삶의 행복이 무엇인지를 알기 위해서는 단 한가지만 바꾸면 된다 :
'초점을 어디에 둘 것인가'
Greg F. Anderson (born February 1966) is a former personal trainer,
best known for his work with Barry Bonds, and links with BALCO.
초점 영역(FOCUS OF ATTENTION)
운동기술를 가르치고 피드백을 할 때에 우리는 종종 '이러저러하게 움직여보라'라는 지침을 준다. 우리 몸의 어떤 부위가 어떻게 움직여야 하는지에 대한 설명을 하는 것이다. 예를 들면 매듭을 묶는 것을 가르칠 때 '오른 엄지와 검지는 계속 짧은 쪽을 잡고 있고 중지와 약지로 (blah blah..)'라고 하는 식이다.
Instructions and feedback for motor skill learning often involve references to the performer’s movements, describing how the movements of certain body parts should be coordinated with those of others in space and time. For example, instructions for tying a knot given to aspiring surgeons may include the following: ‘The right index finger and thumb continue to grasp the short end, as the middle and ring fingers are placed behind the short end to begin creating a loop. The left hand has begun to bring the long strand toward the surgeon.’26
그러나 지난 여러 연구결과들을 보면 학습자의 특정 신체부위의 움직임을 지시하는 것은 비교적 그 효과가 떨어지는 것으로 나타난다. 오히려 특정 움직임이 그 환경에서 어떠한 결과(영향)로서 나타나는 것(외부에 초점을 두는 것, external focus)을 설명하는 것이 더 수행능력과 학습을 효과적으로 촉진한다는 것이 밝혀졌다.
Numerous studies in the past few years have demonstrated that instructions directing attention to performers’ movements – and referring to body parts such as fingers, hands, hips, head, etc. (inducing an ‘internal focus’ of attention) – are relatively ineffective. By contrast, directing attention to the effects of the individual’s movements on the environment (e.g. an implement) – inducing an ‘external focus’ – generally results in more effective performance and learning.27
복잡한 운동기술에 대해서 초점 영역(attentional focus)을 다룬 연구들이 많다. 공통적으로 밝혀진 것은 가르치는 사람이 말하는 방식(wording)의 변화를 약간만 줘도 수행능력과 학습에 엄청난 차이를 가져올 수 있다는 것이다. 예를 들어 골프채(club)과 팔이 조화롭게 움직여야 할 때, 골프채의 스윙(외부 초점)에 초점을 맞춰서 지도하는 것이 팔의 스윙(내부 초점)에 초점을 두고 지도하는 것보다 효과적임이 연구된 바 있다.
Many studies examining attentional focus effects have used complex motor skills. They have shown that a simple change in the wording of instructions can have a significant impact on performance and learning. For instance, despite the fact that club and arm must move in synchrony, instructing golfers to focus on the swing of the club (external focus) has been demonstrated to lead to greater accuracy in shots than instructions to focus on the swing of their arms (internal focus) (Figure 2).28
농구, 배구, 다트, 축구에서도 공/다트 등의 궤적에 초점을 맞추는 것이 특정 신체 부위(손)에 초점을 맞춰 가르치는 것보다 더 효과가 좋았다.
Similarly, in basketball, 29 dart throwing,30 volleyball and soccer,31 wording instructions in a way that directs attention to the (anticipated) trajectory of the ball or dart, for example, leads to increased movement accuracy compared with instructions that refer to the body part (e.g. hand) producing that effect.
외부 초점에 집중하는 것은 다양한 전문성의 수준(전문가-아이-장애가 있는 사람)에서 효과가 있음이 확인되었고, 심리적 압박을 받는 상황에서도 효과가 있음이 확인되었다.
The advantages of an external focus have been shown for different levels of expertise and populations (including children and persons with motor impairments),33 as well as for performance under pressure.27
외부 초점에 신경을 쓰면 동작의 자율성을 촉진함으로서 학습 속도를 빠르게 할 수 있다. 구체적으로 말하면 특정 동작의 효과에 초점을 맞추는 것(외부 초점)은 무의식 또는 자동적 과정(automatic process)를 활성화시키는 반면, 내부 초점에 집중했을 때에 는 운동체계를 제한시켜서 자동 조절 능력이 제대로 작동하지 않는다.
An external focus of attention appears to speed up the learning process – or shorten the first stages of learning – by facilitating movement automaticity (‘constrained action hypothesis’).34 More specifically, a focus on the movement effect promotes the utilisation of unconscious or automatic processes, whereas an internal focus on one’s own movements results in a more conscious type of control that constrains the motor system and disrupts automatic control processes.
또한 외부 초점에 집중했을 때 내부 초점에 집중하는 상황보다 미세한 동작 조절이나 집중력에 대한 요구도가 낮다는 연구 결과도 위의 내용을 잘 설명해준다. 외부 초점에 집중하면 좀 더 자동적이고, 반사적(reflex-type)으로 동작을 조절할 수 있기 때문이다. 근전도(EMG)로 같은 동작을 했을 때 활성도를 측정해보면 외부 초점에 집중한 경우 활성도가 낮아져 있어서 운동의 효율이 높아진 것을 확인할 수 있다.
Support for this view comes from studies showing reduced attentional demands when performers adopt an external as opposed to an internal focus, as well as a higher frequency of low amplitude movement adjustments, which is seen as an indication of a more automatic, reflex-type mode of control.34 Furthermore, electromyographic (EMG) activity for the same task has been found to be reduced when participants adopt an external focus29, indicating that movement efficiency is also enhanced.35
마지막으로, 내적 초점에 집중하는 것은 좀 더 자신에게 신경을 쓰게 하고, 자신에게 집중하게 함으로서, 결국 자기스스로 자신을 평가하게 해서(self-evaluation) 알게 모르게(implicit or explicit) 사고와 정서 반응을 조절하는 자기 통제 과정(self-regulatory process)를 활성화시킨다.
Finally, the mere mention within the internal focus instructions of the performer’s body may act to increase self-consciousness, or self-focus, which in turn may lead to self-evaluation and activate implicit or explicit self-regulatory processes in attempts to manage thoughts and affective responses.36
이러한 연구 결과는 운동조절에 대한 요구도가 높고 섬세하게 움직일 필요가 있는 운동기술을 훈련시킬 때에 대한 시사점을 제시한다. 동작 그 자체에 대해 초점을 두는 것은 수행능력에 효과가 없다. 대신 어떤 동작으로 인한 효과에 집중하는 것이 효과성이나 효율성에 있어서 더 나은 결과를 가져다준다.
These findings would appear to have implications for the training and performance of motor skills that have high motor-control demands and require precisely coordinated movements. A focus on the movements per se (e.g. on hand or fingers) would be expected to be detrimental to performance. Instead, directing attention to the effect of the movement (e.g. on the suturing material, implement or incision site) should result in greater effectiveness and efficiency.
구체적으로 어떤 것이 이상적인 외부 초점인 것인가에 대한 의문이 있을 수 있다. 하지만 지금까지의 연구에 따르면 외부 초점의 이점이 매우 꾸준하게 증명되고 있으며, 많은 연구자들이 다양한 실험실 업무나 실제 환경의 연구에 대한 적절한 외부 초점을 밝혀내고 있는 중이다.
Specifically what the optimal external focus target might be for a given task and learner experience combination remains an empirical question. To date, however, the fact that the external focus advantage has been found so consistently suggests that investigators have identified reasonable external foci for their various laboratory and real-world tasks.27
Motor skill learning and performance: a review of influential factors.
Source
Department of Kinesiology and Nutrition Sciences, University of Nevada, Las Vegas, Nevada 89154-3034, USA. Gabriele.wulf@unlv.edu
Abstract
OBJECTIVES:
Findings from the contemporary psychological and movement science literature that appear to have implications for medical training are reviewed. Specifically, the review focuses on four factors that have been shown to enhance the learning of motor skills: observational practice; the learner's focus of attention; feedback, and self-controlled practice. OBSERVATIONAL PRACTICE: Observation of others, particularly when it is combined with physical practice, can make important contributions to learning. This includes dyad practice (i.e. practice in pairs), which is not only cost-effective, but can also enhance learning. FOCUS OF ATTENTION: Studies examining the role of the performer's focus of attention have consistently demonstrated that instructions inducing an external focus (directed at the movement effect) are more effective than those promoting an internal focus (directed at the performer's body movements). An external focus facilitates automaticity in motor control and promotes movement efficiency. FEEDBACK: Feedback not only has an informational function, but also has motivational properties that have an important influence onlearning. For example, feedback after successful trials and social-comparative (normative) feedback indicating better than average performance have been shown to have a beneficial effect on learning. SELF-CONTROLLED PRACTICE: Self-controlled practice, including feedback and model demonstrations controlled by the learner, has been found to be more effective than externally controlled practice conditions.
CONCLUSIONS:
All factors reviewed in this article appear to have both informational and motivational influences on learning. The findings seem to reflect general learning principles and are assumed to have relatively broad applicability. Therefore, the consideration of these factors in designing procedures for medical training has the potential to enhance the effectiveness and efficiency of training.