떤 도구를 사용해야하는지 이해하자는 말이다.

This is not a plea to do away with the Kirkpatrick model, or advocating that any toolbox should do away with a hammer. On the contrary, it is about building a better hammer and understanding when you need to use one in the first place.


커크패트릭 모델은 프로그램개발의 시작 단계에서는 효과적으로 사용될 수 있다. 하지만 여기에만 의존하는 것은 다양한 이해관계자가 얽혀 있는 프로그램에 못할 짓을 하는 것이다.

The Kirkpatrick model can be used effectively at the start of a programme’s development, but to rely on it solely to render judgement is doing a disservice to the value programmes have to their diverse stakeholders


'이것 또는 저것'이 아니라 '이것과 저것' 이라는 말의 정신을 되살리자면, 우리에게 중요한 것은 프로그램 평가를 발전시키는 것이지, 더 나은 망치만 만들거나, 더 나은 도구상자만 만드는 것이 아니다.

In the spirit of the quote ‘it’s not either/or but both/and’, what is important to the evolution of programme evaluation is not only building a better hammer, but building a better toolbox.




 2013 May;47(5):440-2. doi: 10.1111/medu.12185.

A better hammer in a better toolbox: considerations for the future of programme evaluation.

Source

Holland Bloorview Kids Rehabilitation Hospital, 150 Kilgour Road, Toronto, Ontario M4G 1R8, Canada. kparker@hollandbloorview.ca






















(출처 : http://beckerexhibits.wustl.edu/wusm-hist/modern/)


의과대학 학생들에게 강의를 하고 있는 Dr. Carl Moore (1943)


"군대화된 의과대학" 1943년 St. Louis Post Dispatch는 사진의 제목을 이렇게 붙였다.

전쟁 상황으로 인해 의과대학은 교과과정을 3년으로 축소시켰다. 

이 사진에서 의과대학생들은 모두 군복을 입고 있으며, 

이 학생들은 졸업 후 모두 군의관(army medical officer)으로 복무하게 된다.


Dr. Carl Moore lecturing to medical students in 1943
“Medical School Militarized” read the 1943 St. Louis Post Dispatch headline over this photograph. To aid the war effort, the medical school compressed its curriculum to three years. Here medical students, all in military uniform, are shown attending a lecture in the program which would graduate them as army medical officers.




기술이 발전하면서 학생들은 직접 수업시간에 출석하지 않고도 교육과 교육 자료를 받을 수 있게 되었다. 강의녹화기술(lecture-recording technology)는 세 가지를 기록한다.

(1) 음성

(2) 파워포인트 슬라이드와 같은 시각자료

(3) 교수자


이렇게 기록된 내용은 의과대학 1학년과 2학년 학생들이 자기 컴퓨터나 스마트폰으로 볼 수 있도록 팟캐스트와 같은 자족적(self-contained) 학습모듈로 제공된다.

Advances in classroom technology enable students to obtain educational material without actually attending standard didactic teaching sessions (i.e., lectures). Lecture-recording technology captures up to three channels: (1) the audio content of the lecture, (2) a digital picture of the visual display, usually PowerPoint (Redmond, Washington) slides, and in some cases, (3) a video recording of the lecturer. The three channels of the lecture capture can be processed into a self-contained learning module (commonly called a podcast) that viewers—in this case first- and second-year medical students— can play back on a personal computer or other digital device.


학생들은 매 과목마다 얼마의 시간을 투자할 것인지 스스로 결정할 수 있고, 이 덕분에 학생들은 관심사에 따라 과목마다 서로 접근 방법과 장소를 다르게 결정할 수 있다. 미국의 많은 의과대학들은 이러한 강의녹화기술의 영향력을 인식하여 학생들이 강의를 선택적으로 출석할 수 있도록 하고 있다.

Students have control over the amount of time they spend on any one subject, and this approach also allows them to focus on different subjects in different ways and places. Many medical schools in the United States have recognized the impact of lecture-capture technology and have responded by making student attendance at lectures optional.1


강의녹화기술은 기존의 방식과 비교해서 학생의 학습에 대해 의미있는 차이를 보이지 않았으나, 일부 연구들은 학생들 사이에서 이러한 방법이 제법 인기가 있음을 보여준다.

Research on lecture-capture technology has generally shown no significant impact on student learning when compared with traditional methods; however, some studies suggest that lecture-capture technology is quite popular among students.2–4


가장 흔한 교수들의 우려는 청중을 잃는 것이다. 특히 교수들은 출석률이 낮아지면 교수자와 학습자간의 상호작용이 감소하여 결국 강의의 효과성이 떨어지고, 교수자의 자율권이 감소할 것을 우려한다.

The most common faculty concerns reported to date relate to the loss of an audience. Specifically, faculty fear that low attendance and reduced student–teacher interaction will have an impact on the efficacy of their teaching performance and give them less autonomy in their approach to teaching.5


학생들의 강의평가에 대한 연구는 1920년대부터 이뤄져왔다. 1970년대는 "학생 평가 연구의 황금기"라고 불릴 정도였다. 지난 90년간 연구자들은 교수자의 강의를 평가하는 데 있어서 학생들은 신뢰도와 타당성이 높은 자료원이라는 것을 지속적으로 보여줬다. 그러나 연구자들은 동시에 강의평가결과에 교란요인으로 작용할 수 있는 것들도 밝혀냈는데, 강의실의 크기, 강의의 수준, 학생의 기대 학점, 과목 등이 그것이다.

Research on student evaluations of college teaching is abundant, dating to the 1920s and the work of Remmers6 and colleagues from Purdue University.7,8 This rich history of evaluations includes the 1970s era, which education researchers termed “the golden age of research on student evaluations.”7 Over the past 90 years, researchers have consistently demonstrated that students serve as valid and reliable assessors of faculty teaching performance in college classrooms and lecture halls; however, investigators have also identified various factors that occasionally confound student evaluation results, including class size, level of course, the student’s anticipated grade in the course, and the subject matter or discipline.6–8


우리는 과연 학생의 출석률 또한 교란변수로 작용할 것인가가 궁금해졌으며, 특히 이 연구에서는 OSUCOM 의예과 수업을 들은 학생들을 대상으로 수업에 출석한 학생과 팟캐스트나 다른 보조학습자료로 수업을 들은 학생을 비교했다.

we wondered whether students’ attendance at the lecture might be a confounding factor in their evaluations of faculty. Specifically, the purpose of this study was to compare how students who attended class versus those who relied solely on podcasts and other supplemental learning materials evaluated lecturers in the preclinical medical school curriculum at the Ohio State University College of Medicine (OSUCOM).


팟캐스트와 같이 완전히 강의 그 자체를 제공하는 자료를 활용하더라도, 사람과 사람간의 상호작용은 강의에 출석함으로서 생겨나고, 따라서 개개인의 학습에 미치는 영향이 다를 수 있다.

The person-to-person interaction that develops through the attendance of a traditional didactic lecture may have a different effect on individual learners compared with the reliance on other materials, even if that material includes a complete podcast of the lecture itself.


기존 연구들은 비디오로 녹화된 강의가 학생들이 학습하는데 있어 일정 수준의 가치가 있음을 보여준 바 있다.  학생들의 흥미와 녹화된 강의를 활용하고자 하는 의지에 따라서 학습 습관에 차이가 있을 수 있으나, 강의평가가 이러한 사실을 증명한 적은 없다(not necessarily borne that out). 


다른 연구에서는 수업 외적인 학습자료가 있더라도, 그것을 얼마나 활용하느냐가 실제로 강의에 출석하는 것에는 별로 영향을 주지 않는다는 것도 보여진 바 있다. 또한 학생들의 수행능력에도 영향을 주지 않았다. 우리의 연구 결과도 비슷한 결과를 보여주고 있는데, 비록 의학과2학년 때 약간의 감소는 있었지만 대부분의 학생들은 여전히 강의에 잘 출석하고 있었다.

Previous studies have indicated that students find value in using video-recorded lecture material to learn.2–4 Although students’ interest and willingness to use video-recording technology may have potential ramifications on learning habits, student surveys have not necessarily borne that out.2 Other studies have suggested that despite the availability of external learning material, their use has not had a large impact on actual attendance in formal lecture hall venues9,10 or on student academic performance.3,11 Our data appear similar in that the majority of students still attend lectures, though there may be a small decline in attendance during the Med-2 year (data not shown).




우리 연구에서는 강의에 출석한 학생들이 팟캐스트로 강의를 들은 학생들보다 통계적으로 유의하게 더 높은 점수를 줬다.

We found that students who attended lectures in person rated lecturers significantly higher than those who viewed podcasts of them.





이 결과는 각 학과장들이 승진이나 테뉴어를 결정할 때 강의평가를 어떻게 활용해야 할 것인가에 시사하는 바가 있다. 예를 들어서 동일하게 4점을 받았더라도, 주로 강의실 강의를 한 교수와 팟캐스트 강의를 한 교수를 동등하게 보아서는 안된다는 것이다.

This finding has ramifications on how department leaders should assess lecturers and on the role evaluations should play in determining promotion and tenure. For example, two different faculty each rated a “4” on a 5-point scale by students would not be truly equivalent if one faculty was judged primarily by students who listened to a podcast lecture and the other by students attending a mandatory lecture in person. In turn, department leaders should not assess each of these faculty members in an equivalent manner.


우리 연구에서 한 교수가 통계적으로 아웃라이어(outlier)였는데, 여기에 대한 고찰이 더 필요하다.

The statistical outlier responsible for the significant interaction between faculty degree background (MD versus PhD) and year in medical school (Med-1 versus Med-2) deserves further elaboration.


이 교수는 다른 수업과는 달리 수업에 앞서서 완전히 다 작성된 수업 노트를 제공하지 않는다. 대신 중요한 제목만 적혀있고 많은 공란이 있는 노트를 나눠줘서 강의를 하는 동안 만들어진 강의록들을 넣을 수 있게 하였다. 이 교수는 파워포인트도 사용하지 않으며, 대신 강의시간에 보고, 듣고, 기록하는 내용이 학생의 학습에 중요하다는 철학을 가지고 있다.

He does not, in advance of the lecture, provide students with complete notes like those they receive in other sections of the course. Instead, they receive pages with the major headings (the topics that will be covered) and plenty of blank space on which they can copy the notes the lecturer produces (and provides via overhead projection) as he lectures. He uses no PowerPoint slides. Rather, his philosophy is that hearing, seeing, and writing the lecture material at the same time contributes to retention and aides student learning.


이 통계적 아웃라이어를 제거하고 나면 강의에 출석 여부에 상관없이 학생들의 강의평가 점수는 PhD와 MD사이에 차이가 없었다. Preclinical medical student의 강의평가는 기초과학 내용이 임상과학 내용과 잘 연결이 되어 있을 때 더 높아진다는 연구결과가 있다.

Once we removed the data related to the statistical outlier, we found that students tended to rate clinical faculty (those with MDs) higher than the basic scientists (those with PhDs), regardless of whether they had or had not attended lectures. This phenomenon may reflect the nature of the content delivered by these lecturers, or it could be a subconscious, or even conscious, display of content favoritism. Previous studies of preclinical medical students’ evaluations of their courses have suggested that basic science material, when well integrated with the clinical sciences, can have a significant, positive impact on student evaluations of lecturers.11


또한 우리의 연구에서는 학점이 출석과는 관련이 없지만, 학점을 무엇을 받았느냐가 강의평가 점수와 연관이 있음을 보여주고 있다.

Our results also showed that class grade has a significant impact on how students evaluate faculty, though grade does

not relate to attendance.




이전의 연구에서 더 높은 학점을 받은 학생이 강의평가를 더 제때제때 하고 교수자의 교수능력에 대해서 더 실질적인 코멘트를 해 주는 것으로 나타난 바 있다.

Previous studies have suggested that students who receive higher grades tend to complete their faculty evaluations in a more timely manner and offer more substantive comments about the lecturers’ performance.12


교수들이 학생에 의해서 평가를 받을 때, 학생들의 출석여부가 고려되어야 할 필요가 있다. 이는 교수에 대한 평가가 승진이나 테뉴어 심사에 적용될 때 특히 더 중요할 것이다. 특정한 교수자-학습자 관계에 촛점을 맞추기보다 강의가 강의실의 수업을 넘어서까지 효과를 미치는 것에 집중하는 것이 의과대학 교육의 질을 높이는데 더 도움이 될 것이다.

When faculty are being evaluated by students, the students’ attendance at in-person teaching events needs to be taken into account. This accounting may be of particular importance when faculty are being evaluated by promotion and tenure committees. Focusing instead on specific teacher–learner relationships and their effectiveness outside the classroom may prove to be a better gauge of medical educator quality.




 2013 Jul;88(7):972-977.

The Impact of Lecture Attendance and Other Variables on How Medical Students Evaluate Faculty in a Preclinical Program.

Source

Dr. Martin is assistant professor of clinical internal medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, and associate director, Integrated Pathway Curriculum, Ohio State University College of Medicine, Columbus, Ohio. Mr. Way is senior research associate, Center for Education and Scholarship, Ohio State University College of Medicine, Columbus, Ohio. Ms. Verbeck is curriculum coordinator, Med-1 Integrated Pathway, Ohio State University College of Medicine, Columbus, Ohio. Dr. Nagel is professor of clinical internal medicine, Division of General Internal Medicine, and education resource specialist, Center for Education and Scholarship, Ohio State University College of Medicine, Columbus, Ohio. Dr. Davis is assistant professor of clinical internal medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, and assistant dean for student life, Ohio State University College of Medicine, Columbus, Ohio. Dr. Vandre is associate professor, Department of Physiology and Cell Biology, and director, Integrated Pathway Curriculum, Ohio State University College of Medicine, Columbus, Ohio.

Abstract

PURPOSE:

High-quality audiovisual recording technology enables medical students to listen to didactic lectures without actually attending them. The authors wondered whether in-person attendance affects how students evaluate lecturers.

METHOD:

This is a retrospective review of faculty evaluations completed by first- and second-year medical students at the Ohio State University College of Medicine during 2009-2010. Lecture-capture technology was used to record all lectures. Attendance at lectures was optional; however, allstudents were required to complete lecturer evaluation forms. Students rated overall instruction using a five-option response scale. They also reported their attendance. The authors used analysis of variance to compare the lecturer ratings of attendees versus nonattendees. The authors included additional independent variables-year of student, student grade/rank in class, and lecturer degree-in the analysis.

RESULTS:

The authors analyzed 12,092 evaluations of 220 lecturers received from 358 students. The average number of evaluations per lecturer was 55. Seventy-four percent (n = 8,968 evaluations) of students attended the lectures they evaluated, whereas 26% (n = 3,124 evaluations) viewed them online. Mean lecturer ratings from attendees was 3.85 compared with 3.80 by nonattendees (P ≤ .05; effect size: 0.055). Student's class grade and year, plus lecturer degree, also affected students' evaluations of lecturers (effect sizes: 0.055-0.3).

CONCLUSIONS:

Students' attendance at lectures, year, and class grade, as well as lecturer degree, affect students' evaluation of lecturers. This finding has ramifications on how student evaluations should be collected, interpreted, and used in promotion and tenure decisions in this evolvingmedical education environment.






















(출처 : http://www.massgeneral.org/education/internship.aspx?id=38)

“My mentor has been a great role model for a career in research as a physician-scientist. The match process worked so well for me that I selected her to serve on my PhD thesis committee. I greatly appreciate the URM mentorship program’s guidance and networking opportunities, which have contributed to my success as a medical student.”José Alemán, HMS Class of 2009



멘토쉽은 의학(의료)전문가를 양성하는데 있어서 매우 중요하다.

Mentorship is a key component of professional development in the field of academic medicine


비공식적(informal)멘토링이 있고, 공식적(formal) 멘토링이 있다.

Informal mentoring occurs spontaneously, as mentors and mentees form a successful relationship built on shared interests and interpersonal chemistry.1 Formal mentoring develops around a systematic infrastructure that aims to replicate the effect of informal mentoring.1


멘토링을 활용하는 정도는 사람마다, 기관마다 차이가 있어서 19%와 84%까지로 다양하다. 1966년부터 2002년까지의 연구를 분석한 리뷰 논문에서 의과대학생과 의사들을 위한 멘토링 프로그램은 수련 기간이 종료되고부터는 점차 줄어든다고 보고된 바 있다.

The prevalence of mentoring in academic medicine varies: Between 19% and 84% of clinical faculty members reported currently working with a mentor in a recent review.2 A review of the literature from 1966 through 2002 that describes mentoring programs for medical students and doctors suggests that mentoring becomes less common once formal training is complete.3


이 논문의 목적은 (1)지난 리뷰논문 이후로 발표된 논문을 찾고 (2)그 논문들에서 다룬 멘토링 프로그램의 목적과 핵심 요소들을 정리하고 (3)각 모델과 요소에 따른 장점을 요약하고자 하는 것이다.

Specifically, our aims were (1) to identify articles published since the last review on this topic (i.e., articles published between 2000 and 2010) that describe models for mentoring programs for physicians in practice, (2) to describe the objectives and core components of these programs, and (3) to summarize the relative benefits of each model and their elements


Mentoring models

일곱가지 멘토링 모델이 있다.

Dyad : 1대1. 가장 전통적인 형식

Peer : 동료. 비슷한 나이, 경험, 등수(rank)의 멘토.

Facilitated Peer : 시니어 멘토에 의해서 관리되는 Peer cohort

Speed : 멘토와 멘티가 멘토링 관계를 맺기에 앞서서 10분간의 짧은 시간동안 하는 것

Functional : 특정 프로젝트에 대한 멘토링

Group : 그룹

Distance mentoring : 원거리


Seven mentoring models were described in the reviewed articles: dyad, peer, facilitated peer, speed, functional, group, and distance mentoring. The traditional dyad, pairing a mentee with a more senior or more experienced mentor, was most common and was the only model in place for nine programs.5–7,9,10,17,18


Dyad 모델의 변형으로 functional mentoring과 speed mentoring이 있다.

Variations of the dyad model, functional mentoring and speed mentoring, were also described. 

The functional mentor was paired with a mentee to provide guidance for a specific project.15

Speed mentoring was a one-time event with mentees and mentors paired for 10-minute periodsto initiate mentoring relationships.14



피어 멘토링 모델만을 사용한 논문도 있다. 이 중 한 연구에 참여했던 멘티들은 Top-down형식의 멘토링이 아니어서 좋았다고 응답했으며, 다른 연구에서는 피어 멘토링에는 투자해야 할 것은 시간과 헌신적인 자세 뿐이라는 사실에 만족해했다.

Two articles described the use of only the peer mentor model, through which groups of individuals similar in age, experience, and rank mentor one another.11,19 Mentees in one of these studies favored that program development did not occur in a topdown fashion.19 The other group felt that peer mentoring is especially beneficial in areas with fewer resources because peer support requires nothing more than time and commitment.11


로컬 멘토가 부족한 점을 다른 기관의 시니어 멘토와의 협조를 통해서, 즉 피어 멘토링과 원거리 멘토링을 활용하여 극복한 사례도 있다. 또 다른 연구에서는 일대일, 피어, 원거리 멘토링을 혼합한 방법을 사용하기도 한다.

One program overcame the scarcity of local mentors by collaborating with a senior mentor at another institution, a combination of peer and distance mentoring.16 Another employed dyadic, peer, and distance mentoring with the mentees supported by a peer mentor (i.e., a colleague close in academic rank to the mentee), a local mentor (i.e., a medical faculty mentor from the same institution as the mentee), and a distance mentor (i.e., a mentor from outside the mentee’s institution).12


Program objectives

멘토링 프로그램의 목적은 다양했는데, 특정한 목적에 따라 디자인 된 것도 있었고, 좀 더 종합적인 목적에 따라 디자인 된 것도 있었다. 가장 흔한 목적은 다음과 같다.

(1) 전문성과 직업 개발 professional or career development,5,7–9,11,12,16,17 

(2) 학문적 영역 academic success,6,8,10,13 

(3) 네트워킹 networking,6,7,10,14,16,19,20 and 

(4) 교수 잡아두기 faculty retention.10,12

Program objectives varied widely. Some programs were designed to meet specific needs, and others were designed to be more comprehensive. The most common global objectives of mentoring programs were (1) professional or career development,5,7–9,11,12,16,17 (2) academic success,6,8,10,13 (3) networking,6,7,10,14,16,19,20 and (4) faculty retention.10,12



Program components

이 리뷰는 성공적인 공식적 멘토링 프로그램의 요소들을 밝히기 위해서 수행되었다.

We undertook this review to determine the components that build successful, formal mentoring programs. The term “formal” in this context indicates that the articles described a recognized infrastructure for mentoring


일곱 개의 핵심 요소들은 아래와 같다.

Although the 16 articles varied in the degree to which they described systematic components, we identified seven key components across multiple programs as detailed below.


Mentor preparation

준비된 멘토

As an element of organizational readiness, several programs addressed mentor preparation.5,9,10,12,18 Llewellen-Williams and colleagues12 developed a Mentor Readiness Inventory and found that mentors desired both retraining to enhance their teaching skills and instruction on, specifically, how to mentor.


Planning committee. 

멘토링 설계 위원회

Several programs were overseen by a team or committee.10,15,17,18 Committee members included faculty15,17 and “senior department managers.”17 Committee responsibilities included pairing mentees and mentors,15,18 program oversight and design,17 program monitoring and intervention as needed,15 evaluation and data interpretation,17 and assurance of program effectiveness.17


Contracts

계약 및 계약서

Several programs drew on written mission statements or contracts.5–7,10,11,13,16


Pairing mentors and mentees.

멘토와 멘티 짝짓기

Of the 10 programs with paired mentee–mentor dyads, 4 allowed mentees to choose their mentors,6,9,10,17 rather than the more traditional pairing of mentors and mentees by an external party. Most mentees chose mentors within their own academic section or department.17


Mentoring activities.

멘토링 활동

A minority of reviewed programs were structured around a single activity, such as speed mentoring14 or group mentoring sessions during a national professional conference.20


정기적인 미팅이 가장 흔한 형태의 멘토링 활동이었다.

Regular meetings between mentors and mentees or among peer mentors were the most common mentoring activity.


Formal curricula for mentees.

멘티를 위한 공식적 커리큘럼

A formal training element for mentees was described as part of three programs.11,13,15 Curricula topics included career development,11,15 research,11,13,15 teaching,11,15 and clinical practice.15


Program funding and participant compensation.

참여에 대한 보상

The funding for mentoring programs came from both external5–10 and internal10–12,19sources.



Evaluation and outcomes

멘토링 결과를 평가한 프로그램을 보면, 대부분은 멘티로부터 자료를 수집했으며, 일부는 멘토에게 자료를 수집했다. 데이터 수집은 수로 설문조사로 이루어졌고 면접이나 포커스 그룹 인터뷰 등도 사용되었다.

Of the programs that evaluated results, most gathered data from mentees6–8,13–19; fewer also collected data from mentors.6,10,14,15,17,18,20 Data collection was predominantly by survey,7,8,10,13–18,20 though program leaders also used participant interviews6,8 and focus groups6,18,19 as means of collecting data


Barriers to program development

멘토링의 장애물에 대해서 언급한 논문의 저자들은 거의 없었다. 정해진 시간이 없는 멘토링 프로그램에서는 대부분의 멘티들이 멘토의 시간 여유 부족을 가장 큰 문제로 꼽았다. 정해진 시간이 없는 것은 프로그램 구성이나 멘토 모집에 장애물로 작용한다.

The authors of the articles we reviewed seldom mentioned barriers to developing mentoring programs. In a mentoring program with no protected time, most mentees felt that mentors’ lack of time was detrimental to the program.18 Lack of protected time was also identified as a barrier both to program organization6 and to mentor recruitment.20


Integration with previous research

Buddeberg-Fischer와 Herta의 리뷰에서는 학생 뿐만 아니라 의사를 대상으로 한 멘토링도 포함되어 있다. 의사에 대한 멘토링은 교수개발로부터 출발하였다. 우리가 밝힌 것은, 일부 멘토링 프로그램이 여전히 교수개발 프로그램에 속한 형태로 남아있긴 하지만, 지금은 독립적인 형태의 멘토링 프로그램을 지원하는 경우가 많다.

Buddeberg-Fischer and Herta’s3 review of the mentoring literature between 1966 and 2002 included programs for physicians—both in practice and in training—as well as medical students. They found that mentoring for physicians emerged from faculty development programs; our review revealed that, although some mentoring programs remain embedded in faculty development programs, institutions now support and implement independent mentoring programs as such


우리의 리뷰에 따르면 일대일 멘토링이 남아있고, 가장 흔히 사용된다. 전통적인 일대일 멘토링에서 멘티가 멘토를 고를수 있게 하는 것은 상당히 좋은데, 이같은 "윗사람 관리(managing up)"는 멘티를 더 주도적으로 만들어서 멘토링이 좀 더 성공적으로 이루어질 수 있게 한다.

In our review the dyad mentoring relationship remains, as it was in the last 35 years of the 20th century, the most frequently described model. Allowing mentees to choose mentors in the traditional dyad model is highly valued.15,21 In the business world, this practice of “managing up” has encouraged mentees to take control of the mentoring relationship which helps ensure mentee success.21


이 리뷰에 따르면 멘토는 멘토로서 역할을 훈련받게 된다. 지난 리뷰에는 이러한 훈련 프로그램이 거의 없었다. 하지만 지난 리뷰나, 이 리뷰의 한계점은 대부분 연구들이 기술적(descriptive)이고, 지역적(local)이며, 주관적(subjective)이고, 입증이 어렵고(unvalidated), 그리고 표준화된 평가 형식이 없다는 것이다. 이러한 문제로 인해서 개개의 프로그램에 따른 멘토링 프로그램의 성과를 평가하기가 어렵다.

Our review indicates that mentors are now trained to perform their role in some programs; such training was completely absent according to the last review. A weakness noted previously2,3 and persisting through the articles we reviewed is that reported results remain mostly descriptive, local, subjective, unvalidated, and without standardized evaluative metrics, such that no conclusions can be made regarding the effect of individual program components on mentoring outcomes.


Implications for medical practice

멘토의 수가 제한적인 상황에서는 전통적인 일대일 방식보다는 peer 또는 facilitated 모델이 효과적일 수 있다. 멘토링 프로그램에 대한 적절한 지원은 성공을 위해 필수적이며, 시간적으로 제한되거나 정해진 시간이 없는 상황은 멘토링 프로그램에 장애물로 작용한다. 멘토링 프로그램을 위한 정해진 시간이 있는 프로그램에 참여했을 때, 그 참가자들은 기관(조직)이 멘토링을 제대로 하고 있다고 받아들인다. 또한 계약서를 작성하는 것은 멘토링 관계를 좀더 확고하게 만들어서 mission statement를 사용하거나 signed agreement를 활용하는 것이 멘토링 관계에 책임감을 높이는데 도움이 된다.

In settings with limited mentors, peer and facilitated models help extend available resources and benefit more mentees than would be possible with the traditional dyad model. Adequate support for the mentoring program is a key ingredient to success because sustaining mentoring activities without support is difficult.10 Limited or unprotected time was often cited as a barrier to program development. Participants with protected time viewed this commitment from their institutions as a sign of acceptance for mentoring.15 Lastly, although other reviews have noted that contracts may make the mentoring relationship inflexible,22 the use of mission statements to set boundaries and of signed agreements to enforce accountability to mentoring relationships may be helpful.5–7,10,11,13,16


Going forward

멘토링 프로그램에서 가장 어려운 것은 평가이다. 대부분은 주관적이고, 특정한 주제에만 집중하고 있으며, 로컬 프로그램에 대해서 단기적 성과만 보고 있다. 기관간 연구를 촉진하고, 연구를 더 일반화 시키기 위해서는 표준화된 기준이 필요하다. 이러한 목적에서 Berk 등은 멘토링 관계를 평가하기 위한 설문지를 만들었다.

Program evaluation for the most part, however, remains largely subjective or focused on specific, local program aims and short-term results. Standardized metrics would facilitate cross-institution research and enhance generalizability. To this end, Berk and colleagues25 developed two questionnaires to comprehensively assess the mentoring relationship by evaluating behavioral characteristics of the mentor as well as the characteristics and outcomes of the mentoring relationship


또한 멘토링이 장기적으로 영향을 미친다는 점을 고려하면, 장기적 성과를 조사하고 보고하는 시스템이 필요하다.

Additionally, given the likely longitudinal effects of mentoring on individuals’ careers, examining and reporting longterm outcomes is essential.




 2013 Jul;88(7):1029-37. doi: 10.1097/ACM.0b013e318294f368.

Mentoring programs for physicians in academic medicine: a systematic review.

Source

Dr. Kashiwagi is assistant professor of medicine, College of Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota. Dr. Varkey is professor of medicine and preventive medicine, College ofMedicine, and associate chair, Department of Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota. Dr. Cook is professor of medicine and medical education and director, Office of Education Research, College of Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota.

Abstract

PURPOSE:

Mentoring is vital to professional development in the field of medicine, influencing career choice and faculty retention; thus, the authors reviewed mentoring programs for physicians and aimed to identify key components that contribute to these programs' success.

METHOD:

The authors searched the MEDLINE, EMBASE, and Scopus databases for articles from January 2000 through May 2011 that describedmentoring programs for practicing physicians. The authors reviewed 16 articles, describing 18 programs, extracting program objectives, components, and outcomes. They synthesized findings to determine key elements of successful programs.

RESULTS:

All of the programs described in the articles focused on academic physicians. The authors identified seven mentoring models: dyad, peer, facilitated peer, speed, functional, group, and distance. The dyad model was most common. The authors identified seven potential components of a formal mentoring program: mentor preparation, planning committees, mentor-mentee contracts, mentor-mentee pairing, mentoring activities, formal curricula, and program funding. Of these, the formation of mentor-mentee pairs received the most attention in published reports. Mentees favored choosing their own mentorsmentors and mentees alike valued protected time. One barrier to program development was limited resources. Written agreements were important to set limits and encourage accountability to the mentoring relationship. Program evaluation was primarily subjective, using locally developed surveys. No programs reported long-term results.

CONCLUSIONS:

The authors identified key program elements that could contribute to successful physician mentoring. Future research might further clarify the use of these elements and employ standardized evaluation methods to determine the long-term effects of mentoring.





(출처 : http://admissions.berkeley.edu/selectsstudents)



지난 수십년간, 각 의과대학은 AAMC의 지원을 받아 

의과대학 지원자를 평가하는 기준틀을 확장시키는 작업을 해왔다. 

이러한 노력의 결과로 "holistic review"라는 이름으로 2003년 미국 대법원의 배서를 받았다. 


"고도로 개인화된, 개개 지원자의 파일을 전인적으로 평가함으로써 

지원자가 다양한 교육적 환경 속에서 어떠한 기여를 할 것인가를 판단할 수 있다."


이러한 접근법 하에서 의과대학은 

"각 지원자가 나름의 강점, 성과, 특징을 가지고 눈에 띄는 기여를 할 수 있을 것인가를 평가한다"


학부GPA, MCAT점수, 봉사단체에서 리더십 역할 등과 같은 각각의 요소들은 

지원자의 전체적인 포트폴리오/지원자 정보의 맥락에서 평가된다.


2003년 holistic review를 도입한 BUSM은 구조화된 면접, 

교수와 스텦 교육, 데이터의 체계화된 분석 등을 활용하여 

인식하고 있는, 그리고 인지하지 못하고 있는 편견을 최소화시킨다.


이렇게 선발된 학생들은, 문화적/언어적/인종적/민족적으로 이전에 그렇게 선발되지 않은 학번보다 더 다양했으며,

 GPA와 MCAT점수를 기준으로 봤을 때, 학업적으로도 동등한 수준으로 준비되어 있었다.





Modern medicine has been characterized by rapid and accelerating progress in biomedical sciences as the foundation for clinical practice. In 1910, the Flexner Report established these sciences as the core of medical education.1 


Admissions committees at U.S. medical schools have, for the past century, focused their attention largely on predictors of success in the foundational science curriculum, relying heavily on academic performance in the biologic and physical sciences and scores on the Medical College Admission Test (MCAT) in selecting applicants for medical school


Over the past decade, individual medical schools, supported by the Association of American Medical Colleges (AAMC), have been working to expand the frame of reference for evaluating applicants for medical school. These efforts have come together under the “holistic review” rubric endorsed by the U.S. Supreme Court in 2003: “highly individualized, holistic review of each applicant’s file, giving serious consideration to all the ways an applicant might contribute to a diverse educational environment.” Under such an approach, a school “seriously considers each ‘applicant’s promise of making a notable contribution to the class by way of a particular strength, attainment, or characteristic — e.g., an unusual intellectual achievement, employment experience, nonacademic performance, or personal background.’”3


The AAMC Holistic Review Project has defined holistic review in medical school admissions as “a flexible, individualized way of assessing an applicant’s capabilities by which balanced consideration is given to experiences, attributes, and academic metrics . . . and, when considered in combination, how the individual might contribute value as a medical student and future physician.” 4


Each factor, be it the undergraduate grade-point average (GPA), the MCAT score, or the leadership roles assumed in volunteer service organizations, is evaluated in the context of the complete portfolio of information available about the applicant. That is, a given level of accomplishment for one applicant may look very different in the context of another applicant with a different life story.


In 2003, the Boston University School of Medicine (BUSM) became one of a number of U.S. medical schools to launch a systematic transition from a traditional admissions model based largely on the review of academic metrics to a comprehensive, holistic review process. It was a slow and deliberative transition, but by 2008, changes in the BUSM admissions program were clear and substantial, and the effects were evident in the entering class of 2009.



The table shows one such tool: a list of desirable traits for physicians matched with the elements of applicant data that reveal or predict those traits. Direct measures of these traits are often unavailable, so proxies are used. Holistic review is an information-hungry process;


The BUSM program uses structured interviewing, rigorous training of participating faculty and staff, and systematic evaluation of data elements, all of which minimize the influence of conscious and unconscious bias. 


Since BUSM became engaged in holistic review, the profile of its entering class has changed dramatically 


Students are culturally, linguistically, racially, ethnically, and demographically more diverse than previous classes, and according to the standard measures of undergraduate GPA and MCAT score, they are at least as well prepared academically



 2013 Apr 25;368(17):1565-7. doi: 10.1056/NEJMp1300411. Epub 2013 Apr 10.

Holistic review--shaping the medical profession one applicant at a time.

Source

Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, USA.

PMID:
 
23574032
 
[PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE] 

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(site : http://chicagomedicaltrainingcenter.org/usmle/usmle-step-2-cs/)



시험에 드는 비용과 그 투자 수익률(ROI)을 고려하면 USMLE step 2 CS는 그 존재 가치가 낮고, 

따라서 없애는 것이 나을 수도 있다.


98%의 미국과 캐나다 응시자가 USMLE step 2 clinical skills (CS) 시험을 첫 번째 응시에 통과한다. 

또한 한 번 떨어진 사람들 중에서도 91%는 두 번째 응시에 합격한다. 

따라서 두 번 이상 떨어지는 사람은 1000명중 1.8명에 불과하다.


한 해에 17852명의 응시자가 있다고 할 때, 

두 번째 시험에서도 떨어지는 응시자는 그 중 단 32명 뿐이다. 

응시자 중 아무도 응시료를 내기 위한 대출을 받지 않는다고 하더라도, 

한 명의 '재수 실패자(double failure)'를 골라내기 위해서 드는 비용은 635,977달러에 달한다.



비슷한 논리로, "그러면 모든 USMLE 시험이 다 필요없는 것 아니냐" 하는 사람도 있지만, 

USMLE Step 2 CS만이 Pass/Fail로 결정된다. 나머지 시험은 정량적 결과를 제공한다.


또한 "모든 사람이 응시료를 내기 위해 대출을 받는 것은 아니지 않느냐" 라고 할 수도 있지만, 

여전히 이 시험을 보기 위해 돈을 내는 것에 대한 '기회비용'이 존재한다. 

돈이 자기 주머니에서 나가든, 대출을 해서 내든 근본적 차이는 없다.


미국이나 캐나다 의과대학을 졸업한 학생은 98%가 첫 번째 응시에서 이 시험을 통과하나, 

그 외의 외국 의과대학을 졸업한 학생은 79%만이 통과한다. 

따라서 이 시험이 미국이나 캐나다 외의 외국 대학 졸업 학생을 대상으로 해서는 의미가 있을 수 있다.






Efforts to minimize the regulatory and administrative burden in U.S. health care have never been greater.


One regulatory domain that deserves greater scrutiny in this context is medical licensure


For example, the National Board of Medical Examiners (NBME) and the Federation of State Medical Boards (FSMB) mandate the purchase of four licensing products by medical students and resident physicians over the course of their training.


This three-step series of examinations is known as the United States Medical Licensing Examination (USMLE) and is jointly administered by the NBME and FSMB.


Given the pass rates among examinees and the exam’s cost, we believe that Step 2 CS provides a poor return on investment and little appreciable value to the U.S. health care system — and should therefore be eliminated.




Under the assumption that the average physician takes 15 years to pay off medical student debt, compounded interest would increase the aggregate annual cost of the Step 2 CS to $56.4 million.


If that were the case, given a standard inflation discount rate of 3%, the 15-year cost of the exam would be $36.2 million annually in 2012 dollars.

 

Ninety-eight percent of U.S. and Canadian examinees pass Step 2 CS on their first attempt.Examinees who must repeat the exam have a 91% pass rate, so the fraction of test takers who fail more than once is 1.8 in 1000.


Of 17,852 examinees taking the exam in a given year, we predict that only 32 per year would not pass the exam on a repeat attempt. Even if no examinee had to use a loan to pay for the exam, the cost of identifying a single “double failure” would be $635,977;


Some might interpret this analysis as suggesting that all written licensing exams should be eliminated, since all USMLE exams have relatively high initial pass rates (94% or higher for all M.D. candidates from U.S. or Canadian medical schools).1 However, in contrast with Step 2 CS — which is ultimately graded on a pass or fail basis — the remaining USMLE examinations externally report quantitative data on examinees’ performance relative to their peers.


Others may question the assumptions behind our calculations, noting that not every examinee borrows money to pay for

the test. Although this is a fair critique, the fact remains that money spent on the exam is no longer available to the examinee and so represents an opportunity cost of taking the Step 2 CS exam. This opportunity cost exists whether the exam is paid for out of pocket or with loans and serves as the rationale for compounding of interest.


One purpose of licensing exams is to identify insufficiently trained examinees in order to prevent them from practicing medicine, at least until appropriate remediation is undertaken. Step 2 CS has the potential to achieve this objective by identifying examinees who have difficulty communicating with patients, because English-language proficiency is one of the three skills tested.3 Indeed, the pass rates of examinees from North American medical schools are markedly different from those of examinees from international medical schools: 98% of U.S. and Canadian examinees have passed on their first attempt, whereas only 79% of those who attended medical schools outside the United States or Canada have done

so.1 


To paraphrase a quip often attributed to Everett Dirksen: a million here, a million there — pretty soon, you’re talking real money.




 2013 Mar 7;368(10):889-91. doi: 10.1056/NEJMp1213760.

The Step 2 Clinical Skills exam--a poor value proposition.

Source

Department of Internal Medicine, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC, USA.






(출처 : http://www.directortom.com/director-tom/2008/10/10/does-your-companys-video-have-a-mismatch-problem.html)




지난 수십년간, 미국내 의사의 공급(의사 수)은 너무 적었다가, 너무 많아졌다가, 

다시 너무 적은 상태로 오락가락 하고있다. 

2006년, 의사 수가 부족할 것이라는 경고가 있었고 

AAMC는 그 후 10년간 의과대학에서 선발하는 학생을 30% 늘릴 것을 권고하였다.


그러나 더 많은 의사를 양성하고자 하는 것에 있어서 또 하나의 장애물이 있다.

레지던트 숫자는 늘어나지 않았기 때문에 

늘어난 의대 졸업생 전부를 수용하지 못하게 된 것이다. 





For generations, the supply of practicing physicians in the United States has swung from too small to too large and back again. In 2006, alarmed about a growing physician shortage, the Association of American Medical Colleges (AAMC) recommended that medical school enrollments be increased by 30% over the next decade


But there’s another barrier to creating enough practicing physicians: there are insufficient residency posts to accommodate all these medical graduates.





After two decades (1980 to 2000) when the number of U.S. medical school graduates remained steady (about 16,000 annually), a burst of activity has led to the expansion of existing medical schools, the development of new ones, and rapid growth of colleges of osteopathy. 1 In 2002, there were 125 U.S. medical schools; today, there are 141, and about one third of the recent growth in enrollment derives from new schools.


Indeed, federal funding is a key factor limiting the number of GME positions, which, in contrast to medical school seats, has increased remarkably slowly — at an annual rate of 0.9% from 2001 through 2010.2 


Medicare is the primary supporter of GME programs


Efforts by the AAMC and its allies to persuade Congress to increase Medicare GME support — funding an additional 15,000 positions — were thwarted during the debate over the Affordable Care Act (ACA).


For the 2009–2010 academic year, 27 states still had more GME positions than they had undergraduate medical and osteopathic students to fill them

Many of the remaining states are rural, small, or both and have limited GME capacity; 


Among the large states with too few GME training positions, Florida and Texas face major challenges: between them, they have developed four new medical schools in the past decade but have added very few advanced training posts.


On a national level, the American Academy of Family Physicians (AAFP) argues that the administration’s cut to Medicare

GME funding could imperil family- medicine residency programs.


Given enrollment growth, it may soon be impossible for all graduates of U.S. medical and osteopathic colleges to secure GME slots unless there is a sizable increase in the number of training positions. Currently, there are 117,604 residency- training posts accredited by the Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education. In the 2013 main residency match, according to the National Resident Matching Program, 25,463 positions were filled with 17,119 graduates of U.S. medical schools, 6307 graduates of international medical schools (2706 U.S. citizens and 3601 non-U.S. citizens), 2019 graduates of colleges of osteopathic medicine, 14 graduates of Canadian schools, and 4 from Fifth Pathway programs.5


The large cohort of international medical-school graduates who seek U.S. training positions every year will be in even greater jeopardy.




 2013 Jun 19. [Epub ahead of print]

The Residency Mismatch.

Source

Mr. Iglehart is a national correspondent for the Journal.

Abstract

For generations, the supply of practicing physicians in the United States has swung from too small to too large and back again. In 2006, alarmed about a growing physician shortage, the Association of American Medical Colleges (AAMC) recommended that medical school enrollments be increased by 30% over the next decade. Now, entering classes are projected to reach 21,434 students by the 2016-2017 academic year, almost a 30% increase over 2002 (see table). Colleges of osteopathic medicine have been growing for the past 20 years, doubling in number from 15 to 30 and increasing enrollments from 6892 students in 1990 to . . .



(출처 : http://www.golocalise.com/en/studios)




의료분야에 있어서 (기관이나 사람에 따라) 질적 차이가 크다는 것과 

의료진이 근거중심 진료를 잘 따르지 않는 것은 잘 알려진 문제이다. 


더 많은 교육을 하는 것은 이들 문제의 해결책이 되지 못한다. 

지식은 이미 충분하나, 실제로 이행하는 것에서 뒤쳐지기 때문이다. 


여기서는 의료 과정을 비디오 녹화하는 기존의 기술을 이용함으로써 

의료의 질이 향상될 수 있다는 것에 대해 이야기하고자 한다.








IN MEDICINE, THE PROBLEMS OF WIDE VARIATIONS IN quality and poor compliance with evidence-based care are well known. More education is not the solution for these problems. Knowledge is abundant, but implementation of knowledge often lags. This Viewpoint explores whether use of an existing technology, video recording of medical procedures, can improve quality of care.


Although the World Health Organization’s hand washing declaration and aggressive global awareness campaign has been long established, behavior change among health care workers remains a persistent struggle


The concept of measuring quality for learning is not a proposal to rewire hospitals and install cameras, but rather, a consideration that many applicable activities and procedures are already video based


At Indiana University, Rex et al2 decided to use the recording feature of colonoscopy video equipment to address the long-standing problem of quality variations in colonoscopies

The researchers then informed the gastroenterologists that their procedures were being video recorded and peer reviewed. Following the announcement, mean inspection time during colonoscopy increased by 49% and quality of mucosal inspection improved by 31%,2 suggesting a substantial improvement in quality because of the Hawthorne effect.


Peer review of videos can also enhance existing quality improvement efforts.3

better inform morbidity and mortality conferences

exportability of video files can facilitate external review


In addition to reviews triggered by patient harm, video recording also offers a valuable opportunity for coachingIn the same way that athletes learn from coaches when jointly watching videos of past games, physicians can also learn from their performance by viewing with a coach.


Developing independent coaching networks will require an investment by hospitals, professional physician associations, and a new infrastructure, but the potential reward of improving procedure quality and safety may be substantial.


According to the 2012 Institute of Medicine Best Care at Lower Cost report, unnecessary medical care may account for as much as 30% of US health care expenditures.5


Transparency through video recording in medicine may help to decrease waste in health care through increased accountability.7


Even for appropriate procedures, saving a video of the procedure could be valuable for future physicians when treating a patient


Patients also appear to support the idea of having their procedures recorded. In one study in which 248 patients were asked if they would be interested in receiving a video of their procedure, 81% said yes and 61% were willing to pay for it.8


Video recording of procedures also might help address the chronic problem of disruptive behavior in medicine. In a study of 50 hospitals, 86% of nurses and 47% of physicians reported witnessing disruptive behavior by physicians and nurses.9


There are, of course, some important boundaries to video recording for quality improvement. Patients must be informed that their medical procedure will be recorded and given the option to decline. If they opt to receive a copy of their procedure video, they should be properly informed about what to expect so that the known imprecisions intrinsic to medical procedures that are within the standard of care do not cause false alarm.


In the new era of data storage, the adoption of video recording to improve quality and safety should be more widely implemented. Based on early observations, this approach also could help drive quality improvement to the next level.




 2013 Apr 17;309(15):1591-2. doi: 10.1001/jama.2013.595.

The power of video recordingtaking quality to the next level.

Source

Department of Surgery, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA. mmakary1@jhmi.edu





(출처 : http://www.residencysecrets.com/2013/05/28/the-next-accreditation-system-its-impact-on-feedback-evaluation/)




"기본적으로 역량중심 교육과정과 지금까지 해오던 방식의 차이점은, 

여기서 '역량'이라는 단어가 의미하는 바가 대중의 요구, 그리고 더 나은 의료 결과라는 점입니다. 


따라서 의사는 이러한 것을 실제로 할 수 있어야 하기 때문에

각 임상과는 이 목표를 어떻게 달성할 수 있을 것인가를 생각해야 합니다. 

또한 학생들이 질문하는 방법을 익히고, 연구 논문을 읽는 방법을 익히는데 도움을 줄 교수들도 필요합니다. 


이는 단순히 강의를 해주는 것이 아니라 '어떻게 생각해야 하는가'를 가르치는 것입니다."


"학생들은 이것이 환자중심적 의료로의 변화라는 것을 이해해야 합니다. 

의료전달체계가 빠르게 변호하고 있기 때문에 우리 의사들은 사고를 유연하게 가져가야 할 필요가 있습니다. 


앞으로는 학생을 선발할 때도 

그 학생의 학문적 능력 뿐만 아니라 

좋은 의사가 되기 위해 필요한 자질에 대해서도 눈여겨 봐야 할 것입니다."


“Basically, the difference between competency-based education and the way we have always done it is that competency means that what the public needs, good health outcomes, is what a physician should actually be able to do, and each specialty has to decide how to achieve this,And we need faculty members who can help students learn how to ask questions or read a research article. It’s not about giving them a lecture but teaching them how to think.”


“For the student, this is not just about change, but it focuses greater attention on patient-centered care,” Aschenbrener said. “With the rapid changes seen today in the health care delivery system, we need physicians with cognitive flexibility. As for admitting students into medical school,we need to continue paying attention to academic ability, but we also need to consider the other attributes that make a good physician.”




MEDICAL RESIDENCY PROGRAMS are about to undergo substantial changes in the ways the physicians of tomorrow are trained. 


Beginning in July, the Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education (ACGME) will implement the Next Accreditation System to oversee training residents in 7 specialties


The aims of the new system are to “enhance the ability of the peer-review system to prepare physicians for practice in the 21st century, to accelerate the ACGME’s movement toward accreditation on the basis of educational outcomes, and to reduce the burden associated with the current structure and process-based approach” (Nasca TJ et al. N Eng J Med. doi:10 .1056/NEJMsr1200117 [published online March 15, 2012]).


The ACGME was founded in 1981 when the graduate medical education environment faced 2 major stresses: 

Variability in the quality of resident education 

and the emerging formalization of subspecialty education.


Acknowledging the new stresses, the ACGME pushed for the Next Accreditation System. Under this approach, each medical residency program accredited by the ACGME will have to demonstrate that its residents have the core competencies and clinical skills to provide quality patient care and the ability to respond to ongoing developments in health care delivery.


To measure such competencies, each specialty is developing educational milestones


Changes in resident training mean changes in the teaching of medical students as well


“Basically, the difference between competency-based education and the way we have always done it is that competency means that what the public needs, good health outcomes, is what a physician should actually be able to do, and each specialty has to decide how to achieve this,And we need faculty members who can help students learn how to ask questions or read a research article. It’s not about giving them a lecture but teaching them how to think.”


“For the student, this is not just about change, but it focuses greater attention on patient-centered care,” Aschenbrener said. “With the rapid changes seen today in the health care delivery system, we need physicians with cognitive flexibility. As for admitting students into medical school,we need to continue paying attention to academic ability, but we also need to consider the other attributes that make a good physician.”



 2013 May 22;309(20):2085-6. doi: 10.1001/jama.2013.3943.

Residencies roll out new training system.

PMID:

 

23695458

 

[PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]




(출처 : http://blogs.nature.com/naturejobs/2012/10/17/challenging-the-integrity-of-scientist)




의사들의 진실성(integrity) 교육을 위한 프로그램이 부족한 현실을 해결하기 위해서는 

광범위한 이해관계자들을 포괄하는 해결책이 나와야 할 것이다. 


이 사안는 환자와 사회가 의사집단에 주는 신뢰와 직결되기 때문에 

의사들의 프로페셔널리즘과 윤리에 대단히 중요한 문제이다. 


지불제도의 개혁은 진실성과 인센티브에 대한 지형(landscape)을 변화시킬 것이나, 

의사들의 바른 인식을 대체할 수는 없다. 


연방정부와 주정부도 중요한 이해관계자이지만, 

공공 및 개인의 의료, 환자, 그리고 의사 자신을 지켜내기 위해서는

의학교육, 면허기관, 전문의 인증 등의 분야의 리더들이 함께 힘을 합쳐서 

문제에 대한 인식을 충분히 공유할 수 있도록 노력해야 할 것이다. 






ABOUT 18% OF THE US GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT is consumed by health care—more than that of any other industrialized country—and that number is expected to increase to 20% by 2020


Program integrity—a term frequently used by payers for program losses due to inefficiencies, inappropriate payments, or exploitation—spans the spectrum of waste, abuse, and fraud, which divert health care dollars from the provision of patient care. Waste alone may account for 30% of overall health care costs.1


At the most basic level, documentation and billing are not performed well by many physicians and physician offices


The effects can be substantial. The Centers for Medicare &Medicaid Services (CMS) Comprehensive Error Rate Testing (CERT) process identified an overall Medicare fee-forservice error rate of 8.6% of payments for 2011, amounting to nearly $30 billion.3


While defensive medicine is frequently cited as a driver of overutilization, incentives in the fee-for-service payment structure are motivating factors as well.5

This relationship exists for physicians even within the same specialty


Incentive-driven behavior is not just limited to the performing of tests, but also extends to abuse and “gaming” of payment differentials


Numerous studies have documented upcoding of encounters to increase revenue, particularly in certain specialties.7


Factors leading incentive-driven behavior to cross a line into abuse and fraud are complex.


Currently, there are few opportunities for program integrity education. CMS does not mandate such education to participate in Medicare and Medicaid. To our knowledge, no state medical board requires program integrity education for licensure and no specialty board requires it for board certification.


Voluntary instruction is reaching some students and new physicians. According to a 2010 OIG survey of all 160 US medical schools and 660 institutions sponsoring GME programs, only 44% of schools and 68% of institutions offered any instruction in program integrity.9 More than 90% of respondents reported that they would like the government to provide educational materials. In response, OIG developed a booklet titled “A Roadmap for New Physicians: Avoiding Medicare and Medicaid Fraud and Abuse” and a presentation to support didactic learning.


Providing educational opportunities is just a first step in raising awareness


Residency and fellowship training are likely the best times for physicians to learn about program integrity given the practical nature of GME training and the immediacy of independent practice


States generally require physicians to certify that they have completed CME during licensure renewal. States could specify that a certain amount of CME be earned in program integrity.


Each specialty board requires physicians to demonstrate knowledge and competence in professionalism and  systems-based practice in order to claim diplomate status


Addressing shortcomings in program integrity education will require a comprehensive solution across numerous stakeholders. This issue is central to medical professionalism and ethics because it speaks directly to the trust placed in the medical profession by patients and society. Payment reformswill no doubt alter the program integrity landscape and shift incentives, but they will not supplant the need for physician awareness. While federal and state governments are vital participants, leaders in medical education, licensure, and specialty certification would ideally work together to ensure that all physicians have sufficient awareness to safeguard public and private health care programs, patients, and themselves.





 2013 Mar 20;309(11):1115-6. doi: 10.1001/jama.2013.1013.

Educating physicians about responsible management of finite resources.

Source

Center for Program Integrity, Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services, Baltimore, Maryland 21244, USA. shantanu.agrawal@cms.hhs.gov

PMID:
 
23512056
 
[PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]









(출처 : http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/727993)





졸업후교육(GME)의 질적 향상을 위해서는 

그 대학병원이 추구하는 진료의 질과 안전과 가치의 핵심적 부분으로서 

레지던트와 펠로우 수련 과정을 포용하는 리더십이 필요하다.


미국 의료의 질과 안전 향상에 대한 대중의 요구에 부응하려면, 

의료기관들은 시스템 기반의 진료의 질 향상(systems-based improvement in patient care)을 위해

 어떻게 해야 하는지를 인지할 수 있는 의료진을 훈련시켜야 한다.


CLER(Clinical Learning Environment Review, 임상 학습환경 평가)프로그램을 통해서 

ACGME는 미국의 대학병원을 비롯한 교육병원들이 진료의 안전, 질, 가치를 발전시키기 위한 

가장 효과적인 방법을 찾아내서 도입할 수 있도록 할 것이다.





MORE THAN A DECADE AFTER THE INSTITUTE OF Medicine reported problems with the quality and safety of US health care,1,2 formal training of the health care workforce in quality and patient safety is still inadequate


The AHA report identified deficiencies in newly trained physicians in...

systems-based practice, 

communication skills, 

and the ability to work within teams.


The Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education (ACGME) recognizes the public’s need for a physician workforce capable of meeting the requirements of the rapidly evolving health care environment. This effort dates to the late 1990s, when the ACGME, collaborating with the American Board of Medical Specialties, established 6 core competencies creating a framework for attaining the skills needed for the modern practice of medicine


The next step in the evolution of resident physician training is the Next Accreditation System (NAS), which is now being implemented by the ACGME. The NAS emphasizes outcomes instead of processes for resident learning.


The Clinical Learning Environment Review (CLER) program is the first component of the NAS5 to be operationalized nationally


The CLER program identifies US teaching hospitals’ efforts to engage residents in 6 focus areas: 

patient safety; 

health care quality, including reduction in health care disparities; 

transitions in care; 

supervision; 

duty hours and fatigue management and mitigation; 

and professionalism.


Site visitors gain knowledge about residents’ engagement in the 6 focus areas through group meetings and visits in clinical service areas.


At the end of the visit, the site visit team provides the institution with feedback and a written report soon thereafter.


With time, the aggregated experience regarding institutional performance in these areas will shape future ACGME accreditation requirements. Early experience with CLER visits revealed numerous interesting improvement projects and some efforts in the education and training of residents and fellows in the 6 focus areas.


High-quality graduate medical education requires the executive leadership of teaching hospitals to recognize and embrace resident/fellow training as an integral part of organizational initiatives to enhance quality, safety, and value in patient care.


Given the broad public need and mandate to improve the quality and safety of medical care in the United States, the future workforce must be trained to recognize opportunities for improvement and actively engage their health care organizations to implement systems-based improvements in patient care.


Through its CLER program, the ACGME seeks to engage US teaching institutions in identifying and implementing the most effective quality improvement strategies that focus on the safety, quality, and value of care





 2013 Apr 24;309(16):1687-8. doi: 10.1001/jama.2013.1931.

The clinical learning environment: the foundation of graduate medical education.

Source

Institutional Accreditation, Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education, 20th Floor, 515 N State St, Chicago, IL 60654, USA. kweiss@acgme.org

PMID:
 
23613072
 
[PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]




(출처 : http://www.mayo.edu/research/centers-programs/pediatric-research-center/overview)



소아과학이라는 학문을 발전시켜온 원동력은

'내일의 아이들은 오늘의 아이들보다 건강할 것이다'라는 비전이다. 

그러나 지난 30년간 소아의 질병과 건강에 대해 연구하는 사람은 점차 줄고 있다. 

왜 그럴까?


ACADEMIC PEDIATRICS IS MOTIVATED BY A VISION 

wherein the children of tomorrow are healthier than those of today. 




ACADEMIC PEDIATRICS IS MOTIVATED BY A VISION wherein the children of tomorrow are healthier than those of today. The physician-scientist is uniquely well positioned to create and translate discoveries into care.


Since the 1980s, the percentage of physicians dedicating significant components of a professional life to research has declined from approximately 5%to 1.5%.1


Despite more trainees, the population of physician-scientists is aging and the absolute number is declining.2 In 1980, 25% of research program grants were awarded to physicians older than 50 years, compared with 50% at present.1



Holes in the Pipeline


Decreasing resources for research compromises the research pipeline. 


Federal and foundation dollars are increasingly constrained.



Medical schools and clinical departments seem unwilling or unable to support unfunded research by early-career clinician-scientists.


Requirements for resident and fellow education may further compromise the development of physician-scientists. For example, Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education requirements now mandate engagement in “quality assurance” programs and continuity clinics, irrespective of career path


Aspiring physician-scientists are generally at a disadvantage when competing with PhD scientists for grant fundingA research trainee with an MD degree has just 2 years of incompletely protected research training during fellowship. Trainees recognize this competitive disadvantage


The high percentage of women in pediatrics is arguably the most distinctive factor in developing the next generation of physician-scientists. 


Indebtedness is a significant obstacle to the development of physician-scientists.6


Tenure standards that require immediate academic productivity are problematic,7 especially given the compressed research training of most clinician-scientists. The expectations and process for promotion and tenure are often unknown to trainees.


Lack of sufficient institutional infrastructure, including financial resources and mentoring, further dampens enthusiasm for a research career.8 



Proposed Pipeline Patches


To develop physician-scientists, it is imperative that departments, children’s hospitals, and medical schools explicitly acknowledge the importance of physicians with fluency in the language of discovery and the capacity to translate discoveries into clinical medicine. There is no substitute for this recognition. Fundamentally, creation and retention of the next generation of physician-scientists also will require

(1) a respectful and family-friendly workplace that includes flexible work hours, promotion clocks, and family support policies; 

(2) responsibilities that promote a sense of fulfillment and success, with greater than 75% dedicated research time and complementary clinical work; 

(3) promotion tracks that recognize both individual and teambased science; 

and (4) mentorship that is diverse, multigenerational, and multidisciplinary.



Conclusions


Development of the pediatric physician-scientist pathway can be facilitated by relatively straightforward and resource-efficient investments. Motivating even this relatively modest investment demands explicit acknowledgment of the value of the clinician-scientist. Children will be well-served when more children’s hospitals and pediatric departmental resources are focused on creation, retention,and promotion of the engine that has powered their growth and increasing prominence—ie,physician-scientists creating and translating knowledge into care.








 2013 May 1;309(17):1781-2. doi: 10.1001/jama.2013.2258.

Creation and retention of the next generation of physician-scientists for child health research.

Source

Department of Pediatrics, Stanford University School of Medicine, 701 Welch Rd, Bldg B, Ste 310, Stanford, CA 94305, USA. cornfield@stanford.edu




실패를 두려워하면 시스템을 변화시키지 못한다.

(출처 : http://medicinex.stanford.edu/2011/12/01/a-patient-patient-sarah-kucharski-writes-about-life-with-fibromuscular-dysplasia/)




절대로 그 옛날 시절에 수련을 받던 레지던트보다 

지금의 레지던트가 의사라는 직업의 임무에 덜 충실하다고는 생각하지 않는다. 

하지만 '책임'이라는 것이 마치 빠른 속도로 회전하는 회전문과 같을 때, 

돌봄(caring)의 정의는 바람직하지 않은, 그리고 우리가 의도하지도 않은 방향으로 변질될 수 있다. 


만약 그러한 위험이 존재한다면, 우리는 이것에 대해 이야기 해볼 필요가 있다.


We are certain that today’s trainees are not a whit less dedicated to their professional mission than those of an earlier era were at their best,8 but we cannot help wonder whether the very definition of caring changes in undesirable and unintended ways when responsibility becomes a rapidly revolving door. If that risk exists, it warrants conversation.







1970년대에 레지던트를 하는 것은 비교적 간단한 일이었다. 치료의 방법이 단순했고, 정보는 면대면 대화나 전화를 통해서, 노트나 편지를 통해서 전달되었다. 의사는 팀으로 일했고 모든 팀원은 한 병동에 대해 공동의 책임을 졌다.

FOR PHYSICIANS WHO WERE RESIDENTS IN THE 1970S (like we were), it was a simpler era for care. 

- A relatively small number of medications were available for treatment and prevention of illness

- Information was exchanged by synchronous face-to-face and telephone communication or by written notes and letters.

- Physicians and surgeons worked in teams, whose members shared responsibility for the territory of specific patient wards


무엇보다 레지던트들은 한 환자가 입원을 하는 순간부터 퇴원을 할때까지 전 과정에 대한 책임이 있었다.

Residents showed their investment in the well-being of patients by taking responsibility for them during the full length of time those patients were hospitalized, starting with their admission.


그러나 2013년, 대학병원 입원환자에 대한 의료는 변화되었다. 여러가지가 있지만, 주치의가 빠르게 순환해서 종종 1주나 2주면 바뀌게 된다.

In 2013, inpatient medical care in teaching hospitals is different: far more complex, more intense, and, simply put, faster. The arsenal of diagnostic tests, medical therapies, interventional technologies, and health care professionals is much larger. Attending staff have shorter rotations, often 1 or 2 weeks.


For good reasons, resident work schedules have fewer total and consecutive hours.


Team schedules seem less synchronized, and turnover of members seems more frequent



처음에 입원을 담당한 의사가 그 환자의 최종 결과까지 책임지지는 않는다.

The length of time a single physician bears responsibility for a patient may be as short as a few hours. The inevitable result is an increase in the proportion of time a hospitalized patient is cared for by physicians who neither initiated a care plan nor will be responsible for (or perhaps even aware of ) the final outcome.


Communication patterns are now fundamentally different from those of the earlier era, due to technological progress in electronic and mobile communication


The electronic health record (EHR) has pulled both the resident and attending physicians’ focus toward the computer instead of the patient,2 and the contemporary EHR has become a series of often unrelated notes.3


속도의 변화, 복잡성의 변화, 반복되는 업무교대가 미치는 영향에 대해서 따져볼 필요가 있다.

It is worth asking what the effects of such speed, complexity, and continual handoffs may be on the perspectives of the physicians involved—both for trainees and attending physicians


이러한 해결책으로 팀을 구성하는 것도 한 가지 방법이나, 레지던트의 반복적인 교대가 개인에게 미치는 영향은 팀에게도 동등하게 적용될 수 있다.

One remedy is an effective clinical team, which can and does help mitigate the risks of rapid turnover and diffused responsibility. However, the same dynamics that can erode an individual’s mastery of patient histories can also impair teamwork. Changing team members every 2 weeks, or even more often, can confound the best intentions of the workforce.


지난 날을 미화시키려고 하는 것은 아니다.하지만 '책임' 과 '돌봄'의 의미가 무엇인지 고민해볼 필요는 있을 것이다.

These observations should not be interpreted as advocating a return to the imaginary “good old days” of everyother- night on call and brutally long working shifts; these conditions bred hazards and wrong lessons of their own. Nor should anyone ignore the importance of improving handoffs in patient care, which have now become crucial to excellence. 1 But perhaps, in this relay-race era of rapid turnover, it would be worthwhile for teachers and trainees together to examine explicitly what the profession means by the notions of “responsibility” and “caring”when a trainee’s touch time with a single patient may be bounded in minutes or hours (not weeks or months), and when an attending physician may come and go from the hospital ward faster than the patient.


만약 시니어, 주니어, 레지던트가 최선의 노력을 다하고 있음에도 제대로 된 caring이 이뤄지고 않다고 느낀다면, 시험적으로 몇몇 변화를 시도해 볼 수 있다.

If senior physicians, younger attendings, and current residents are concerned about coming up short on caring despite their best efforts, some changes may be worth testing systematically.4


more studies could be undertaken to determine whether rotations for residents and attending physicians should be lengthened or better synchronized.5 Methods of reducing stress that leads to burnout could be developed that might enable rotations to be lengthened, including reducing the need for onerous, duplicative, and usually useless  documentation by both attendings and residents.6


other solutions will be needed to increase the sense of longer-range responsibility. For example, both attendings and trainees could systematically receive follow-up on patients about whom they had made decisions.


We are certain that today’s trainees are not a whit less dedicated to their professional mission than those of an earlier era were at their best,8 but we cannot help wonder whether the very definition of caring changes in undesirable and  unintended ways when responsibility becomes a rapidly revolving door. If that risk exists, it warrants conversation.




 2013 Mar 13;309(10):987-8. doi: 10.1001/jama.2013.620.

Teaching physicians to care amid chaos.

Source

Institute for Health Policy, Management and Evaluation and Department of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada. adetsky@mtsinai.on.ca

PMID:

 

23483169

 

[PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]










Since 1994, the Harvard-wide Pediatric Health Services Research (HSR) Fellowship Program has excelled at training a new generation of investigators whose work is defining and addressing critical gaps in child health services research and the provision of primary care for children. Our training examines key issues such as access, quality, outcomes and cost-effectiveness of care.


(출처 : http://www.childrenshospital.org/cfapps/research/data_admin/Site2231/mainpageS2231P0.html)





소아 연구(Child health research)는 건강과 의료에 관한 지식을 발전시키기 위한 좋은 모델이다. 

소아 연구와 관련한 최근의 문제들로부터 우리는 

소아의 건강과 질병의 변화하는 양상에 어떻게 대처해야 하는지, 

소아의 질병의 영향이 단순한 생존의 문제를 넘어 

장기적으로 어떠한 영향을 미치는지에 대해 생각해 볼 수 있다. 


변화하는 소아 연구의 환경에 대응하기 위해서는 

혁신적인 파트너십이 필요하고, 

소아 연구 분야의 잘 훈련된 연구자들이 필요하며, 

새로 등장하는 기술을 잘 활용할 수 있어야 한다. 


또한 강력한 사회적 힘(societal force)와 연계하여 괴팍한(fractious) 정치적 환경 속에서도 

연구의 우선순위를 어린이들의 이익을 증진시키는 것에 둘 수 있어야 할 것이다.


Child health research at its best provides a model for the advancement of knowledge to improve health and health care. The challenges confronting pediatric research reflect the need to respond to the changing milieu of child health and disease and to look beyond survival to consider the longterm consequences of pediatric health and disease. This transition will require innovative partnerships, a cadre of welltrained investigators interested in child health, and creative use of emerging technologies. It will also require linkage of research priorities to larger societal forces and a renewed commitment to advancing the interests of children in an increasingly fractious policy world.





DESPITE A REMARKABLE RECORD OF ACCOMPLISHments, the pediatric research community faces mounting evidence that the nature and scope of current research are inadequate. The Editorial “Challenges to Excellence in Child Health Research,” by Zylke et al,1 casts this paradox in sharp relief by summarizing a series of articles suggesting that the quality and number of pediatric research studies lag behind research focused on adults.


A variety of technical challenges specific to child health research have been identified.2,3 Of central concern is the relative rarity of serious child health problems, which reflects the success of prior research and public health interventions to reduce traditional threats of acute, infectious diseases. 


Moreover, improved medical and surgical therapies have transformed important conditions that were once fatal in early childhood into more manageable chronic conditions. However, for many chronic childhood illnesses, etiology is still unclear and therapies are suboptimal.


The shift in the epidemiology of childhood illness away from acute infectious diseases to chronic illness and acute injury highlights the need to develop novel research strategies. 



Currently funded pediatric research networks could provide a strong foundation for expanded collaborative protocols

For example, the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Neonatal Research Network could be enhanced by expansion of clinical sites and longer-term outcome studies.4


Although this technical guidance is helpful, the true promise of this effort will be its ability to generate functioning, international collaborations and the financial support such initiatives require. Moreover, the expansion of electronic health records and the development of bioinformatics to integrate health information and biologic specimens create an environment in which every patient is a potential research participant and each can benefit from the contributions of others


At the same time, a continual pipeline of young basic, clinical, and public health scientists interested in advancing child health is needed.


Excellent examples of successful public and private programs that should be expanded include the National Institutes of Health (NIH) Pediatric Scientist Development Program, the Robert Wood Johnson Clinical Scholars Program, and training programs associated with the NIH Clinical and Translational Science Awards.



The transition in child health research must also confront the powerful influence of market forces in shaping research priorities

Although private sector contributions to pediatric research remain important, these investments are dwarfed by funding dedicated to adult diseases. 


Government initiatives (ie, the Orphan Drug Act, the Best Pharmaceuticals for Children Act, and the Pediatric Research Equity Act) have provided special financial or regulatory incentives to develop pediatric drugs and devices for small or orphan markets.7


New perspectives about pediatric origins of adult disease, social determinants of health, and long-term effects of early exposures and interactions suggest that the poor health of children (reflected in rates of prematurity, obesity, behavioral and developmental problems, etc) can be a harbinger of poor adult health.8


Collaboration will be central to strengthening child health research, with openness to unique partnerships. For example,improvements in child health are important to the health insurance industry.


In large measure, health policy is now synonymous with cost containment and when cost containment becomes the focus, child health issues are quickly marginalized


Pediatric and other community leaders need to continue to push an agenda for children that includes attention to child health research. Children are the poorest segment of US society and have a limited political voice. Moreover, poverty has never been more heavily concentrated in childhood than it is today.


Child health research at its best provides a model for the advancement of knowledge to improve health and health care. The challenges confronting pediatric research reflect the need to respond to the changing milieu of child health and disease and to look beyond survival to consider the longterm consequences of pediatric health and disease. This transition will require innovative partnerships, a cadre of welltrained investigators interested in child health, and creative use of emerging technologies. It will also require linkage of research priorities to larger societal forces and a renewed commitment to advancing the interests of children in an increasingly fractious policy world.




 2013 May 1;309(17):1779-80. doi: 10.1001/jama.2013.3257.

The transformation of child health researchinnovation, market failure, and the public good.

Source

Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine and Children's Healthcare of Atlanta, 2015 Uppergate Dr, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA. barbara_stoll@oz.ped.emory.edu

PMID:

 

23632719

 

[PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]













새로운 방식의 의과대학 실습과정이 환자-의사 사이의 의사소통을 향상시킬 수 있을까?

Can a novel med school curriculum improve doctor-patient communication?

병원에서 일해본 경험, 혹은 환자로 입원해본 경험이 있는 사람이라면 대학병원에서 실습을 하는 3학년 학생의 모습을 떠올려볼 수 있을 것이다. 교수가 지나가고, 시끌벅적한 학생들이 따라간다. 교수는 환자에 대해 몇 마디를 던지고, 학생들은 고개를 끄덕이거나 노트를 적고, 교수는 나가고 수행단이 뒤따른다. 그리고 다음 과 실습이 시작되면, 그 환자는 영영 다시 보지 않는다.

Anyone who has worked – or been a patient — in a large teaching hospital knows what a traditional third-year medical student clerkship can look like: Specialist sweeps in, accompanied by a gaggle of students; specialist has a few words with the patient; students nod and occasionally take notes; specialist leaves, accompanied by retinue.  Students move on to next rotation and never see patient again.


비교적 새로운 모델인 Longitudinal Integrated Clerkship (종적통합임상실습, LIC)는 이것을 완전히 바꿔놓았다. 백년이나 된 기존의 낡은 '블록식' 모델을 개선해보자는 것에 대한 한 가지 대안이다.

A relatively new model, the longitudinal integrated clerkship (LIC), wants to change all that.  It answers decades of increasing calls from the medical education community to revise the prevailing century-old current “block” model of clinical learning, which can present fragmented views of disease and allow only snips of caregiving in the current outpatient care-based healthcare system.


LIC에서 학생은 핵심과의 멘토와 함께 임상실습을 하는 기간동안 한 케이스의 시작부터 끝까지를 함께한다. 프로그램 중심이라기보다는 환자 중심이다. 현재는 미국, 호주, 캐나다, 남아프리카의 15개 학교에서 주로 만들어 시행하고 있지만, 100개 이상의 학교가 국제컨소시움에 합류, 논의중에 있다.

Within an LIC, students work with mentors in core specialties on their principal clinical year and follow cases from beginning to end — be that an hour, a day or a year — in a process that is patient- rather than program-oriented. It is designed to give students a broader and more empathetic view of healing, and lasting lessons in doctor-patient relationships and communication. Some 15 schools in the U.S., Australia, Canada and South Africa have large and established programs, but more than a 100 schools have joined an international consortium to discuss and explore the option.


"학생은 팀의 구성원으로서 환자에 대해 많은 것을 배워간다. 질병의 진화과정을 보고, 환자를 따라다니며 회복은 하는지, 대단원의 마지막을 보고, 임상적 의사결정의 결과를 본다." David Hirsh.

“Students are there as things unfold for the patient. They are part of the team. They see the evolution of the disease. They follow patients long enough to see them recover, to see the denouement and the outcome of their decisions,” says David Hirsh, MD, director and co-founder of the Harvard Medical School-Cambridge Integrated Clerkship at Cambridge Health Alliance, assistant professor of Medicine at Harvard Medical School, and lead author of the most comprehensive study of program results to date.


지난 3월 Academic Medicine에 발표된 이 연구에서 LIC 학생들은 동료들과 비교할 때 지식 측면에서 동등하며, 환자중심적 진료에 더 잘 준비되었다고 느낀다는 것이 보고되었다. 

In that study, published last March in Academic Medicine, LIC students performed at least as well as their peers on measures of content knowledge, and reported feeling much more prepared in patient-centered aspects of care, including handling ethical dilemmas, involving patients in decision-making, and relating well to a diverse population.


Patient Care With Context


학생들의 만족감이 더 높았고, 당연히 환자들도 이러한 식의 구성을 더 선호했다.

Students also reported a higher level of satisfaction with their med school education. Not surprisingly, patients seem to like the arrangement, too.


"저를 담당하는 의대생이 있는 것이네요"  "학생은 어디갔어요? 그 학생이 있으면 회진돌 때 마음이 조금 더 편안해지거든요" 환자들은 이렇게 말한다.

“ ‘I have my own personal medical student,’ ” they’ll say. And to me, they’ll say, ‘Where’s your student today? Because you’re a much better doctor when your student is around.’ ” Hirsh says.


학생 역시 환자의 가치나 사회적 맥락을 더 잘 이해하고, 의사소통의 방해물이 되는 요소가 무엇인지 더 잘 짚어낸다.

Students in an LIC are also ideally better able to understand a patient’s values and social context and to spot communications roadblocks. As one student wrote in a reflective narrative on the LIC experience:


"제가 아니었으면 가족의 지원은 충분히 받지만 문맹에다가 영어도 잘 못하는 이 환자는 분명히 망가졌을거에요. 예정된 일정이나 의사소통, 의사소통의 양, 그리고 의사소통이 잘못 이루어지는 경우가 너무 흔해서 과정이 길어지고 환자를 잃게 되었을걸요"

“Without me I can confidently say this illiterate, non-English-speaking patient, even with his very supportive and involved family, would have fallen through the cracks. The number of appointments and communications and miscommunications would have been so numerous, and it would have taken so long, that he probably would have just stopped showing up.”


"학생은 단순히 과제를 하는 것도 아니고, 사례 학습 목적으로 환자를 보는 것도 아니에요. '6번 방의 간환자'가 아니라는 거죠. 환자는 몇 달 동안 내가 알아온, 그것도 매우 잘 아는 OOO씨인 것이죠"

“It’s not the student just accomplishing some task. Nor are they seeing the patient as  a case study. It’s not ‘the liver in room six’ – it’s ‘Mrs. So-and-So whom I have known many months, whom I know well,’ ” Hirsh says.


환자 결과가 어떤지는 연구된바가 없지만, LIC에서 분명히 더 나을 것이라 생각한다.

Though patient outcomes haven’t yet been studied, Hirsh believes an LIC, in which students navigate our complex healthcare system in tandem with their patients, can also give them a better vantage point from which to treat chronic disease.

“For example, say a diabetic patient has low blood sugar. You’re there for that, and you’re there for the treatment. Commitments are fostered. You might try harder to help with education and secondary prevention. There comes a stronger desire to learn, ‘Who is that person? Who is that patient?’ “ he says.  As another student wrote,

“Each time we see Ms. O, attempting to understand her evolving health adds another piece to our medical repertoire. Each time we grow to understand a bit more about the toll that hospitalizations and chronically deteriorating health can have on a patient and her family.”



A Lasting Humanism


무엇보다도, LIC를 하고 졸업한 학생은 의사가 되 이후에 휴머니즘을 더 갖추고 있을 것이다.

Perhaps most significantly, graduating from an LIC can give a future doctor a better grounding in the humanism necessary to her or his profession, Hirsh says.


연구에 따르면 의과대학 학년이 올라갈수록 의대생들은 더 시니컬해지고, 환자 중심적인 면모도 더 잃어간다.

Research suggests that as students progress through medical school, med students become more cynical, with a resulting decline in patient centeredness.


"도덕적 성장이 안 되는 것이죠. 공감능력이 점차 낮아져요. 의학이 추구하는 목표와는 정반대인 것이죠. 우리는 우리 학생들이 스스로 최고의 모습을 갖출 수 있도록 지속적으로 노력하고 가꾸어기를 바랍니다."

“Their moral development is shattered, their empathy is declining – how can that be? That’s the opposite of medicine’s goals. We want to sustain and nourish our students to be their best selves. Who they will be when they’re doing their life’s work?” Hirsh says.


반대로 Hirsh의 연구결과는 LIC를 하는 동안 환자중심적인 태도가 더 향상된다는 것을 보여준다.

In contrast, Hirsh’s research shows that students show an increase in patient-centeredness as they go through their training as compared to those doing a traditional clerkship.


From a student:

“I’ve heard traditional third- year students describe their horror at the sight and smell of the necrotic feet seen in vascular clinic. It had never occurred to me to be disgusted by F. When we noticed the first signs of an ulcer on her toe and when erythema gave way to necrosis, then osteomyelitis, I remember feeling concern, but not disgust. And when we finally had to serially amputate her forefoot, I remember thinking only that I wanted to do right by her—to find vital tissue. “


"윤리는 학생이 얼마나 의미있는 역할을 하고 있느냐와 관련이 있습니다. 학생은 환자를 더 중요하게 생각할 필요가 있고, 환자 역시 학생을 더 중요하게 생각할 필요가 있습니다."

Hirsh says, “Ethics has to do with the students having meaningful roles. The student needs to matter to the patient, and the patient needs to matter to the student.


"우리 학생들이 과학을 더 공부하고 싶어하는 이유는 바로 환자를 돕고싶고 싶은 마음 때문입니다"

“Our students want to know the science because they want to help their patient.”




(출처 : http://blog.tedmed.com/?p=2736)





(출처 : http://www.uclahealthcareers.org/career-areas/non-clinical-roles)


"위대해지는 것을 두려워하지 마십시오."





Introduction


의학 분야에 있어서 의사의 역할은 진화해왔으며, 점차 다양해지고 있고, 다른 학문의 분야와 융합되어감으로써 임상의학의 양상도 변화하고 있다. 그 결과 일부 국가에서는 임상의사 외의 다른 진로를 희망하는 의과대학 학생들의 비율이 점차 증가하고 있다.

The physician’s role has evolved and diversified as the field of medicine becomes more convergent with other disciplines and the landscape of clinical practice changes [1]. Consequently, the proportion of medical school graduates who pursue careers other than full-time clinical practice has increased in some countries [2]


인구학적 특성이나 개인의 성격이 임상과 선택과 관련이 있다는 연구 결과가 있으며, 진로의 종류에 대한 생각도 임상과 선택에 영향을 준다. 개인적 특성 외에도 임상실습이나 튜터링을 하는 동안 학생이 어떠한 경험을 하는지도 진로 선택에 영향을 준다. 더 나아가서 생활습관이나 수입과 같은 외적 요소들고 임상과 선택에 영향을 준다고 연구된 바 있다.

Some studies show that student demographics and characteristics are associated with their specialty choice [3-7]. Medical students’ orientations towards career types also influence their specialty choices [8]. In addition to personal attributes, studies have found medical students’ learning experiences such as clerkships and peer tutoring have

considerable influence on their career choices [5,9-12]. Furthermore, some studies suggest that external factors such as life style and income influence a student’s choice of medical specialty [13-15].


의과대학 학생들의 진로 선택이 몇몇 국가에서 연구된 바 있다.

Although medical students’ career choice has been studied in several countries [16-18],


이 연구에서 밝히고자 하는 질문은 아래와 같다.

임상 진로와 비임상 진로를 희망하는 학생의 배경(background)에 차이가 있는가?

이 두 그룹간 의학을 공부하는 동기나 흥미에 차이가 있는가?

이 두 그룹간 의료계 직종에 대한 인식의 차이가 있는가?

이 두 그룹간 진로 계획(career plan)의 태도에 차이가 있는가?

In more detail, the research questions for the present study are:

Are there differences in background between students who intend clinical careers and those who intend non-clinical careers?

Do these groups differ in their motivation for and interest in studying medicine? 

Do these groups differ in their perceptions of medical professions?

Do these groups differ in their attitudes towards career plans?




Methods


문헌 조사를 통했고, 연구에 적용할 만한 영문으로 된 자료는 없었고 한글 자료를 사용하였다. 1990년대에 전국 의과대학 학생들을 대상으로 설문조사를 하기 위해 개발된 질문지이다.

A literature search was conducted of existing research instruments suited for the present study in both English and Korean. No research instrument was available in English, so we decided to adopt one in Korean [19] for the present study. This questionnaire was developed by Park in the 1990s for a national survey of medical students on their perceptions of medical education and medical practice.


Results


Survey respondents and their career intentions




Respondents’ motivation for and interest in the study of medicine



Respondent perceptions of medical professions



Respondents’ attitudes towards career plans




Discussion and conclusions


본 연구에서는 비임상 진로를 희망하는 한국 의과대학 학생의 비율이 상승했음을 보여준다. 이는 미국에서 조사된 것과 비슷한 결과이다. 그러나 여전히 비임상 진로를 희망하는 학생이 학년이 높아감에 따라 감소함을 확인할 수 있었다. 이는 아마도 학생들이 임상 경험을 쌓아가면서 임상에 더 흥미를 가지기 때문인 것으로 생각된다. 의과대학 학생들의 임상 전문과에 대한 생각은 시간이 지나며 변하는 것처럼, 비임상 진로에 대한 생각도 같이 변화한다. 이러한 경향은 어린 학생들이 더 비임상 진로에 관심이 많은 것으로 나타난다.

The present study shows that the percentage of Korean medical students who intend non-clinical careers has increased over the past decade; from 7.3% in Park’s study [19] to 12.3%. This finding is similar to other studies of US medical students which show the national trend of an increase in medical students intending non-traditional careers [1,2]. Still, we found a trend of gradually decreasing number of students intending non-clinical careers over the years of study in medical school. It may be that students become more interested in clinical practice as they gain more clinical experience over the course of study. As medical students’ views of clinical specialties change over time [20,21], the same may be true of their views of non-clinical careers. This trend is also consistent with our finding that younger students are more interested in nonclinical careers than older students


의료 직종에 관한 생각은 두 그룹간 유의미한 차이가 없었으나 의과대학 공부에 대한 인식에 있어서는 일부 차이가 있었다. 첫째로 비록 두 그룹이 의과대학에 입학한 동기에는 차이가 없었지만, 비임상 진로에 관심이 있는 학생들은 의학 공부에 흥미를 덜 느꼈다. 두번째로 비임상 진로에 관심이 있는 학생들은 의학 공부에 어떤 면이 흥미가 없는가에 대한 점이 달랐다. 특히 암기 위주의 학습이라는 점을 강하게 느끼고 있었다.

We found no significant differences in students’ views of medical professions between those who intended non-clinical careers and their peers, but there were some differences in their perceptions of the study of medicine. First, students with intentions in non-clinical careers are less interested in the study of medicine than their peers, although the two groups are comparable in their motivation for getting into medical school. Second, those who intend non-clinical careers differ from their peers in their perceptions of what is uninteresting about the study of medicine. In particular, a higher portion of the students who intended non-clinical careers found there was too much to memorize in studying medicine than their peers


학습에 대한 학생의 관심은 인지적, 그리고 학습 스타일과 관련이 있음이 밝혀진 바 있고, 이는 학습 결과와도 연결된다. 또한 의과대학 학생들의 인지적 스타일과 학습 스타일은 임상과 선택에 영향을 준다.

The literature indicates that students’ interest in learning is related to their cognitive and learning styles, which also influence their learning outcomes [22]. Additionally, research suggests that medical students’ cognitive and learning styles influence their specialty choices [22,23]. 


또한 이번연구에서 대부분의 의과대학 학생들이 임상 외의 진로를 생각해보는 것은 중요하며, 의과대학이 이러한 진로에 대한 정보를 제공해야 한다고 생각하고 있는 것이 확인되었다. 여전히 의과대학 교과과정은 이러한 수요를 충분히 반영하고 있지 못하다.

Our findings indicate that a majority of medical students think it is important for them to consider careers outside clinical practice and that medical schools need to offer programs that provide information on such careers. Still, our finding indicates that medical school curricula do not address such needs sufficiently


이번 연구의 한계는 첫 번째로 샘플 숫자가 41개 의과대학 중 6개로 제한되었다는 것이다.

Limitations of the present study should be acknowledged. First, the sample size was limited in that only six out of 41 medical schools across the nation were included.


두 번째로, 한국 의과대학 학생들을 대상으로 한 이번 연구의 결과는 한국의 보건의료 환경에 의해 영향을 받았을 수도 있다는 점이다.

Second, this study reflects the perspectives of Korean medical students, which may be affected by the health care environment that they are in.






 2013 Jun 4;13:81. doi: 10.1186/1472-6920-13-81.

What is different about medical students interested in non-clinical careers?

Source

Department of Social and Preventive Medicine, Samsung Biomedical Research Institute, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, 300 Cheoncheon-dong, Jangan-gu, Suwon, Gyeonggi-do 440-746, Korea. pjaehyun@skku.edu.

Abstract

BACKGROUND:

The proportion of medical school graduates who pursue careers other than full-time clinical practice has increased in some countries as the physician's role has evolved and diversified with the changing landscape of clinical practice and the advancement of biomedicine. Still, past studies of medical students' career choices have focused on clinical specialties and little is known about their choice of non-clinical careers. The present study examined backgrounds, motivation and perceptions of medical students who intended non-clinical careers.

METHODS:

A questionnaire was administered to students at six Korean medical schools distributed across all provinces in the nation. The questionnaire comprised 40 items on respondents' backgrounds, their motivation for and interest in the study of medicine, their perceptions of medical professions, and their career intentions. Data was analyzed using various descriptive and inferential statistics.

RESULTS:

In total, 1,388 students returned the questionnaire (60% response rate), 12.3% of whom intended non-clinical careers (i.e., basic sciences, non-clinical medical fields, and non-medical fields). Those who planned non-clinical careers were comparable with their peers in their motivation for studying medicine and in their views of medical professions, but they were less interested in the study of medicine (P < 0.01). The two groups also differed significantly on their perceptions of what was uninteresting about the study of medicine (P < 0.01). The two groups were comparable in gender and entry-level ratios but their distributions across ages and years of study differed significantly (P < 0.01). A majority of respondents agreed with the statements that "it is necessary for medical school graduates to pursue non-clinical careers" and that "medical schools need to offer programs that provide information on such careers." Still, our finding indicates that medical school curricula do not address such needs sufficiently.

CONCLUSIONS:

Our study found some differences in backgrounds and perceptions of the study of medicine in medical students interested in non-clinical careers from their peers. Future studies are suggested to enhance our understanding of medical students" choice of non-clinical careers.













(출처 : http://www.nytimes.com/2011/07/18/opinion/l18docs.html?_r=0)




Introduction


의과대학의 학생 선발에 있어서 학업적 성취도와 더불어 비인지적(non-cognitive), 또는 비학업적(non-academic)한 특성이 중요하다는 것은 잘 알려져 있다. 2004년 맥마스터 대학에서 개발된 이후, Dundee 대학은 multiple mini interview (MMI)를 주요한 전입학(pre-admission) 평가법으로 사용해왔다.

It is widely accepted that so-called ‘non-cognitive’ or ‘non-academic’ attributes (such as interpersonal skills and moral reasoning) are important for medical school selection in addition to academic achievement. 1 Developed and introduced at McMaster in 2004, Dundee has since adopted the multiple miniinterview (MMI) as the primary pre-admissions measure

for this purpose. Other schools in the UK are increasingly following suit.


MMI는 OSCE와 같은 형태로 여러 방에서 순차적으로 면접을 보면서, 지원자를 다양한 측면에서 바라보면서(multiple snapshots) 다양한 인성적 특성을 평가하기 위한 목적으로 쓰인다. 이러한 종류의 면접은 Eva 등에 의해서 psychometric 특성의 측정을 위해서 처음 개발되었다.

MMIs aim to assess a broad array of candidates’ personal characteristics through ratings from multiple snapshots of behaviour in an objective structured clinical examination (OSCE)-like rotational approach. This type of interview was first introduced by Eva et al.2 because of the need for an interview process with robust psychometric properties, unlike most traditional interviews.


많은 내용으로 많은 면접자들을 평가한 결과 MMI는 지원자의 행동특성에 대한 정확한 그림을 얻는데 효과적임이 밝혀졌다. 미국, 호주, 영국에서 많은 연구결과가 있었고 MMI는 점차 전세계적으로 확산중에 있다.

By testing a larger content sample with multiple independent interviewers, MMIs have demonstrated that they can offer a more accurate picture of a candidate’s behaviour.3 With compelling evidence on reliability and other satisfactory psychometric properties from the USA, Australia and the UK,2,4–8 MMIs continue to be adopted across medical and dental schools worldwide.


이제 관심은 MMI가 의과대학과 의과대학 졸업 이후에까지의 예측력을 가지는가에 대한 것에 쏠리고 있다. 많은 연구를 통해 MMI의 결과가 미래의 수행능력과 통계적으로 유의미하면서 실용적인 관계를 보인다는 것이 확인되었다.

Attention has now shifted to the ability of MMIs to predict performance in medical school and beyond. A number of studies have demonstrated that they show statistically significant and practically relevant relationships with future performance.9–11


비록 이러한 연구들이 높은 예측타당도를 보여줬지만, 대부분의 연구가 소수의 캐나다 중심의 코호트로 수행되었다는 한계가 있다.

Although these studies have successfully demonstrated predictive validity, it is clear that more research is needed as the majority of this work was based on the same small Canadian cohort


따라서 북아메리카 이외의 지역에서, 그리고 더 많은 수의 코호트에서 MMI의 예측타당도를 검증해볼 필요가 있다.

Therefore, the body of evidence examining the predictive validity of MMIs would benefit from an analysis of different and larger cohorts and from outside of North America


MMI를 활용하는 것의 효용성은 이미 확실해졌지만, 다른 입학 기준에 대해서도 같은 기대를 가질 수 있다. 따라서 MMI가 다른 기준들보다 더 예측력이 뛰어난가는 확인해 볼 필요가 있다.

Although it is certainly beneficial to consider the usefulness of MMIs, the same expectation should be set for all admissions measures.9 It is therefore important to consider the predictive ability of MMIs relative to other pre-admissions measures


Ferguson 등과 Siu와 Reiter는 의과대학에서의 성공 예측에 있어서 자기소개서는 아무런 예측력이 없음을 밝혔다. Wright와 Bradley는 자기소개서를 평가한 점수가 의과대학에서의 수행능력을 예측하지 못하는 것은 물론이고, 오히려 사회경제적 배경에  따라 특정 지원자에게 더 이득을 주는 식의 비뚤림(bias)만 가지고 있다고 밝혔다.

Ferguson et al.13 and Siu and Reiter14 reviewed predictors of success in medical school and found that there was a lack of evidence that personal statements or references have any predictive value in subsequent achievement. Wright and Bradley15 also found that not only did scores derived from the personal statement fail to predict medical school examination performance, but they were also biased towards those from more advantaged socio-economic backgrounds.


UKCAT은 지식 검사로서 의과대학과 치과대학에서 필요한 다양한 범위의 정신적 능력(mental abilities)를 평가하기 위한 시험이다.

The UKCAT (http://www.ukcat.ac.uk) is an intelligence test used to ‘assesses a range of mental abilities identified by university medical and dental schools as important’.16


여러 문헌에서 MCAT, GAMSAT, BMAT이 모두 일부 미래의 수행능력을 예측할 수 있음이 밝혀졌지만, UKCAT에서 같은 종류의 연구결과가 나온 적은 없다.

Though the literature suggests that the MCAT, GAMSAT and BMAT each have some success at predicting future performance, level of success has not been replicated so far with the UKCAT



Statistical Analysis



Correlations were adjusted for range restriction and are referred to in this study as ‘unrestricted’ correlations. Statistical significance was determined prior to correcting the correlations. This adjustment is common in predictive validity studies and is carried out to counter correlation underestimates when the observed sample is not representative of the population of interest.21,22


The strengths of correlations were compared using Cohen’s effect size interpretations (small 0.10, medium 0.30, large 0.50)24 and the US Department of Labour, Employment Training and Administration’s guidelines for interpreting correlation coefficients in predictive validity studies (‘unlikely to be useful’ < 0.11; ‘dependent on circumstances’, 0.11–0.20; ‘likely to be useful’ 0.21– 0.35; ‘very beneficial’ > 0.35).25








Discussion



이 연구에서는 두 개의 서로 다른 코호트에서 MMI가 의과대학 시험의 성취도와 일관된 예측력을 가진다는 것을 보여줌으로써 MMI의 타당도에 대한 중요한 근거를 제시하고 있다.

this study does provide important evidence of the validity of the MMIs by demonstrating that it was the most consistent predictor of success in medical school examinations across two separate cohorts and years


비록 상관관계의 크기가 그다지 높지는 않지만, 이정도 수준의 예측타당도만으로도 지원자의 수가 많고 정교한 선발 결정이 중요한 선발시스템에서는 상당한 가치를 지닐 수 있음이 주장된 바 있다. 범위제한(range restriction)을 한 뒤에도, 이들 계수(coefficient)들은 '도움이 되어 보임' 또는 '상당한 도움이 됨' 이라고 나왔다. 상관관계는 OSCE평가에서 가장 높았으며, 이는 아마도 '의사소통 능력'이나, '압박적인 상황에서 수행하는 능력'과 같은 공통적 요소를 평가했기 때문이라고 생각된다.

Although the size of these correlations can be described as moderate, it has been asserted that measures with even modest predictive validity could add considerable value to selection systems where the ratio of applicants to places is large and the importance of sound selection decisions is high.28 After adjusting for range restriction, these coefficients can be described as ‘likely to be useful’ or ‘very beneficial’.25 Correlations were largest in OSCE assessments, perhaps because certain components are common in both, such as communication skills, or even more generally an ability to ‘perform under pressure’.





 2013 Jul;47(7):717-25. doi: 10.1111/medu.12193.

Predictive validity of the Dundee multiple mini-interview.

Source

Division of Clinical and Population Sciences and Education, University of DundeeDundee, UK.

Abstract

CONTEXT:

The multiple mini-interview (MMI) is the primary admissions tool used to assess non-cognitive skills at Dundee Medical School. Although the MMI shows promise, more research is required to demonstrate its transferability and predictive validity, for instance, relative to other UK pre-admissions measures.

METHODS:

Applicants were selected for interview based on a combination of measures derived from the Universities and Colleges Admissions Service (UCAS) form (academic achievement, medical experience, non-academic achievement and references) and the UK Clinical Aptitude Test (UKCAT) in 2009 and 2010. Candidates were selected into medical school according to a weighted combination of the UKCAT, the UCAS form and MMI scores. Examination scores were matched for 140 and 128 first- and second-year students, respectively, who took the 2009 MMIs, and 150 first-year students who took the 2010 MMIs. Pearson's correlations were used to test the relationships between pre-admission variables, examination scores and demographic variables, namely gender and age. Statistically significant correlations were adjusted for range restrictions and were used to select variables for multiple linear regression analysis to predict examination scores.

RESULTS:

Statistically significant correlations ranged from 0.18 to 0.34 and 0.23 to 0.50 unrestricted. Multiple regression confirmed that MMIs remained the most consistent predictor of medical school assessments. No scores derived from the UCAS form correlated significantly with examination scores.

CONCLUSIONS:

This study reports positive findings from the largest undergraduate sample to date. The MMI was the most consistent predictor of success in early years at medical school across two separate cohorts. UKCAT and UCAS forms showed minimal or no predictive ability. Further research in this area appears worthwhile, with longitudinal studies, replication of results from other medical schools and more detailed analysis of knowledge, skills and attitudinal outcome markers.

© 2013 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.



















(출처 : http://webaccessibility.gmu.edu/barriers_DE.html)




의과대학의 교수개발 프로그램은 선생님으로서, 관리자로서, 연구자로서의 역할을 잘 할 수 있도록 돕기 위한 목적이 있다.

Faculty development programmes designed to assist faculty members to fulfil their multiple roles as teachers, administrators and researchers have developed a prominent profile in most medical schools


그러나 교수들이 교수개발 프로그램에 참여하고자 하는 동기에 대한 연구는 적다.

However, the literature on attendance and participation in these activities is scant and, to our knowledge, no one has looked at what motivates clinical teachers to participate in faculty development initiative


교수들의 교수개발 프로그램 참여와 관한 두 가지 연구 영역이 있다. 한가지는 의사들로 하여금 참석하게 만드는 요인은 무엇인가 하는 것이다.

Two areas of inquiry are pertinent to why faculty members participate in faculty development activities. The first is the broad field of continuing medical education (CME), in which several authors have examined what motivates doctors to attend formal events.

For example, McLeod and McLeod5 identified five important motivators

maintenance of professional competence; 

acquisition of new knowledge and skills; 

improvement of understanding of key concepts; 

elimination of clinical deficiencies, and reassurance that one is ‘doing it right’. 

In another study, Harrison and Hogg6 examined motivators for CME attendance and uncovered the following: 

obtaining information and updates; 

reassurance that practice behaviour lies within accepted guidelines, 

and interaction with specialist presenters.


참여의 장애물은 무엇인가에 대한 연구도 있다.

Although motivators for participation in faculty development have not been explored, several studies have looked at barriers

Skeff and colleagues7 identified the following barriers against participation in faculty development programmes focusing on teaching improvement: 

attitudes and misconceptions of teachers; 

insufficient support from the institution, 

and a lack of convincing research on the benefits of teaching improvement methods.


또 다른 연구.

(i) the clinical reality, which encompassed volume of work and a lack of (protected) time; 

(ii) logistical issues, which included the timing of sessions and the central location of organised activities, which was often viewed as ‘remote’; 

(iii) a perceived lack of financial reward and recognition for teaching, and 

(iv) a perceived lack of direction from, and connection to, the university.



이러한 연구결과를 바탕으로 이 논문에서는 다음을 보려고 한다.

'자주 참석하는 교수들'의 참석 동기는 무엇인가.

'자주 참석하는 교수들'이 생각하는 참여의 장애요인은 무엇인가

어떻게 참여를 높일 수 있을까.

Building on our previous findings, the goals of this study were: 

(i) to explore what motivates ‘frequent attendees’ to participate in centralised faculty development activities; 

(ii) to examine frequent attendees’ perceptions of the personal, professional and organisational barriers described by ‘non-attendees’ in our earlier study,8 and 

(iii) to identify strategies to enhance faculty development offerings.



임상 교수들의 인식

Clinical teachers’ perceptions of faculty development


연구 참여자들은 'teacher improvement'라고 보았다.

The focus group participants generally had a clear idea of the goals of faculty development. They saw it as linked to ‘teacher improvement’ and felt that faculty development provided support for teaching, validated the importance of teaching, and offered a venue for self-improvement as a teacher


자주 참석하는 사람들은 왜 자주 참석하는가

Reasons why some clinical teachers participate on a regular basis


개인적, 전문적 성장을 할 수 있음

Faculty development is seen as enabling personal and professional growth

‘I go to faculty development to have my batteries recharged…’

‘Yeah, it’s like a mini, not a mini-sabbatical, but like a mini-retreat...’


학습과 자기성장을 가치롭게 여기는 사람임

Learning and self-improvement are valued

‘I like to learn new things. I like to expand my horizons... I think it’s about our priorities and where our interests lie...’


워크숍 주제가 필요에 맞음

Workshop topics must be viewed as relevant to teachers’ needs

‘For me it’s topic-oriented. If I’m interested in the topic, then I go…’

‘What usually draws me in is the subject matter – if it is relevant to the work I do…’


다른 동료들과 네트워크를 이룰 수 있음

The opportunity to network with colleagues is appreciated


처음 해봤을 때의 경험이 긍정적이어서 계속 하게 됨.

Initial positive experiences promote ongoing involvement

"낚였다(getting hooked)" 

The value of early positive experiences – and the notion of ‘getting hooked’ 

‘Once they get there, they’ll stay there...’



장애요인에 대한 임상교수들의 인식 

Clinical teachers’ perceptions of barriers against participation


자주 참석하는 교수들과 참석하지 않는 교수들이 느끼는 장애요인이 유사하다는 사실을 눈여겨 볼 필요가 있다.

It is noteworthy that individuals who attended faculty development on a regular basis perceived the same barriers against participation as their colleagues who did not attend.8


또한 교수개발 프로그램의 '장소'(학교 안인가 학교 밖인가) 역시 중요한 상징적 의미를 갖는다.

Moreover, as in our previous study,8 the location of our faculty development activities had both ‘symbolic’ and practical implications



참여를 높이기 위한 방법 

Ways to increase clinical teachers’ participation


다음의 제안을 한다.

In response to the question of how we can attract individuals who do not attend on a regular basis, the following suggestions were made: 

• 사람들을 끌어모을 수 있는 "연수 친구" 시스템을 만든다. implement a buddy system to get junior faculty members ‘hooked’;

• 동료들을 대상으로 멘토 역할을 한다. mentor colleagues; 

• co-leader로서 참석할 교수를 초대한다. invite faculty members to participate as ‘co-leaders’; 

• 새로 부임한 교수를 위한 소개 프로그램을 만든다. develop an orientation programme for new faculty members, and

• 조직 문화를 바꾼다.change the ‘institutional culture’ by formally recognising and rewarding teaching and participation in faculty development.


‘We need to catch them when they’re young! We need to help them learn to navigate the hidden curriculum... the academic culture...’




'동기'이란 단어의 라틴어 어원은 '움직인다' 이다. "기대"와 "가치" (둘 다 '동기'와 관련이 된다.)의 역할에 대해 고민해볼 필요가 있다. 

The Latin root of the word ‘motivation’ means ‘to move’.16 It would be beneficial to investigate the roles played by expectancies and values (both related to motivation) in helping some clinical teachers ‘move’ out of their clinical reality to participate in faculty development activities


성공적인 community of practice과 관련된 다섯 가지 요인이 있다.

Lave and Wenger20 suggest that the success of a community of practice depends on five factors: 

the existence and sharing by the community of a common goal

the existence and use of knowledge to achieve that goal

the nature and importance of relationships formed among community members

the relationships between the community and those outside it, 

and the relationship between the work of the community and the value of the activity.

그 외에도 필요한 것들은 공동의 자원(언어, 이야기, Practice)이 있다.

community also requires a shared repertoire of common resources, including language, stories and practices.21 


많은 면에서 공동체진료의 한 구성원으로 속한다는 것은 교수개발의 중요한 촉진제 역할을 할 수 있다.

In multiple ways, belonging to a community of practice can be an important facilitator for faculty development, which in turn can lead to the creation of a community of practice.22 


의학교육자로서, 교수개발자로서, 동료들이 공동체의 가치를 생각하고, 공동체를 찾아나설 수 있게 해야한다.

As medical educators and faculty developers, we need to help our colleagues value the community of which they are a part (e.g. by celebrating its existence, members and resources) and find community (e.g. by building new networks, creating opportunities for exchange and support, and sustaining relationships). 


또한 교수개발이 '사회적 역할'이라는 인식을 가질 수 있게 해야 한다. 그래서 상황학습이 아닌 '성인학습(자)'의 원칙을 따를 수 있도록 해야 한다.

Moreover, if we begin to conceptualise faculty development as a social practice, these findings may have important implications for the design and delivery of faculty development activities which often follow principles of adult learning and instructional design, but do not explicitly consider principles of situated learning23,24 and the building of communities of practice.20,21




 2010 Sep;44(9):900-7. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2923.2010.03746.x.

Faculty development: if you build it, they will come.

Source

Faculty Development Office, Faculty of Medicine, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada. yvonne.steinert@mcgill.ca

Abstract

OBJECTIVES:

The goals of this study were three-fold: to explore the reasons why some clinical teachers regularly attend centralised faculty development activities; to compare their responses with those of colleagues who do not attend, and to learn how we can make faculty development programmes more pertinent to teachers' needs.

METHODS:

In 2008-2009, we conducted focus groups with 23 clinical teachers who had participated in faculty development activities on a regular basis in order to ascertain their perceptions of faculty development, reasons for participation, and perceived barriers against involvement. Thematic analysis and research team consensus guided the data interpretation.

RESULTS:

Reasons for regular participation included the perceptions that: faculty development enables personal and professional growth; learning and self-improvement are valued; workshop topics are viewed as relevant to teachers' needs; the opportunity to network with colleagues is appreciated, and initial positive experiences promote ongoing involvement. Barriers against participation mirrored those cited by non-attendees in an earlier study (e.g. volume of work, lack of time, logistical factors), but did not prevent participation. Suggestions for increasing participation included introducing a 'buddy system' for junior faculty members, an orientation workshop for new staff, and increased role-modelling and mentorship.

CONCLUSIONS:

The conceptualisation of faculty development as a means to achieve specific objectives and the desire for relevant programming that addresses current needs (i.e., expectancies), together with an appreciation of learning, self-improvement and networking with colleagues (i.e., values), were highlighted as reasons for participation by regular attendees. Medical educators should consider these 'lessons learned' in the design and delivery of faculty development offerings. They should also continue to explore the notion of faculty development as a social practice and the application of motivational theories that include expectancy-value constructs to personal and professional development.






(출처 : http://www.art.com/products/p14506535-sa-i2745089/self-control-einstein.htm)


만약 "A=성공"이라면 A= X+Y+Z 로 표현될 것이다.


X는 '일 하는 것'이고

Y는 '노는 것'이며

Z는 '입 다물고 있는 것'이다.





연습환경에 대한 통제권한 (SELF-CONTROLLED PRACTICE)


대부분의 상황에 있어서, 가르치는 사람이 연습 프로토콜과 과정의 세부 사항을 결정한다. 그러나 기술 학습에 있어서 학습자가 스스로 연습 조건에 대한 통제권한을 가질 경우에 더 효과적이라는 연구 결과가 점점 모이고 있다. 즉, 일정 수준의 자기통제 권한을 주는 것이 완전히 짜여져 있는 프로토콜에서 학습하는 것보다 낫다는 것이다.

In most training situations, instructors determine the details of the training protocol or practice session. Yet there is

converging evidence that the effectiveness of skill learning can be enhanced if the learner is given some control over the practice conditions. That is, at least a certain degree of self-control can result in more effective learning than completely prescribed training protocols.


예를 들어 학습자들로 하여금 어떤 연습을 하고 싶은지 그렇지 않은지 등등.

For instance, having learners decide after which trial they want, or do not want, to receive feedback has been demonstrated to lead to more effective learning than predetermined feedback schedules. This has been shown in studies using sequential timing tasks41,50 and throwing tasks.51,52 


흥미롭게도 과제에 따라서 피드백을 요청한 정도는 매우 다양했는데, 비록 피드백의 빈도는 과제의 특성에 따라서 혹은 나눠준 설명이 얼마나 자세했는가에 따라 다를 수 있지만 피드백의 빈도보다 학습자가 피드백을 받을 것인지 말 것인지를 선택할 수 있는 권한이 더 중요한 것은 확실해 보인다.

Interestingly, the percentage of practice trials on which self-control learners requested feedback varied widely between studies, ranging from 11%52 to 97%.50 Although the frequency of feedback requests might depend on the nature of the task, or on the exact instructions given to participants (i.e. to what extent they encourage the learner to ask for feedback), it seems clear that the feedback frequency is less important than the learner’s ability to choose, or not to choose, feedback. 


스스로 연습의 통제권한을 갖는 조건에서 학습자는 더 적극적이 되고, 동기유발이 되고, 더 많은 노력을 기울인다. 피드백 여부에 대해 스스로 결정한 경우도 피드백 정보를 더 많이 원하게 되기 때문에 성공적으로 과제를 수행한 다음에도 피드백을 받고 싶어하게 되고, 이로 인해 동기유발은 더욱 높아진다.

Self-controlled practice conditions have generally been assumed to lead to a more active involvement of the learner, enhancing motivation and increasing the effort invested in practice.53,54 Self-controlled feedback might also correspond better to learners’ needs for information about their performance, such as after a strategy change, or allow them to ask for feedback after presumably successful (more motivating) trials.41


다른 연구결과에서도 보조기구를 사용할지 여부에 대해서 스스로 결정하게 한 경우 외부에서 정해준 것보다 더 이점(advantage)이 있음이 확인되었다.

Other studies have found advantages in the self controlled use of physical assistive devices, compared with yoked control conditions, for the learning of balance tasks.55,56



연습 환경에 대한 선택권을 가진 그룹의 경우

연습때에는 오히려 더 못했음에도 불구하고

나중에 '유지(retention)'을 보았을 때는 더 높은 성취도를 보였다.




다른 연구결과에서 시범자가 농구 점프슛을 시범한 영상을 달라고 요청할 수 있는 권한을 준 경우와 권한을 주지 않은 경우를 비교했을 때, 스스로 그 권한이 있었던 경우에 더 나은 수행능력을 보였다.

In another study, participants were able to request to view a video of a skilled model performing the task to be learned (basketball jump shot).57 The results showed that the learning of the movement form was significantly enhanced, compared with that of learners who had no control over the video presentations (Figure 4).


연습 환경을 스스로 통제할 권한을 주는 것의 장점을 고려했을 때, 의학교육의 훈련 과정도 일정 수준의 학습자 통제권을 주는 것이 바람직해 보인다.

Given the advantages of self-controlled practice, it seems safe to suggest that training procedures in medical education should incorporate at least a certain degree of learner control. 



CONCLUSIONS


이 리뷰에서, 몇몇 요소들을 살펴보았다.

In this review, we have discussed several factors that have been shown to facilitate the learning of motor skills (i.e. observational learning, external focus of attention, positive feedback, self-controlled practice).


이 글을 읽은 독자들은 아마 지난 수십년간 의학교육분야에서 활용되어 온 철학적, 메타-이론적 관점과 이 논문에서 다루고 있는 관점의 유사점/차이점을 발견했을지도 모른다. 

Readers may note similarities and distinctions in concepts used in empirical research in motor and cognitive learning as presented in this article and in the philosophical and meta-theoretical perspectives that have been prominent in medical education circles over the last few decades. 


공통적으로 활용한 것은 Collaborative learning과 Movement automacity의 종류, mindfulness와 reflective professional practice 등이다.

These common terms include collaborative learning (such as reflected in dyadic learning24 and small-group, problem-based learning activities59) and the kind of movement automaticity described in beneficial terms in this review compared with the positive language devoted to notions of self-regulation, mindfulness and reflective professional practice, and their assumed negative counterparts of mindlessness and automacity.


We assume that collaborative forms of motor and cognitive learning may tap into common cognitive and motivational substrates,59 but that there may be important differences between the desirable automaticity and fluidity of movement35 described above and a lack of mindfulness in one’s overall practice behaviour.


중요한 incision을 넣는 중간에 반성적 사고를 하고 싶어하는 사람이 어디 있겠는가?

Does one really want to become reflective in the midst of making a critical incision with a scalpel, disrupting smooth motor control?


반대로, effective movement control의 optimization과 effective modes of practice 사이의 유사점과 차이점을 구분할 필요가 있다.

By contrast, there may be value in more careful examination of the assumed similarities and distinctions between the optimisation of effective movement control35 and effective modes of practice. 60,62,63


그럼에도 불구하고 우리는 위의 내용이 현대 심리학이 다루고 있는 일반적인 학습원리에 대해 설명해주면서, 운동과학 분야에 광범위하게 적용가능하다고 생각한다. 따라서 의학분야의 훈련도 정보와 동기가 학습에 미치는 영향을 고려해가며 전략을 짜야 할 것이다.

Nevertheless, we believe that these findings reflect general learning principles from contemporary psychological and movement science that have relatively broad applicability. Therefore, we would assume that medical training would also benefit from instructional strategies that take into account both informational and motivational influences on learning







 2010 Jan;44(1):75-84. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2923.2009.03421.x.

Motor skill learning and performance: a review of influential factors.

Source

Department of Kinesiology and Nutrition Sciences, University of Nevada, Las Vegas, Nevada 89154-3034, USA. Gabriele.wulf@unlv.edu

Abstract

OBJECTIVES:

Findings from the contemporary psychological and movement science literature that appear to have implications for medical training are reviewed. Specifically, the review focuses on four factors that have been shown to enhance the learning of motor skills: observational practice; the learner's focus of attention; feedback, and self-controlled practice. OBSERVATIONAL PRACTICE: Observation of others, particularly when it is combined with physical practice, can make important contributions to learning. This includes dyad practice (i.e. practice in pairs), which is not only cost-effective, but can also enhance learning. FOCUS OF ATTENTION: Studies examining the role of the performer's focus of attention have consistently demonstrated that instructions inducing an external focus (directed at the movement effect) are more effective than those promoting an internal focus (directed at the performer's body movements). An external focus facilitates automaticity in motor control and promotes movement efficiency. FEEDBACK: Feedback not only has an informational function, but also has motivational properties that have an important influence onlearning. For example, feedback after successful trials and social-comparative (normative) feedback indicating better than average performance have been shown to have a beneficial effect on learning. SELF-CONTROLLED PRACTICE: Self-controlled practice, including feedback and model demonstrations controlled by the learner, has been found to be more effective than externally controlled practice conditions.

CONCLUSIONS:

All factors reviewed in this article appear to have both informational and motivational influences on learning. The findings seem to reflect general learning principles and are assumed to have relatively broad applicability. Therefore, the consideration of these factors in designing procedures for medical training has the potential to enhance the effectiveness and efficiency of training.













피드백(FEEDBACK)


운동기술 학습에 대한 피드백을 다룬 연구는 주로 동작의 결과(Knowledge of Results, KR) 또는 동작의 질(Knowledge of Performance, KP)에 대해 다루어왔다. 의학교육에서 주로 다루는 피드백은 KP이다. 그러나 두 가지 종류 모두 학습에 영향을 주는 원리에 있어서는 동일하다. 

Feedback examined in the context of motor learning research usually involves information about the outcome (termed ‘knowledge of results’ [KR]) or the quality of the movement (termed ‘knowledge of performance’ [KP]). The latter corresponds more to the feedback given by an instructor in medical education. Yet, both types of augmented feedback (KR, KP) seem to adhere to the same principles in the way they affect learning.37

운동기술 학습을 다룬 연구는 피드백의 정보전달적 기능에 대해 주로 다루고 있는데, 이는 즉 학습자의 수행능력이 목표한 것에 비해서 어떠한 차이가 있는지에 대한 정보를 주는 것을 뜻한다. 이러한 맥락에서 피드백의 빈도, 시기, 정확성 등이 미치는 영향이 주로 연구되어 왔다. 이들 연구는 증가된 피드백(augmented feedback)이 어떠한 역할을 할 수 있을 것인가에 대한 통찰을 준다.

Much research in the motor learning domain has been concerned with the informational function of feedback, which refers to its role of providing information about an individual’s performance in relation to the task goal. In this context, studies have addressed issues such as the effect of feedback frequency, timing, accuracy or error estimation. This research has provided important insights into the role of augmented feedback in learning and the findings have been reviewed in various articles.37,38 


최근의 많은 연구들이 수술 기술(봉합, 매듭)의 수행능력과 학습에 있어 피드백의 역할을 다루고 있다. 비록 이들 연구에서 다루고 있는 과제와 피드백의 종류가 분명히 의학 분야의 훈련과 연관이 되어있긴 하지만, 여기서 조심해야 할 것은 피드백의 양이나 타입이 다른 변수에 의해서 교란되고 있다는 점이다.

A number of recent studies have examined the role of feedback in the performance and learning of surgical skills, such as suturing or knot-tying.9,10,39 Although the tasks and types of feedback (e.g. instructor feedback) have obvious relevance for medical training, a caveat of such studies is that the amount and type of feedback are often confounded.


여기서 우리는 지금까지 무시되어왔던, 혹은 운동기술 수행능력에 일시적인 영향만 준다고 생각되어왔던 요소에 대해 다루고자 한다. 최근의 일부 연구결과를 보면 피드백에 있어서 '동기(motivation)'의 영향이 중요한 요소가 된다는 것이 밝혀졌다. 예를 들어 과제를 '잘 한' 다음에 주는 피드백이 '못 한'다음에 주는 피드백보다 학습에 더 효과적이라는 것이 밝혀졌다.

Here, we focus on an aspect of feedback that has been largely neglected, or has been assumed to exert only temporary effects on motor performance.11 Some recent findings indicate that the motivational properties of feedback can have an important influence on learning. For example, some studies in the past few years have shown that providing learners with feedback after ‘good’ trials, compared with after ‘poor’ trials, results in more effective learning.40


성공적으로 과제를 수행한 뒤에 피드백을 받는 참가자들은 피드백이 없는 상태에서 유지(retention)를 측정해서 보면 더 나은 학습 수준을 보여준다. 성공적인 수행을 강조하고 덜 성공적인 수행은 무시하는 방식의 피드백은 긍정적인 동기화를 유발하는 효과가 있어 학습에 도움이 된다. 흥미롭게도, 학습자들은 종종 그들이 수행한 것에 대해서 스스로 긍정적으로 평가한다. 따라서 잘못한 점을 지적하는 피드백이 불필요 한 것은 아니지만, 스스로에 대해서 걱정을 더 많이 하도록 만들어서 학습을 방해할 수도 있다.

Participants who received feedback after the best trials demonstrated more effective learning, as measured by retention tests without feedback. Feedback that emphasises successful performance and ignores less successful attempts benefits learning presumably because of its positive motivational effects. Interestingly, learners often have a relatively good feel for how they perform.41,42 Thus, feedback indicating errors may not only be redundant, but it can also heighten concerns about the self that may hamper learning.35,36





두 그룹으로 나누어서 실제 수행 능력에 대한 객관적인 피드백(veridical feedback)외에 

추가적으로 한 그룹은 무조건 좋은 피드백을, 다른 그룹은 나쁜 피드백을 주었다.

진짜 점수와 무관하게 좋은 피드백을 받은 그룹의 성과가 더 좋았다.





자기 자신에 대한 우려, 걱정은 상대평가적 피드백(normative feedback)에 의해서도 유발될 수 있다. 상대평가성 피드백은 다른 사람의 수행능력에 대한 내용을 포함하게 되는데, 이러한 피드백에서 자신이 평균 이하라는 것을 알게 되면 자기효능감이 떨어지고, 부정적인 자기반응(self-reaction)을 갖게 되고, 과제에 대한 관심이 낮아질 수 있다.

Similar self-related concerns, or worries, may be induced by normative feedback. Normative feedback involves information about others’ performance, such as a peer group’s average performance scores, provided in addition to the learner’s personal scores. If such feedback indicates that one’s own performance is below average, this may result in decreased self-efficacy (situation-specific self-confidence), negative self-reactions, and decreased task interest.43 


반대로 상대평가에서 긍정적으로 비교를 당하면 자기효능감이 높아지고, 자기반응이 긍정적이 되고 그 기술에 대한 학습동기가 높아진다. 상대평가적 피드백은 일시적인 수행능력에 영향을 줄 수 있을 뿐만 아니라, 지속적으로 학습에도 영향을 줄 수 있다. 최근 연구에서 운동기술 학습은 (가짜로) 긍정적인 상대평가적 피드백을 해줬을 때 (부정적인 상대평가적 피드백을 해줬을 때보다) 더 향상되었다.

By contrast, positive comparisons with the ‘norm’ can enhance self-efficacy, produce more positive self-reactions and increase motivation to practise a skill.44,45 Normative feedback not only has the potential to affect performance while it is provided,44 but it can have more permanent effects on motor learning. In recent studies, motor learning was enhanced by (false) positive relative to negative normative feedback.46–48


따라서 단순히 어떤 과제에 대해서 '잘한다' 혹은 '못한다'라는 확신을 하는 것 만으로도 학습에 영향을 미치고, 자기 충족적 예언에 영향을 준다. 흥미롭게도 아무런 상대평가적 피드백을 받지 못한 그룹에 비해서 '평균보다 낫다'라는 정도의 피드백만 받은 그룹의 학습이 더 촉진되었다. 아무 피드백을 받지 못한 그룹의 학습 수준은 부정적인 피드백을 받은 그룹과 비슷했다. 이러한 연구 결과는 긍정적인 피드백이 학습에 촉진적 영향을 줄 수 있음을 보여준다. 

Thus, the mere conviction of being ‘good’ or ‘poor’ at a particular task influenced learning and essentially represented a self-fulfilling prophecy. Interestingly, in another study, feedback indicating better-than-average performance also facilitated learning compared with that in a control group that did not receive normative feedback. The control group’s level of learning was similar to that of a group that received negative normative feedback. 48 This finding suggests that positive feedback may have a facilitatory effect on learning. 


반대로, 부정적인 상대평가적 피드백을 주거나 아무런 상대평가적 정보를 주지 않을 경우 스스로에 대한 생각을 하도록 만들면서 자기 통제적 활동을 하게 함으로써 일차적 과제에 대한 학습을 방해한다. 따라서 피드백은 단순히 아무런 감정적 주석이 달리지 않은 정보를 '중립적'으로 보여주기 위한 것이 아니라 실수를 줄이기 위한 목적이 있음을 인식해야 한다. 피드백은 동기유발과정에 영향을 주는 것이 되어야 하며, 다시 말해 학습에 영향을 줄 수 있어야 한다.

Alternatively, negative normative feedback, or no comparison information (control condition), may trigger thoughts about the self and engage ensuing self-regulatory activities that hamper learning of the primary task.35,36 Thus, feedback should not merely be viewed as ‘neutral’ information that is processed – without any affective connotation – with the goal of minimising errors. Rather, the valence of feedback appears to have an influence on motivational processes that, in turn, affect learning


이러한 연구 결과들은 의학과 관련된 훈련에 있어서 가르치는 사람들은 피드백의 정보전달적 기능만 생각해서는 안되고, 학습자의 동기유발 상태에 영향을 준다는 것을 기억해야 한다. '실수를 했을 때 즉각적으로 피드백을 제공하라'와 같은 제안은 이러한 맥락에서 이해할 수 있다. 실수에 대한 정보로부터 학습자는 자신의 수준을 정확히 인지할 수도 있지만, 사기가 꺾일 수도 있으므로 그 정보의 양이 과도해서도 안된다.

These findings suggest that instructors in medical training should not only consider the informational function of feedback, but should also remember that feedback will almost certainly affect learners’ motivational states. Suggestions such as ‘provide immediate (proximate) feedback when an error occurs’6 should be viewed in this context. Error information may not only be superfluous, as learners may already have a good sense of how well they have performed,41,42 but it also has the potential to be demoralising. 


또한 최근의 연구결과를 고려하면 "한 훈련 사이클이 종료되었을 때 학습자가 달성해야 하는 목표와 비교한 학습자의 발전과정(Learning curve)"에 대한 피드백을 주는 것도 주의를 기울일 필요가 있다. 목표를 설정하는 것 자체는 학습을 촉진하는 것이 맞지만, 기대치보다 수행능력이 떨어진다는 피드백을 받으면 - 특히 그것이 반복적일 경우 - 학습에 대해 부정적이 될 수 있기 때문이다. 

Furthermore, recommendations to provide ‘evidence at the end of each trial of progress (graphing the ‘‘learning curve’’), with reference to a proficiency performance goal that the trainee is expected to attain’6 should be viewed with some caution, given recent findings related to normative feedback. Although goal setting has been shown to enhance learning,49 feedback indicating that performance is below expectations – especially when presented repeatedly – may have negative effects on learning.






 2010 Jan;44(1):75-84. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2923.2009.03421.x.

Motor skill learning and performance: a review of influential factors.

Source

Department of Kinesiology and Nutrition Sciences, University of Nevada, Las Vegas, Nevada 89154-3034, USA. Gabriele.wulf@unlv.edu

Abstract

OBJECTIVES:

Findings from the contemporary psychological and movement science literature that appear to have implications for medical training are reviewed. Specifically, the review focuses on four factors that have been shown to enhance the learning of motor skills: observational practice; the learner's focus of attention; feedback, and self-controlled practice. OBSERVATIONAL PRACTICE: Observation of others, particularly when it is combined with physical practice, can make important contributions to learning. This includes dyad practice (i.e. practice in pairs), which is not only cost-effective, but can also enhance learning. FOCUS OF ATTENTION: Studies examining the role of the performer's focus of attention have consistently demonstrated that instructions inducing an external focus (directed at the movement effect) are more effective than those promoting an internal focus (directed at the performer's body movements). An external focus facilitates automaticity in motor control and promotes movement efficiency. FEEDBACK: Feedback not only has an informational function, but also has motivational properties that have an important influence onlearning. For example, feedback after successful trials and social-comparative (normative) feedback indicating better than average performance have been shown to have a beneficial effect on learning. SELF-CONTROLLED PRACTICE: Self-controlled practice, including feedback and model demonstrations controlled by the learner, has been found to be more effective than externally controlled practice conditions.

CONCLUSIONS:

All factors reviewed in this article appear to have both informational and motivational influences on learning. The findings seem to reflect general learning principles and are assumed to have relatively broad applicability. Therefore, the consideration of these factors in designing procedures for medical training has the potential to enhance the effectiveness and efficiency of training.




(출처 : http://quotes-lover.com/picture-quote/only-one-thing-has-to-change-for-us-to-know-happiness-in-our-lives-where-we-focus-our-attention/)


삶의 행복이 무엇인지를 알기 위해서는 단 한가지만 바꾸면 된다 : 

'초점을 어디에 둘 것인가'


 Greg F. Anderson (born February 1966) is a former personal trainer, 

best known for his work with Barry Bonds, and links with BALCO.





초점 영역(FOCUS OF ATTENTION)


운동기술를 가르치고 피드백을 할 때에 우리는 종종 '이러저러하게 움직여보라'라는 지침을 준다. 우리 몸의 어떤 부위가 어떻게 움직여야 하는지에 대한 설명을 하는 것이다. 예를 들면 매듭을 묶는 것을 가르칠 때 '오른 엄지와 검지는 계속 짧은 쪽을 잡고 있고 중지와 약지로 (blah blah..)'라고 하는 식이다.

Instructions and feedback for motor skill learning often involve references to the performer’s movements, describing how the movements of certain body parts should be coordinated with those of others in space and time. For example, instructions for tying a knot given to aspiring surgeons may include the following: ‘The right index finger and thumb continue to grasp the short end, as the middle and ring fingers are placed behind the short end to begin creating a loop. The left hand has begun to bring the long strand toward the surgeon.’26 


그러나 지난 여러 연구결과들을 보면 학습자의 특정 신체부위의 움직임을 지시하는 것은 비교적 그 효과가 떨어지는 것으로 나타난다. 오히려 특정 움직임이 그 환경에서 어떠한 결과(영향)로서 나타나는 것(외부에 초점을 두는 것, external focus)을 설명하는 것이 더 수행능력과 학습을 효과적으로 촉진한다는 것이 밝혀졌다.

Numerous studies in the past few years have demonstrated that instructions directing attention to performers’ movements – and referring to body parts such as fingers, hands, hips, head, etc. (inducing an ‘internal focus’ of attention) – are relatively ineffective. By contrast, directing attention to the effects of the individual’s movements on the environment (e.g. an implement) – inducing an ‘external focus’ – generally results in more effective performance and learning.27





복잡한 운동기술에 대해서 초점 영역(attentional focus)을 다룬 연구들이 많다. 공통적으로 밝혀진 것은 가르치는 사람이 말하는 방식(wording)의 변화를 약간만 줘도 수행능력과 학습에 엄청난 차이를 가져올 수 있다는 것이다. 예를 들어 골프채(club)과 팔이 조화롭게 움직여야 할 때, 골프채의 스윙(외부 초점)에 초점을 맞춰서 지도하는 것이 팔의 스윙(내부 초점)에 초점을 두고 지도하는 것보다 효과적임이 연구된 바 있다.

Many studies examining attentional focus effects have used complex motor skills. They have shown that a simple change in the wording of instructions can  have a significant impact on performance and learning. For instance, despite the fact that club and arm must move in synchrony, instructing golfers to focus on the swing of the club (external focus) has been demonstrated to lead to greater accuracy in shots than instructions to focus on the swing of their arms (internal focus) (Figure 2).28


농구, 배구, 다트, 축구에서도 공/다트 등의 궤적에 초점을 맞추는 것이 특정 신체 부위(손)에 초점을 맞춰 가르치는 것보다 더 효과가 좋았다.

Similarly, in basketball, 29 dart throwing,30 volleyball and soccer,31 wording instructions in a way that directs attention to the (anticipated) trajectory of the ball or dart, for example, leads to increased movement accuracy compared with instructions that refer to the body part (e.g. hand) producing that effect.


외부 초점에 집중하는 것은 다양한 전문성의 수준(전문가-아이-장애가 있는 사람)에서 효과가 있음이 확인되었고, 심리적 압박을 받는 상황에서도 효과가 있음이 확인되었다.

The advantages of an external focus have been shown for different levels of expertise and populations (including children and persons with motor impairments),33 as well as for performance under pressure.27


외부 초점에 신경을 쓰면 동작의 자율성을 촉진함으로서 학습 속도를 빠르게 할 수 있다. 구체적으로 말하면 특정 동작의 효과에 초점을 맞추는 것(외부 초점)은 무의식 또는 자동적 과정(automatic process)를 활성화시키는 반면, 내부 초점에 집중했을 때에 는 운동체계를 제한시켜서 자동 조절 능력이 제대로 작동하지 않는다.

An external focus of attention appears to speed up the learning process – or shorten the first stages of learning – by facilitating movement automaticity (‘constrained action hypothesis’).34 More specifically, a focus on the movement effect promotes the utilisation of unconscious or automatic processes, whereas an internal focus on one’s own movements results in a more conscious type of control that constrains the motor system and disrupts automatic control processes. 


또한 외부 초점에 집중했을 때 내부 초점에 집중하는 상황보다 미세한 동작 조절이나 집중력에 대한 요구도가 낮다는 연구 결과도 위의 내용을 잘 설명해준다. 외부 초점에 집중하면 좀 더 자동적이고, 반사적(reflex-type)으로 동작을 조절할 수 있기 때문이다. 근전도(EMG)로 같은 동작을 했을 때 활성도를 측정해보면 외부 초점에 집중한 경우 활성도가 낮아져 있어서 운동의 효율이 높아진 것을 확인할 수 있다.

Support for this view comes from studies showing reduced attentional demands when performers adopt an external as opposed to an internal focus, as well as a higher frequency of low amplitude movement adjustments, which is seen as an indication of a more automatic, reflex-type mode of control.34 Furthermore, electromyographic (EMG) activity for the same task has been found to be reduced when participants adopt an external focus29, indicating that movement efficiency is also enhanced.35


마지막으로, 내적 초점에 집중하는 것은 좀 더 자신에게 신경을 쓰게 하고, 자신에게 집중하게 함으로서, 결국 자기스스로 자신을 평가하게 해서(self-evaluation) 알게 모르게(implicit or explicit) 사고와 정서 반응을 조절하는 자기 통제 과정(self-regulatory process)를 활성화시킨다. 

Finally, the mere mention within the internal focus instructions of the performer’s body may act to increase self-consciousness, or self-focus, which in turn may lead to self-evaluation and activate implicit or explicit self-regulatory processes in attempts to manage thoughts and affective responses.36


이러한 연구 결과는 운동조절에 대한 요구도가 높고 섬세하게 움직일 필요가 있는 운동기술을 훈련시킬 때에 대한 시사점을 제시한다. 동작 그 자체에 대해 초점을 두는 것은 수행능력에 효과가 없다. 대신 어떤 동작으로 인한 효과에 집중하는 것이 효과성이나 효율성에 있어서 더 나은 결과를 가져다준다.

These findings would appear to have implications for the training and performance of motor skills that have high motor-control demands and require precisely coordinated movements. A focus on the movements per se (e.g. on hand or fingers) would be expected to be detrimental to performance. Instead, directing attention to the effect of the movement (e.g. on the suturing material, implement or incision site) should result in greater effectiveness and efficiency.


구체적으로 어떤 것이 이상적인 외부 초점인 것인가에 대한 의문이 있을 수 있다. 하지만 지금까지의 연구에 따르면 외부 초점의 이점이 매우 꾸준하게 증명되고 있으며, 많은 연구자들이 다양한 실험실 업무나 실제 환경의 연구에 대한 적절한 외부 초점을 밝혀내고 있는 중이다.

Specifically what the optimal external focus target might be for a given task and learner experience combination remains an empirical question. To date, however, the fact that the external focus advantage has been found so consistently suggests that investigators have identified reasonable external foci for their various laboratory and real-world tasks.27






 2010 Jan;44(1):75-84. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2923.2009.03421.x.

Motor skill learning and performance: a review of influential factors.

Source

Department of Kinesiology and Nutrition Sciences, University of Nevada, Las Vegas, Nevada 89154-3034, USA. Gabriele.wulf@unlv.edu

Abstract

OBJECTIVES:

Findings from the contemporary psychological and movement science literature that appear to have implications for medical training are reviewed. Specifically, the review focuses on four factors that have been shown to enhance the learning of motor skills: observational practice; the learner's focus of attention; feedback, and self-controlled practice. OBSERVATIONAL PRACTICE: Observation of others, particularly when it is combined with physical practice, can make important contributions to learning. This includes dyad practice (i.e. practice in pairs), which is not only cost-effective, but can also enhance learning. FOCUS OF ATTENTION: Studies examining the role of the performer's focus of attention have consistently demonstrated that instructions inducing an external focus (directed at the movement effect) are more effective than those promoting an internal focus (directed at the performer's body movements). An external focus facilitates automaticity in motor control and promotes movement efficiency. FEEDBACK: Feedback not only has an informational function, but also has motivational properties that have an important influence onlearning. For example, feedback after successful trials and social-comparative (normative) feedback indicating better than average performance have been shown to have a beneficial effect on learning. SELF-CONTROLLED PRACTICE: Self-controlled practice, including feedback and model demonstrations controlled by the learner, has been found to be more effective than externally controlled practice conditions.

CONCLUSIONS:

All factors reviewed in this article appear to have both informational and motivational influences on learning. The findings seem to reflect general learning principles and are assumed to have relatively broad applicability. Therefore, the consideration of these factors in designing procedures for medical training has the potential to enhance the effectiveness and efficiency of training.














(출처 : http://eideneurolearningblog.blogspot.kr/2005/06/learning-by-observation.html)

(관찰을 통한 학습은, 심지어 주변에서 정신사납게(distraction) 만들어 conscious하지 못하게 했을 때에도 일어난다)



동물의 행동을 제대로 이해하기 위해서는 

동물이 가진 아름대움을 보는 미학적인 눈이 있어야 한다. 

이것은 인내심을 가지고 충분히 오래 관찰했을 때에야 가질 수 있다. 


"To really understand animals and their behavior you must have an esthetic appreciation of an animal's beauty. This endows you with the patience to look at them long enough to see something." - Konrad Lorenz







관찰을 통한 학습

(LEARNING THROUGH OBSERVATION)


'관찰을 통한 학습'이라는 개념은 비록 '관찰을 통한 학습'이라는 것이, 실제로 연습을 하는 것 만큼의 효과가 있지는 않지만, 아무 연습도 하지 않는 것보다는 효과적이라는 것이 꾸준히 밝혀지면서 등장했다.

This notion comes in part from previous findings that observational practice is typically not as effective as physical practice, although it has been consistently shown to be more effective in the learning of motor skills than no practice.12 


연구자들은 관찰을 통한 학습이 학습에 있어 나름의 중요한 기여를 한다는 것을 밝혔는데, 특히 관찰이 실제 연습과 동시에 이뤄질 경우에 그러하다. 실경이미지(뉴로이미지) 연구를 통해서 실제로 수행을 할 때와 수행을 하는 것을 관찰할 때 동일한 신경학적 구조물이 활성화된다는 것이 밝혀진 바 있다. Premotor cortex, supplementary motor area 등등이 그렇다.

Research has shown that observational practice can make unique and important contributions to learning, especially when observation is combined with physical practice.13,14 Indeed, neuroimaging experiments report that a set of common

neural structures are activated during both action production and action observation.15–17 The shared neural structures include the premotor cortex, supplementary motor area, inferior parietal lobule, cingulate gyrus and cerebellum.


Shea 등의 연구에 따르면 학습자는 관찰을 함으로써 어떤 과제를 수행하기 위해서 어떠한 것들이 조화를 이뤄야 하는지, 중요한 요소는 무엇인지, 특정 전략은 얼마나 효과적인가 등에 대한 정보를 얻을 수 있음이 밝혀졌다. 연구진은 비록 이러한 정보들을 관찰만을 통해 얻는 것이 어려울 수는 있겠지만, 만약 학습자가 잘 준비를 하고, 관찰 후에 곧바로 수행해볼 수 있다면 불가능한 것도 아니라는 결과를 얻었다. 이러한 관점에서 보면 관찰을 통한 학습을 통해 학습자는 실제로 수행을 해보지 않고서도 그 과정을 수행해 볼 수 있는 기회를 얻는 것과 같다.

Shea et al.24 argued that observation may give the learner unique opportunities either to extract important information concerning appropriate coordination patterns and subtle requirements of the task or to evaluate the effectiveness of strategies that would be difficult, if not impossible, if he or she were to prepare and execute an impending movement concomitantly. From that perspective, observational practice offers the learner a chance to conduct processing that could not occur simultaneously with physical practice.


관찰을 통한 학습의 효과는 연구 참여자들로 하여금 서로 번갈아가면서 특정 과제를 수행하게 한 실험을 통해서 확인할 수 있다. 참가자들을 두 명씩 짝을 지어 서로 번갈아가면서 연습을 하게 한 결과, 혼자서 학습하도록 한 집단이나, 두 명씩 짝은 지었지만 번갈아가면서 연습을 하도록 하지 않은 그룹과 비교했을 때 배우는 속도 뿐만 아니라 기술의 유지(retention)에서도 가장 우수한 성과를 보였다.

The role this additional processing can play in learning is best demonstrated when participants alternate between physical and observational practice in dyads (Figure 1).




Figure 1 Root mean square (RMS) errors of the individual, dyad-alternate and dyad-control groups during acquisition and retention on a balance task (Shea et al. 199924). Participants in the individual group undertook only physical practice. Participants in the dyad groups were allowed the same amount of physical practice, but were also able to observe the other member of the dyad (in the dyad-alternate condition interspersed with their own physical practice trials, in the dyad-control condition before or after their trials). On the retention tests all participants performed individually. (Note: smaller RMS errors indicate more effective performance)




짝지어서 번갈아가면서 훈련(dyad-alternative)이 효과가 있는 이유는 파트너와의 경쟁심에서 비롯된 동기유발, 높은 목표의 설정, 같이 학습하고 있는 파트너를 보며 스스로에 대한 의식을 덜 하게 되는 것(loss of self-consciousness) 등으로 생각된다. 또한 "협동적 또는 경쟁적인 학습 환경이 혼자 학습하는 것보다 더 즐겁다"는 흔히 전해져내려오는 말과 들어맞는 것도 우연의 일치는 아닐 것이다. 

Learning benefits of dyad practice are presumably also a result of enhanced motivation, resulting perhaps from competition with the partner, the setting of higher goals, or the loss of self-consciousness as people fulfil interdependent dyadic roles and find another in the same learning boat. It is perhaps not coincidental that participants in collaborative or cooperative learning situations often anecdotally report more enjoyment than they have experienced when learning alone25


짝을 이룬 학습의 또 다른 형태는 active interlocked modelling이란 것이다. Shebilske 등은 연구 참여자들에게 비디오게임을 하게 했는데, 조이스틱과 키보드를 모두 써야 하는 이 게임에서 두 명이 짝을 이뤄서 각각 하나씩(한 명은 조이스틱, 한 명은 키보드)만 가지고 게임을 하게 했다.

One form of dyadic training is called ‘active interlocked modelling’ (AIM).13 Shebilske and colleagues had participants practise a military scenario video game (Space Fortress), such that one partner controlled half of the complex task (e.g. the keyboard), while the other partner controlled the other half (e.g. the joystick).13


그 후 혼자서 조이스틱과 키보드를 모두 사용해서 게임을 연습한 그룹과 비교해보니 이 두 그룹은 게임 수행 능력에 있어서 차이가 없었다.

On test games that required control of the whole task there were no differences between groups.


"짝이룬 연습(dyad practice)"에서 중요한 것은 두 명의 참가자가 기존의 혼자서 연습하는 방식의 절반밖에 연습에 사용하지 않는다는 것이다. 따라서 비록 훈련의 성과가 서로 유사하다고 하더라도 훈련의 효과성이 엄청나게 향상된 것이라고 볼 수 있다. 실제로 Shebiliske 등은 총 연습 시간을 비롯한 다른 것들은 모두 그대로 둔 채로 연구 참여자 숫자만 두 배로 늘렸을 때 AIM protocol은 훈련의 효과성이 유지된 채로 효율성이 두 배 향상된 것을 보여주었다.

It is important to note that in dyad practice two participants can practise in the time and using the resources that would be required for only one participant using traditional practice. Thus, training efficiency is greatly increased even when dyad practice only results in retention performance similar to that of physical practice. Indeed, Shebilske et al.13 concluded that, by doubling the number of participants trained without increasing the time and other resources necessary, the AIM protocol increased training efficiency by 100% without sacrificing learning effectiveness.


따라서, 관찰을 통한 학습이 실제 연습과 동반될 수만 있다면 운동기술의 학습에 큰 기여를 할 수 있을 것이다.

Thus, observational practice – especially when it is combined with physical practice – can make an important contribution to skill learning.






 2010 Jan;44(1):75-84. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2923.2009.03421.x.

Motor skill learning and performance: a review of influential factors.

Source

Department of Kinesiology and Nutrition Sciences, University of Nevada, Las Vegas, Nevada 89154-3034, USA. Gabriele.wulf@unlv.edu

Abstract

OBJECTIVES:

Findings from the contemporary psychological and movement science literature that appear to have implications for medical training are reviewed. Specifically, the review focuses on four factors that have been shown to enhance the learning of motor skills: observational practice; the learner's focus of attention; feedback, and self-controlled practice. OBSERVATIONAL PRACTICE: Observation of others, particularly when it is combined with physical practice, can make important contributions to learning. This includes dyad practice (i.e. practice in pairs), which is not only cost-effective, but can also enhance learning. FOCUS OF ATTENTION: Studies examining the role of the performer's focus of attention have consistently demonstrated that instructions inducing an external focus (directed at the movement effect) are more effective than those promoting an internal focus (directed at the performer's body movements). An external focus facilitates automaticity in motor control and promotes movement efficiency. FEEDBACK: Feedback not only has an informational function, but also has motivational properties that have an important influence onlearning. For example, feedback after successful trials and social-comparative (normative) feedback indicating better than average performance have been shown to have a beneficial effect on learning. SELF-CONTROLLED PRACTICE: Self-controlled practice, including feedback and model demonstrations controlled by the learner, has been found to be more effective than externally controlled practice conditions.

CONCLUSIONS:

All factors reviewed in this article appear to have both informational and motivational influences on learning. The findings seem to reflect general learning principles and are assumed to have relatively broad applicability. Therefore, the consideration of these factors in designing procedures for medical training has the potential to enhance the effectiveness and efficiency of training.












(출처 : http://trainersadvice.com/trainers-quote-of-the-week-by-gandhi/)



INTRODUCTION


술기 능력(운동기능, motor skill)은 의학분야 뿐만 아니라 다른 보건 전문직이라면 갖추어야 할 필수적인 요소이다.

Motor skills are an essential component of the expertise displayed by, and required of, individuals working in medicine or other health professions.


일부 가상현실에서의 연습을 통해 실제 수술방에서의 술기능력을 향상시킬 수 있다는 연구도 있고, 반대로 일부 연구는 수술 능력의 향상과는 무관하다는 연구도 있다.

Although some studies have found that additional virtual-reality training can facilitate the transfer of skills to the operating room,3 others did not find any beneficial effect of prior virtual-reality training on surgical performance.4


더 나아가서는 의학 분야에서 사용되고 있는 다른 훈련방법과 시뮬레이션 연습이 과연 효과에서 차이가 있는지에 대한 의문이 제기되고 있다. 일부 학자들은 학습의 '원칙'에 의거해서 시뮬레이션 훈련의 유용성을 높일 수 있는 교육 방법에 대해 제안을 하기도 했다.

Furthermore, the effectiveness of simulation compared with other methods of medical training has been questioned.5 Some have made suggestions for enhancing the usefulness of simulator training by combining it with instructional techniques that adhere to learning ‘principles’.6


일부 연구들은 인지적 영역과 운동기능적 영역의 학습 촉진시키는 것으로 알려진 요소을 다루었는데, 예를 들면 반복적인 시험이라든가, 피드백을 요약해서 준다든가 하는 것들이다. 이들 연구를 통해서 medical training의 유용성이 증명되었다. 연습 스케쥴에 따라서 수술 기술의 학습에 차이가 있는가를 연구한 사람도 있다.

Some studies examining factors that have been shown to facilitate learning in the cognitive or motor domain, such as the use of repeated testing7 or summary feedback,2 have already demonstrated their utility for medical training. Other researchers have begun to compare the effectiveness of different practice schedules in the learning of surgical tasks.8


이 리뷰에서는 관찰을 통한 학습, 학습자가 어디에 집중을 하는지, 피드백, 그리고 자기 조절 학습에 대한 것을 다루고자 한다.

Specifically, we review studies related to observational learning, learners’ focus of attention, feedback and self-controlled practice. 


첫 번째로, 퍼포먼스와 학습의 차이를 비교해 보고자 한다. 이 차이는 연구를 해석하고 디자인하는데 있어서 중요한 시사점을 제시한다.

First, however, we address the distinction between performance and learning, which has important implications for the interpretation of findings and the design of studies.



LEARNING VERSUS PERFORMANCE


의학 분야에서 '훈련'을 시킨다는 것은 돈이 많이 드는 일이다. 따라서 비용을 절약할 수 있으면서도 효과적이고 효율적인 훈련 방법을 연구하는 것은 많은 사람이 관심을 갖는 분야이기도 하다. 직관적인 접근법은 일정 수준의 수행능력을 정해놓고, 훈련 방법에 따라 그 수준에 도달하는 시간을 비교하는 것이다.

Training in the medical field is expensive. Therefore, finding effective and efficient training methods that can result in cost savings is a legitimate and important motive for many researchers. An intuitive approach might be to compare different practice methods in terms of the time needed by participants to reach a predefined level of performance.9,10


학습을 흔히 특정 기술을 수행할 수 있는 능력이 영구히(permanent) 변화하는 것으로 정의하곤 한다. 따라서 연구자들은 훈련 후 일정 시간 간격을 두고나서 훈련한 내용이 유지(retention) 또는 전이(transfer, 한 분야의 학습이 다른 분야에 적용되는 것)되는지를 확인하는 방법을 주로 사용했다.

Learning is typically defined as a relatively permanent change in a person’s capability to perform a skill.11 Therefore, researchers use retention or transfer tests (the latter involve a variation of what was practised) that are performed after a certain time interval


이처럼 시간간격을 두는 목적은 특정한 연습 조건에 따라서 나타날수 있는 일시적인 수행능력 향상(지도를 잘 받아서)이나 일시적인 수행능력 저하(피로해져서)를 최소화 시키거나, 그러지 못한다면 그 중에 항구히 남는 효과만 남기기 위한 것이다.

The purpose of this interval is to allow any temporary performance-enhancing effects (such as caused by greater guidance) or performance-degrading effects (such as caused by increased fatigue) that certain practice conditions may have created to dissipate, leaving only the relatively permanent, or learning, effects. 


유지와 전이 시험을 활용하는 또 다른 목적은, 모든 그룹이 동등한 조건에서 수행을 하도록 하는 것이다. 이렇게 해야만 시험장(playing field)에서 서로 다른 훈련을 받은 그룹이 동등하게 비교될 수 있고, 효과성이나 훈련 방법의 차이에 대한 비교를 정확히 할 수 있다. 실제로도 연습 환경동안에는 향상되었던 수행능력이 실제로는 별로 학습에는 효과가 없다고 나타나는 경우 (혹은 그 반대의 경우)가 상당히 흔하다.

Another important aspect of retention or transfer tests is that all groups perform under the same conditions (e.g. without feedback or demonstrations). Only then can the performance of different groups be compared on a level playing field, so that conclusions can be drawn about the effectiveness of different practice methods for learning. In fact, it is not uncommon for practice conditions that facilitate (or prop up) performance during practice to result in less effective learning, and vice versa.11 


따라서 수행능력이 빠르게 향상되었다거나, 특정 기준을 달성했다는 것으로부터 유지와 전이로 상징될 수 있는 "진짜 학습"이 이루어졌다고 결론내릴 수 없다. 다른 분야와 마찬가지로 의학 분야에서 훈련의 목적 또한 연습 상황에서 수행능력이 향상되는 것이 아니라 실제 임상 상황에서의 학습을 유도하고, 그 학습이 전이될 수 있게 하는 것이기 때문이다.

Thus, one cannot infer that the most rapid change in performance, or achievement of criterion performance – under practice conditions in which feedback, modelling or other interventions are still present – constitutes true learning in the sense of retained or generalisable skill or knowledge. Clearly, as in other areas, the goal of training in the medical field is not to facilitate performance during practice, but to enhance the learning and transferability of clinical skills. 








 2010 Jan;44(1):75-84. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2923.2009.03421.x.

Motor skill learning and performance: a review of influential factors.

Source

Department of Kinesiology and Nutrition Sciences, University of Nevada, Las Vegas, Nevada 89154-3034, USA. Gabriele.wulf@unlv.edu

Abstract

OBJECTIVES:

Findings from the contemporary psychological and movement science literature that appear to have implications for medical training are reviewed. Specifically, the review focuses on four factors that have been shown to enhance the learning of motor skills: observational practice; the learner's focus of attention; feedback, and self-controlled practice. OBSERVATIONAL PRACTICE: Observation of others, particularly when it is combined with physical practice, can make important contributions to learning. This includes dyad practice (i.e. practice in pairs), which is not only cost-effective, but can also enhance learning. FOCUS OF ATTENTION: Studies examining the role of the performer's focus of attention have consistently demonstrated that instructions inducing an external focus (directed at the movement effect) are more effective than those promoting an internal focus (directed at the performer's body movements). An external focus facilitates automaticity in motor control and promotes movement efficiency. FEEDBACK: Feedback not only has an informational function, but also has motivational properties that have an important influence onlearning. For example, feedback after successful trials and social-comparative (normative) feedback indicating better than average performance have been shown to have a beneficial effect on learning. SELF-CONTROLLED PRACTICE: Self-controlled practice, including feedback and model demonstrations controlled by the learner, has been found to be more effective than externally controlled practice conditions.

CONCLUSIONS:

All factors reviewed in this article appear to have both informational and motivational influences on learning. The findings seem to reflect general learning principles and are assumed to have relatively broad applicability. Therefore, the consideration of these factors in designing procedures for medical training has the potential to enhance the effectiveness and efficiency of training.








(출처 : http://bioethics.stanford.edu/arts/)







어느 날 밤, 심근경색이 있는 한 여자환자를 볼 일이 있었다. 

그녀는 술에 취해 있었고, 들것 위에서 숨을 헐떡거리며 몸부림을 치고 있었다. 

파라메딕은 "죄송하게 되었네요"라면서 환자를 인계해주었다.


내가 물었다. 

"아주머니, 가슴 통증이 있으신가요?"



그녀는 대답은 하지 않고 IV를 하려던 간호사에게 소리를 지르기 시작했다. 

"야 이 XXX아, 저리 꺼져. 놔두라고 이 XXX아"


간신히 환자의 주머니를 뒤져 신분을 파악하는 도중, 

꼬깃꼬깃한 종이 한장을 발견했다. Plavix 처방전이었다.


상황이 이해가 되었다. 

얼마 전에 퇴원한 이 환자는 Plavix를 복용하지 않고 있었고, 

그래서 혈전이 생긴 것이었다.


내가 물었다. 

"왜 플라빅스를 복용하지 않으셨어요?"


환자가 대답했다. 

"돈이 없다고!"


내가 다시 말했다.

"그 약은 무료에요"


환자가 다시 대답했다. 



"버스 탈 돈이 없다고!"






종종 의학교육에 인문학을 꼭 넣어야 하는지에 대하여 의구심을 품는 사람들이 있다. 그리고 그 이유는 매우 간단하게 요약될 수 있다. "그게 꼭 들어가야 하는 이유가 뭔데?" 


"배워야 할 내용이 이렇게 많은데, 그 소중한 시간을 실용적이지도 않고, 주관적이고 잘 가늠되지도 않는 것을 배우는데 쓸 수는 없지. 게다가 뭐? 예술적? 무언가에 대한 의문을 가질 때는 실용적인 목적이 있고, 질문에 대한 답을 찾는 것이 가능한 것에 대해서 해야하는거야."

Doctors are often suspicious of including the humanities in medical education. The resistance can be summed up succinctly: What’s the point? When there is so much to learn, why spend precious time in medical school or residency considering the impractical, the subjective, the indeterminate, and the artful? If we’re going to ask questions, we might as well pick ones that have practical use and are possible to answer.


나 또한 이런 주장이 한편으로는 이해가 간다는 것을 고백할 수 밖에 없다. 하지만 의사가 매일매일 진료를 하면서 마주하는 문제 중에서 과연 몇 퍼센트나 진정으로 "과학"적인 문제라고 할 수 있을까? 좀 더 넓게 보자면, 우리의 보건의료 시스템에 '과학'은 도대체 얼만큼이나 영향을 미치는가?

This is an understandable and, I must confess, often appealing view. Yet how many of the problems that clinicians face in daily practice are scientific, in any meaningful sense of the term? On a larger scale, how much does science even influence our health care system? 


보건의료 시스템은 다른 어떤 것들 보다도 인간의 아주 근원적인 특질을 반영한다. 젊음과 건강에 대한 갈망, 질병과 죽음에 대한 공포, 다양한 형태로 나타나는 탐욕, 집단과 개인의 충돌, 그리고 무엇보다 사회경제적인 위계 등등..

It is a system that reflects primal cultural traits as much as anything else: thirst for youth and health, fear of illness and death, greed in all its forms, conflicting notions of both collective and personal responsibility, and socioeconomic hierarchies above all.


내 환자는 의대생들의 소그룹 토의 사례가 되진 않았지만, 사례로 활용하기에 좋은 케이스이다. 하지만 어디서부터 시작해야 할 것인가의 문제는 그리 간단치 않다.

My patient never became a case study in a small-group discussion for medical students, but she easily could have. Where to start? It’s hard to know.


어떤 질문으로 시작을 하든지, 문제의 특성상 객관적인 답이 정해져있지 않다. 그리고 케이스로 다룬다고 하더라도 이런 문제들은 다 넘어가버리고 스텐트가 막힌 문제라든가 혈전생성에 있어서 혈소판의 역할을 다루는 파트로 넘어가고 싶은 강한 충동이 들 것이다.

By their nature these are questions without objective answers, and the temptation to throw one’s hands up and go back to PowerPoint presentations on stent reocclusion and the role of platelets in thrombogenesis is strong


마치 어떤 규칙이 있는 것처럼, 우리는 논쟁과 설득이 오가야만 하는 현실적인 답안이 없는 문제에 대해서 토론하기를 꺼린다. 마치 정서적으로 개입해야만 하는 것이 요구되는 상황을 회피하듯 말이다.

As a rule, we absolve ourselves from participating in debates that resist empirical solutions that require argument and persuasion— just as we tend to shy away from issues that ask for, and at times require, emotional engagement.


하지만 회피하더라도 여전히 문제는 남아 있다. 그리고 사실 우리는 그 문제에 대해 어떻게든 답을 하게 되어 있다.

Yet the questions remain, and we do in fact answer them.


이와 같은 주관적인 문제들에 대한 답이 미치는 영향력은, 객관적인 문제에 대해서와 마찬가지로, 그 영향력이 클 뿐만 아니라 어떤 식으로든 보여지게 되어 있다.

Put another way, answers to subjective questions have consequences that are just as profound, and just as tangible, as answers to objective ones.


따라서 의학에 있어 인문학을 가르친다는 것의 의의는 무엇이고, 시간이 제한되어 있음에도 그렇게 해야만 하는 이유는 무엇일까? 한 가지 이유는, 인문학도 과학과 같은 하나의 '도구'라는 점이다. 또한 '인문학'을 정의하기는 쉽지 않지만, '과학'과는 결정적으로 다른 점이 있다. 인문학은 우리가 비이성적인 존재라는 것을 인정한다. 늘상 그런 것은 아니더라도, 대부분의 경우에서 그러할 수 있음을 인정한다. 

So what is the point of studying the humanities in medicine, and why is doing so worth at least some of our time? One answer is that the humanities, like science, are a tool. The humanities, broadly and imperfectly defined as they may be, nonetheless concede what the sciences resist—that we are irrational creatures much, if not all, of the time. 


우리의 집단적인 가치와 신념은 반대되는 근거에 의해서 약간 침식당할 수는 있겠지만, 완전히 전복되지는 않는다. 이것이 순수한 경험주의의 한계이다. 순수한 경험주의는 우리가 보는 관점과 던지는 질문의 한계를 제한한다. 

Our collective values and beliefs may be eroded by evidence, but they are rarely overturned by it. Pure empiricism, in other words, gets us only so far, in part because it so dramatically limits both the scope and the relevance of the questions we can ask. 


또한 경험주의만으로는 감정이 가진 힘을 깨워낼 수 없다. 그러나 대중들은 아이와 같아서 논리만으로 그들을 움직이는 것은 거의 불가능하다. 좋든 싫든, 트위터와 구글, 끝없는 정보의 시대에, 그리고 상반되는 뉴스 속보가 넘쳐나는 시대에, 진실과 거짓을 구분하는 것, 국소적인 안건과 광범위한 의제를 구분하는 것은 점점 더 어려워지고 있다.

Empiricism lacks the ability to generate emotional power, and crowds are like children: Logic hardly sways them. Like it or not, in an era of Twitter and Google and bottomless seas of information, in an era of news that is always breaking and of endless dueling facts, the ability to distinguish truth from falsehood, to

discern narrow agendas from collective ones, has never been harder.


하지만 인문학은 사람을 움직이게 하는 힘이 있다. 잘만 활용하면 개인적 경험의 공명을 이끌어낼 수 있다. 어떠한 선택과 그 선택에 달려있는 것을 동등하게 볼 수 있게 해주고, 숫자를 살아 움직이게 하여 논리적인 것과 그렇지 않은 것, 품위있는 것과 그렇지 않으 것을 구분할 수 있게 해준다. 

But the humanities have the power to move us. At their best, they can approach the resonance of personal experience. They have the ability to illuminate stakes and choices alike, to make numbers come alive, to help distinguish both the reasonable from the absurd and the decent from the indecent. 


인문학은 도덕의 권위를 환기시키고, 동정과 분노의 감정을 불러일으키며, 더 나쁜 것을 피해, 더 나은 것을 향해 나아갈 수 있게 해준다.

The humanities have the power to invoke moral authority, to invoke feelings of outrage as well as feelings of compassion, to inspire us to be better, and to caution us against being worse.


어쩌면 인문학에 대해 공부함으로서 환자에 대한 공감능력을 높일 수 있을지도 모른다. 인문학을 가르칠 것을 지지하는 사람들 중 종종 이러한 주장을 하는 사람도 있다. 이들의 주장이 틀린 것은 아니지만, 핵심을 놓치고 있다.

Perhaps studying the humanities can also help us empathize with our patients. Advocates of the humanities in medicine often make this argument, and it may even be true, but I think it misses much of the point.


의사가 되는 것은 단순히 공감을 할 줄 아는 것 그 이상이다. 사실 아무런 공감이 느껴지지 않는 경우가 대부분이다. 내가 본 환자는 입이 거칠었고, 폭력적이었고, 비협조적이었으며, 어떤 면을 보아도 좋아할 수 없는 사람이었다. 하지만 우리는 그 환자에 대해 공감하기 위해 거기 있었던 것이 아니다. 우리는 그녀를 살려내기 위해 거기에 있었다.

Being a physician is about more than empathy—It is as much about doing your job when you feel no empathy whatsoever. My patient was foulmouthed, abusive, uncooperative, and unlikeable in virtually every way. But we weren’t there to empathize with her—We were there to save her if we could.


다른 말로 하자면, 의학에서 인문학을 가르친다는 것은 감정적인 것에 취하자는 것이 아니다. 도저히 달성할 수 없을 것 같은 상황에서조차 공감을 하라는 것도 아니고, 의사들은 친절하게 만들기 위한 것도 아니다. 

In other words, studying the humanities in medicine is not about indulging in sentimentality, in earnest appeals for empathy that is often impossible to achieve. It’s not about making doctors nicer, although few will complain if that happens.


그보다, 인문학은 의사와 의학을 공부하는 학생들이 보건의료가 나아가야 할 방향에 대해서 좀 더 생각하고, 통찰력을 가지고, 성찰을 하고, 궁극적으로는 그것에 영향을 줄 수 있는 사람이 되도록 돕는 것이다. 집단적인 침묵은 더 이상 의사에게 도움이 되지 않기에 재능과, 의지와, 능력을 갖추어 더 넓은 영역의 공적인 토론의 장으로 들어갈 수 있도록 하는 것이다. 

Instead, studying the humanities in medicine is about helping doctors and medical students become more aware, more insightful, more reflective, and— ultimately—more influential in shaping the trajectory of health care. It’s about encouraging the facility, willingness, and ability to enter into the larger public debate in these cacophonous times, when collective silence will not serve the medical profession well. 


그리고 마지막으로 인문학은 정서적 교감과 자기성찰을 중요시하지 않는, 바깥 세상보다는 내부만 들여다보는, 개개인이 부담하는 비용 뿐만 아니라 개개인에 대한 보상조차 무시하는 문화에 대한 어떤 배출구를 만들어주는 것이다.

And, finally, it is about providing an outlet for both emotional engagement and self-reflection in a culture that typically denies both, looks outward rather than inward, and too often ignores not only the personal costs but also the personal rewards of medical work.


돌이켜 생각해보면, 같이 일을 하는 동료의사와 간호사, 내가 좋아했던 것들과 싫어했던 것들, 저지른 실수에 대한 불편한 감정과 옳은 선택을 한 것에 대한 영광, 환자에 대한 탄식과 안도, 총명함과 어리석음, 교묘함과 솔직함, 이들이 뒤섞인 공간 어딘가에 우리 모두는 중요한 일을 하고 있다는 의식이 자리잡고 있었다. 

Somewhere in the impossible mix is the sense that all of us in medicine are doing work, however imperfectly and at times despite ourselves, that counts. 


그 중대성을 인식하고 있기에, 여기에 중요한 것이 걸려있다는 것을 알기에, 하고 있는 일의 더 큰 의미를 알기에 의료계 문화의 고됨과 원칙이, 체력적 고갈이, 밤중에 걸려오는 끊임없는 전화가, 그 무수한 기록들이, 그 많은 강의들이 유지될 수 있었던 것이다. 

It is precisely this sense of significance, of stakes that actually matter, of work with larger meaning, that drives the rigor and discipline of medical culture, the physical exhaustion, the endless phone calls in the middle of the night, all those pages both read and written, and all those lectures both given and received.


의학의 많은 부분들은 사실 아무도 알아주지 않고, 감사해하지도 않고, 기여한 사람도 불분명하고, 불확실하지만, 결국 중요한 것은 "그럼에도 불구하고"이다. 그렇기 때문에 우리는 한번 더 생각해볼 수 있다. 그리고 그래야만이 더 좋은 의사가 될 것이며, 그리고 우리가 타인에 대해 무관심한 상황에서도 선(善)을 행할 수 있을 것이다.

So much of medicine is like that— anonymous, thankless, faceless, and uncertain—but necessary nonetheless. This necessity bears reminding, in part because it affirms our better natures, the good we sometimes do despite our indifferences.







 2013 Jul;88(7):918-20. doi: 10.1097/ACM.0b013e3182959e16.

The woman in the mirrorhumanities in medicine.

Source

Dr. Huyler is associate professor, Emergency Medicine, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, New Mexico.

Abstract

While the role of the sciences in medicine and medical training is unquestioned and should remain so, the traditional resistance of medical culture to the humanities and humanistic argument does not serve the medical profession well, nor does it do justice either to the challenges or rewards of clinical practice.




















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