술기 능력(motor skill, 운동기술)의 학습과 수행능력에 영향을 미치는 요인(5) : 연습 환경에 대한 자기 통제권(Self-controlled Practice)

(출처 : http://www.art.com/products/p14506535-sa-i2745089/self-control-einstein.htm)

만약 "A=성공"이라면 A= X+Y+Z 로 표현될 것이다.

X는 '일 하는 것'이고

Y는 '노는 것'이며

Z는 '입 다물고 있는 것'이다.

연습환경에 대한 통제권한 (SELF-CONTROLLED PRACTICE)

대부분의 상황에 있어서, 가르치는 사람이 연습 프로토콜과 과정의 세부 사항을 결정한다. 그러나 기술 학습에 있어서 학습자가 스스로 연습 조건에 대한 통제권한을 가질 경우에 더 효과적이라는 연구 결과가 점점 모이고 있다. 즉, 일정 수준의 자기통제 권한을 주는 것이 완전히 짜여져 있는 프로토콜에서 학습하는 것보다 낫다는 것이다.

In most training situations, instructors determine the details of the training protocol or practice session. Yet there is

converging evidence that the effectiveness of skill learning can be enhanced if the learner is given some control over the practice conditions. That is, at least a certain degree of self-control can result in more effective learning than completely prescribed training protocols.

예를 들어 학습자들로 하여금 어떤 연습을 하고 싶은지 그렇지 않은지 등등.

For instance, having learners decide after which trial they want, or do not want, to receive feedback has been demonstrated to lead to more effective learning than predetermined feedback schedules. This has been shown in studies using sequential timing tasks41,50 and throwing tasks.51,52 

흥미롭게도 과제에 따라서 피드백을 요청한 정도는 매우 다양했는데, 비록 피드백의 빈도는 과제의 특성에 따라서 혹은 나눠준 설명이 얼마나 자세했는가에 따라 다를 수 있지만 피드백의 빈도보다 학습자가 피드백을 받을 것인지 말 것인지를 선택할 수 있는 권한이 더 중요한 것은 확실해 보인다.

Interestingly, the percentage of practice trials on which self-control learners requested feedback varied widely between studies, ranging from 11%52 to 97%.50 Although the frequency of feedback requests might depend on the nature of the task, or on the exact instructions given to participants (i.e. to what extent they encourage the learner to ask for feedback), it seems clear that the feedback frequency is less important than the learner’s ability to choose, or not to choose, feedback. 

스스로 연습의 통제권한을 갖는 조건에서 학습자는 더 적극적이 되고, 동기유발이 되고, 더 많은 노력을 기울인다. 피드백 여부에 대해 스스로 결정한 경우도 피드백 정보를 더 많이 원하게 되기 때문에 성공적으로 과제를 수행한 다음에도 피드백을 받고 싶어하게 되고, 이로 인해 동기유발은 더욱 높아진다.

Self-controlled practice conditions have generally been assumed to lead to a more active involvement of the learner, enhancing motivation and increasing the effort invested in practice.53,54 Self-controlled feedback might also correspond better to learners’ needs for information about their performance, such as after a strategy change, or allow them to ask for feedback after presumably successful (more motivating) trials.41

다른 연구결과에서도 보조기구를 사용할지 여부에 대해서 스스로 결정하게 한 경우 외부에서 정해준 것보다 더 이점(advantage)이 있음이 확인되었다.

Other studies have found advantages in the self controlled use of physical assistive devices, compared with yoked control conditions, for the learning of balance tasks.55,56

연습 환경에 대한 선택권을 가진 그룹의 경우

연습때에는 오히려 더 못했음에도 불구하고

나중에 '유지(retention)'을 보았을 때는 더 높은 성취도를 보였다.

다른 연구결과에서 시범자가 농구 점프슛을 시범한 영상을 달라고 요청할 수 있는 권한을 준 경우와 권한을 주지 않은 경우를 비교했을 때, 스스로 그 권한이 있었던 경우에 더 나은 수행능력을 보였다.

In another study, participants were able to request to view a video of a skilled model performing the task to be learned (basketball jump shot).57 The results showed that the learning of the movement form was significantly enhanced, compared with that of learners who had no control over the video presentations (Figure 4).

연습 환경을 스스로 통제할 권한을 주는 것의 장점을 고려했을 때, 의학교육의 훈련 과정도 일정 수준의 학습자 통제권을 주는 것이 바람직해 보인다.

Given the advantages of self-controlled practice, it seems safe to suggest that training procedures in medical education should incorporate at least a certain degree of learner control. 

CONCLUSIONS

이 리뷰에서, 몇몇 요소들을 살펴보았다.

In this review, we have discussed several factors that have been shown to facilitate the learning of motor skills (i.e. observational learning, external focus of attention, positive feedback, self-controlled practice).

이 글을 읽은 독자들은 아마 지난 수십년간 의학교육분야에서 활용되어 온 철학적, 메타-이론적 관점과 이 논문에서 다루고 있는 관점의 유사점/차이점을 발견했을지도 모른다. 

Readers may note similarities and distinctions in concepts used in empirical research in motor and cognitive learning as presented in this article and in the philosophical and meta-theoretical perspectives that have been prominent in medical education circles over the last few decades. 

공통적으로 활용한 것은 Collaborative learning과 Movement automacity의 종류, mindfulness와 reflective professional practice 등이다.

These common terms include collaborative learning (such as reflected in dyadic learning24 and small-group, problem-based learning activities59) and the kind of movement automaticity described in beneficial terms in this review compared with the positive language devoted to notions of self-regulation, mindfulness and reflective professional practice, and their assumed negative counterparts of mindlessness and automacity.

We assume that collaborative forms of motor and cognitive learning may tap into common cognitive and motivational substrates,59 but that there may be important differences between the desirable automaticity and fluidity of movement35 described above and a lack of mindfulness in one’s overall practice behaviour.

중요한 incision을 넣는 중간에 반성적 사고를 하고 싶어하는 사람이 어디 있겠는가?

Does one really want to become reflective in the midst of making a critical incision with a scalpel, disrupting smooth motor control?

반대로, effective movement control의 optimization과 effective modes of practice 사이의 유사점과 차이점을 구분할 필요가 있다.

By contrast, there may be value in more careful examination of the assumed similarities and distinctions between the optimisation of effective movement control35 and effective modes of practice. 60,62,63

그럼에도 불구하고 우리는 위의 내용이 현대 심리학이 다루고 있는 일반적인 학습원리에 대해 설명해주면서, 운동과학 분야에 광범위하게 적용가능하다고 생각한다. 따라서 의학분야의 훈련도 정보와 동기가 학습에 미치는 영향을 고려해가며 전략을 짜야 할 것이다.

Nevertheless, we believe that these findings reflect general learning principles from contemporary psychological and movement science that have relatively broad applicability. Therefore, we would assume that medical training would also benefit from instructional strategies that take into account both informational and motivational influences on learning

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Med Educ. 2010 Jan;44(1):75-84. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2923.2009.03421.x.

Motor skill learning and performance: a review of influential factors.

Wulf G, Shea C, Lewthwaite R.

Source

Department of Kinesiology and Nutrition Sciences, University of Nevada, Las Vegas, Nevada 89154-3034, USA. Gabriele.wulf@unlv.edu

Abstract

OBJECTIVES:

Findings from the contemporary psychological and movement science literature that appear to have implications for medical training are reviewed. Specifically, the review focuses on four factors that have been shown to enhance the learning of motor skills: observational practice; the learner's focus of attention; feedback, and self-controlled practice. OBSERVATIONAL PRACTICE: Observation of others, particularly when it is combined with physical practice, can make important contributions to learning. This includes dyad practice (i.e. practice in pairs), which is not only cost-effective, but can also enhance learning. FOCUS OF ATTENTION: Studies examining the role of the performer's focus of attention have consistently demonstrated that instructions inducing an external focus (directed at the movement effect) are more effective than those promoting an internal focus (directed at the performer's body movements). An external focus facilitates automaticity in motor control and promotes movement efficiency. FEEDBACK: Feedback not only has an informational function, but also has motivational properties that have an important influence onlearning. For example, feedback after successful trials and social-comparative (normative) feedback indicating better than average performance have been shown to have a beneficial effect on learning. SELF-CONTROLLED PRACTICE: Self-controlled practice, including feedback and model demonstrations controlled by the learner, has been found to be more effective than externally controlled practice conditions.

CONCLUSIONS:

All factors reviewed in this article appear to have both informational and motivational influences on learning. The findings seem to reflect general learning principles and are assumed to have relatively broad applicability. Therefore, the consideration of these factors in designing procedures for medical training has the potential to enhance the effectiveness and efficiency of training.