(출처: http://history.library.ucsf.edu/theme_photo5.html)



Commentary: Understanding the Flexner Report

Flexner 입장

  • 의학적 실증주의(Medical positivism)
    • 플렉스너는 의학을 일반적 생물학 법칙을 따르는 실험학문이라 했다.
      • Flexner described medicine as an experimental discipline governed by the laws of general biology.
    • “It [the human body] is put together of tissues and organs, in their structure, origin and development not essentially unlike what the biologist is otherwise familiar with; it grows,  reproduces itself, decays, according to general laws.”1(p53)
  • 입학 요건 강화(Rigorous entrance requirements)
    • 플렉스너는 "이렇게 대충대충 교육받지도 못한 학생을 뽑아서는 실험실 교육과 임상실습 교육이 불가능하다"라고 했음.
      • A medical school, Flexner wrote, “cannot provide laboratory and bedside instruction on the one hand, and admit crude, untrained boys on the other.”1(p22)
  • 과학적 방법론(The scientific method)
    • 플렉스너가 말한 '과학적 방법'이란 어떤 아이디어를 정교한 실험으로 검증하여 정확한 사실(fact) 밝히는 것이다.
      • Flexner pointed out that the scientific method of thinking applied to medical practice. By scientific method, he meant the testing of ideas by well-planned experiments in which accurate facts were carefully obtained.
    • “The practicing physician and the ‘theoretical’ scientists are thus engaged in doing the same sort of thing, even while one is seeking to correct Mr. Smith’s digestive aberration and the other to localize the cerebral functions of the frog.”1(p92)
  • 행동에 의한 학습(Learning by doing)
    • "교육학적 측면에서, 근대 의학은 다른 모든 과학과목과 같이 '직접 해보는 '이어야 한다. 학생은 단순히 보고, 듣고, 암기하기만 해서는 된다"
      • “On the pedagogic side,” he wrote, “modern medicine, like all scientific teaching, is characterized by activity. The student no longer merely watches, listens, memorizes; he does.”1(p53) Flexner’s scorn for didactic instruction pervaded the report.
  • 연구(Original research)
    • Original research was a core activity at Flexner’s model medical school.
    • “Research, untrammeled by near reference to practical ends, will go on in every properly organized medical school; its critical method will dominate all teaching whatsoever.”1(p59)
    • To Flexner, the best teachers were usually “men of active, progressive temper” engaged in research; those uninterested in solving problems tended to be “perfunctory teachers.”1(p56)

 

Flexner report 대한 오해와 진실

Flexner 전에는 미국 의학교육에 아무 일도 변화도 없었다? No!

  • 이미 이전부터 변화는 시작되고 있었다.
    • Myths concerning Abraham Flexner abound. The most common myth is that little or nothing had happened in American medical education until Flexner arrived on the scene.

Flexner scientific medicine 강조했다? No!

  • Flexner "과학만으로 전문가적 진료의 기반을 다질 없다. 임상을 하는 사람은 통찰력(insight) 공감능력(sympathy) 있어야 한다." 했다.
    • The report itself has frequently been misunderstood. Because of its strong emphasis on scientific medicine, it has often been accused of ignoring the doctor–patient relationship and the humane aspects of medical care. Exactly the opposite was the case.
    • Science, Flexner wrote, was “inadequate” to provide the basis of professional practice The practitioner needs “insight and sympathy,” and here specific preparation is “much more difficult.”1(p26)
    • He wrote in 1925, “Scientific medicine in America—young, vigorous and positivistic—is today sadly deficient in cultural and philosophical background.”7(p18)

예방의학(Preventive medicine) 중요성을 무시했다? No!

  • "의사의 역할은 개인적/치료적 이라기보다는 사회적/예방적 이어야 한다."
    • Another common misperception is that the report denigrates the importance of preventive medicine “the physician’s function is fast becoming social and preventive, rather than individual  and curative.”1(p26)

빡빡하고 뻣뻣한 커리큘럼의 시초다? No!

  • "엄격한(iron-clad) 커리큘럼으로서 의학교육을 향상시키고자 하는 것은 전적으로 실수다."
    • Many have faulted the Flexner Report for fostering a crowded, inflexible curriculum Medical schools, he argued, must be trusted “with a certain amount of discretion.”1(p76) He believed that “the endeavor to improve medical education through iron-clad prescription of curriculum or  hours is a wholly mistaken effort.”1(p76)

의학교육 개혁의 Final document일까? No!

  • " 보고서의 해결책은 현재와 그리고 길어야 30 정도의 가까운 미래에 대한 것일 뿐이다"
  • Contrary to widespread popular opinion, the Flexner Report was not envisioned by its author as a final document. “This solution,” he wrote, “deals only with the present and the near future,—a generation, at most.


배울

He was uncompromising in his view that medicine is a public trust and that the profession and its educational system exist to serve.

These values, he argued, are timeless, regardless of the professional and social circumstances of the moment.

By and large, medical educators since his time have taken this message to heart. We certainly have done our best work in pursuit of this goal. An unswerving commitment to excellence and service—this was and continues to be Flexner’s gift to medical education and the medical profession.







 2010 Feb;85(2):193-6. doi: 10.1097/ACM.0b013e3181c8f1e7.

CommentaryUnderstanding the Flexner report.

Source

Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri 63110, USA. kludmere@dom.wustl.edu


(출처 : http://www.physiciansweekly.com/remediation-attrition-surgery-residents/)




임상에서 힘들어하는 전공의(resident, 레지던트)에게 어떻게 해줘야 할까?

- 그저 똑같은 것을 한번 더 가르치는 것은 이제 그만!! -


  • Remediation for struggling learners: putting an end to ‘more of the same’
    • Cleland et al :
      • 많은 remedial intervention 있어서 이론적 근거가 없다. 그냥 '같은 ' '' 주는 뿐이다.
      • Control-value theory에서 말하는 바와 같이 어려움을 겪는 학생을 빨리 찾아내서 remediation 일찍 제공하는 것이 underperforming undergraduate 저조한 결과=>나쁜 피드백=>낮은 자기효능감=>동기 저하의 반복되는 사이클을 겪으며 underperforming doctor 되는 것을 막는 방법이다.


In the control-value theory, achievement emotions are defined as emotions tied directly to achievement activities or achievement outcomes. Achievement can be defined simply as the quality of activities or their outcomes as evaluated by some standard of excellence (Heckhausen, 1991).

It is based on the premise that appraisals of control and values are central to the arousal of achievement emotions, including activity-related emotions such as enjoyment, frustration, and boredom experienced at learning, as well as outcome emotions such as joy, hope, pride, anxiety, hopelessness, shame, and anger relating to success or failure

  • Mitchell C, 2013
    • 성과가 낮은 의사들이 자신들을 평가할 평가자를 고를 기회가 있을 , 점수를 같은 사람을 고르는 maladaptive learning strategy 익힌다.
  • Audetat et al : clinical reasoning difficulty 겪고 있는 레지던트에게 제공되는 remedial action residency 대한 구조적인 측면(일의 양을 줄여주는 )이었지, difficulty 근원에 대한 구체적인 진단에 따른 것이 아니었다.
  • Hesketh et al : 훌륭한 임상 선생님에게는 적절한 접근법 역시 필요하다.
  • The Department of Family and Emergency Medicine at the University of Montreal의 사례
    • 레지던트 보충(remediating)교육을 하는 선생님들을 지원하기 위한 전략을 개발(Developed a multidimensional strategy to support clinical teachers in remediating residents.)
    • This strategy consists of four prongs:
      • 기관적 차원의 과정 도입 : implementing institutional procedures with regard to remediation plans and followup;5,6
      • 선생님들에게 개념틀(conceptual framework) 실제적인 이론(empirical finding)제공 : introducing clinical teachers to conceptual frameworks and empirical findings from the literature through accessible and targeted papers;
      • 임상추론 과정에서 겪게 되는 다양한 여러움들에 대한 진단 개입방법에 대한 가이드 제공 :  developing a guide to the diagnosis and remediation of different types of clinical reasoning difficulty,7
      • 교수자 중심의 교수개발 프로그램 제공 : providing teacher-centred faculty development.
    • Altogether these strands amount to no less than a cultural8 and organisational change,9 which should help clinical teachers to act effectively, based on wellgrounded educational scripts,10 with a strong sense of ‘being

clinical educators’,11 which ultimately should improve outcomes for learners.

 

  • 비록 remediation 후에 나아지지 않았더라도, trainee 프로그램에서 exclude되는 과정을 촉진시키기만 것으로도 그것은 성공했다고 있다. Underperforming learner 계속 놔두는 것은 clinical teacher 지치게(wearing down)한다.
    • Struggling learner struggling teacher 유발한다.

  • Faculty development learners in difficulty 관한 문제에서 중요하다.






 2013 Mar;47(3):230-1. doi: 10.1111/medu.12131.

Remediation for struggling learnersputting an end to 'more of the same'.

Source

Department of Family and Emergency Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Université de Montréal, Canada. mcaudetat@sympatico.ca

 






(출처 : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dundee)

던디

Dundee Listeni/dʌnˈd/ (Scottish GaelicDùn Dè), officially the City of Dundee, is the fourth-largest city in Scotland. It lies within the eastern central Lowlands on the north bank of the Firth of Tay, which feeds into the North Sea. Under the name of Dundee City, it forms one of the 32 council areas used for local government in Scotland.

The town developed into a burgh in Medieval times, and expanded rapidly in the 19th century largely due to the jute industry. This, along with its other major industries gave Dundee its epithet as the city of "jute, jam and journalism".


The name "Dundee" is made up of two parts: the common Celtic place-name element dun, meaning fort; and a second part that may derive from a Celtic element, cognate with the Gaelic , meaning 'fire'.[4]





The SDMCG Learning Outcome Project

Phase 1. The specification of learning outcomes

  • 2000 3, SDMCG 스코트랜드의 어떤 의과대학을 졸업하든 기본적으로 갖추어야 자질과 역량을 정의하는 학습성과(learning outcome) 구성하였다.
    • In March 2000, following almost a year of extensive consultation with staff and students from the five Scottish medical schools, the Scottish Deans’ Medical Curriculum Group produced an agreed set of learning outcomes that clearly define the qualities and abilities of medical graduates from any of the Scottish schools. These outcomes were published as ‘The Scottish Doctor - Learning Outcomes for the Medical Undergraduate in Scotland: a foundation for competent and reflective practitioners’.


Phase 2. ‘The Scottish Doctor’ learning outcomes and assessment

  • 2002년, 'The Scottish Doctor' 번째 에디션이 출간되었는데, 여기에서는 첫 번째 에디션에서 정의된 '성과(outcome)' 조금 수정하였으며, 어떻게 이들 학습성과를 평가(assess) 있을 것인가에 대한 내용을 담고 있다.
    • A second edition of ‘The Scottish Doctor’ was published in 2002. This incorporated amendments to the outcomes in the light of feedback relating to the first edition and also demonstrated how each learning outcome might be assessed.
  • 번째 단계(phase) 또 다른 목적은 모든 학교에서 사용가능한 형태의 평가도구와 평가문항(assessment items or questions) 개발하는 것이었다.
    • One of the aims of this second phase of the work was to establish a collection of assessment items or questions that were acceptable to, and useable by, all schools. These would include set standards and encompass elements of knowledge, skills and attitudes that are applicable to the exit level assessment of the outcomes, wherever that occurred in the various schools’ programmes.
  • 이러한 목적을 달성하기 위하여 다섯 가지의 핵심 주제별로 팀을 구성하였다. : 
    • 흔한 주소(Medical Complaints)
    • 의사소통(Communication)
    • 공공보건(Public Health)
    • 프로페셔널리즘(Professionalism)
    • 의과학(Medical Science)
      • Five working groups were established to address the over-arching themes: Common Medical Complaints, Communication, Public Health, Professionalism, and Medical Science.  Specific topics were chosen from the level 4 outcomes and assessment items established..


Phase 3. Refinement of the learning outcomes and cross-linking with the recommendations published by the General Medical Council (GMC)

  • 번째 단계에서는 학습성과를 세밀하게 다듬고, GMC에서 출판되어있는 Tomorrow's doctor와의 연관짓기(cross-linking)작업을 하였다.
    • Since the publication in March 2000 of ‘The Scottish Doctor’ there has been a significant move internationally in medical education to an outcome-based model for curriculum development (see section 2.1).  In the UK the General Medical Council (GMC) has been concerned with learning outcomes.  It has a statutory role to oversee, quality assure and authorise undergraduate medical education in the UK.  The Council publishes guidelines for undergraduate medical education which medical schools must adhere to in order to attain GMC recognition (see section 2.2).  In phase 3 of ‘The Scottish Doctor’ project the learning outcomes statements in ’The Scottish Doctor’ have been mapped to those published by the GMC in ‘Tomorrow’s Doctors’ (General Medical Council 2002).  An evaluation has been carried out as to where they were congruent and where they differed.  In general, the two frameworks were found to be equivalent and the number of changes in ‘The Scottish Doctor’ outcomes required as a result of this study were relatively small.
  • 이번 단계에서의 The Scottish Doctor 리뷰하는 과정에서 여러 전문분과(응급의학과, 피부과, 신경과, Palliative care, 약리학..) 학습성과와 교과과정을 고려하였다.
    • The work of reviewing ‘The Scottish Doctor’ learning outcomes has also been informed by the descriptions of curricula and learning outcome frameworks reported for a series of specialised areas in medicine including acute and emergency medicine, dermatology, neurology, palliative care, pharmacology and therapeutics and sexual health.



(출처 : http://www.scottishdoctor.org/index.asp,
http://www.scottishdoctor.org/resources/scottishdoctor3.doc)



어떻게 가르쳐야 하는가 (7가지 원칙) 

Seven principles to guide teaching practice


(1) 학습자는 능동적으로 참여해야 한다

(The learner should be an active contributor to the educational process)


(2) 학습을 통해 실제 상황에서 일어날 수 있는 문제를 이해하고 해결할 수 있어야 한다.

(Learning should closely relate to understanding and solving real life problems)


(3) 학습자가 현재 가지고 있는 지식과 경험은 새로운 내용을 학습하는데 대단히 중요하기에 이를 충분히 염두에 두어야 한다.

(Learners' current knowledge and experience are critical in new learning situations and need to be taken into account)


(4) 교수자는 학습자가 자발적 학습을 할 수 있는 기회를 주어야 한다.

(Learners should be given the opportunity and support to use self-direction in their learning)


(5) 교수자는 학습자가 직접 수행(practice)할 수 있는 기회를 주어야 하며, 이는 교수자와 동료로부터의 건설적인 피드백과 동반되어야 한다.

(Learners should be given opportunities and support for practice, accompanied by self assessment and constructive feedback from teachers and peers)


(6) 교수자는 학습자로 하여금 자기가 수행한 내용을 스스로 성찰할 수 있는 기회를 주어야 한다. 성찰의 과정은 자신이 수행한 것을 분석하고 평가하여, 그 업무에 대한 새로운 시각을 길러내는 것이어야 한다.

(Learners should be given opportunities to reflect on their practice; this involves analysing and assessing their own performance and developing new perspectives and options)


(7) 교수자가 보여주는 롤모델로서의 모습은 학습자에게 큰 영향을 미칠 수 있다. 사람들은 자신이 배운 방법으로 타인을 가르치기 마련이다. 의학을 교육함에 있어서 학생과 후배 의사들에게 바람직한 교육의 원칙을 제시함으로써 그 다음세대의 교수자와 학습자가 더 효과적인 교수-학습을 할 수 있을 뿐만 아니라, 궁극적으로 더 나은 환자진료가 이뤄질 것이다. 

Use of role models by medical educators has a major impact on learners. As people often teach the way they were taught, medical educators should model these educational principles with their students and junior doctors. This will help the next generation of teachers and learners to become more effective and should lead to better care for patients



출처 : ABC of learning and teaching in medicine, Applying educational theory in practice, David M Kaufman 

(BMJ VOLUME 326 25 JANUARY 2003)

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  • 여학생들이 Surgical domain으로 career 나아가기 어려운 이유를 Wenger Paradigmatic trajectories 활용하여 qualitative 하게 연구한 논문.
  • 학생은 의과대학 기간동안 보고(Seeing), 듣고(Hearing), 직접 (Doing, Hands-on experience) 경험을 통해서 자신의 미래 이미지를 그리고(Imagining), 과정을 통해 Career decision 한다.
  • Wenger 의하면... "학생들은 바보가 아니다의과대학 기간에 무엇을 듣든, 무엇을 배우든, 무슨 행위를 지시받든, 무슨 시험을 보든 실제 일이 이뤄지는 현장을 접하는 순간(actual access to the practice) 얼마 지나지 않아 진짜로 중요한 것이 무엇인지(what counts) 바로 알아챌 것이다."
    • Wenger29 describes the importance of ‘paradigmatic trajectories’, which are visible career paths provided by a community that shape how individuals negotiate and find meaning in their own experiences
      • ‘Exposure to this field of paradigmatic trajectories is likely to be the most influential factor shaping the learning of newcomers. In the end, it is its members – by their very participation – who create a set of possibilities to which newcomers are exposed as they negotiate their own trajectories. No matter what is said, taught, prescribed, recommended, or tested, newcomers are no fools; once they have actual access to the practice, they soon find out what counts.’29

  • Surgical world 속해 있을 자신의 모습을 그려보지 않았다는 것이 그것을 해보고자 하는 시도조차 하지 않았다는 것을 의미하지는 않는다. 앞서 언급된 과정을 통해 Surgical paradigmatic trajectories 대한 구분(strongly gendered)적인 이미지가 형성되며, '내가 과연 길을 있을까(paths of possibility)' 대한 의심도 저절로 계속된다(self-perpetuating). 무엇보다 여학생들이 외과계열 세상에 대해 가지고 있는 이미지를 형성할 있는 다른 방법이 없을 , 그들이 접하는 외과계열을 둘러싼 구분적인 담론(discourse) 더욱 공고해질 것이다.
    • Being unable to imagine belonging to the surgical world meant that these students did not even attempt to enter it. Surgical paradigmatic trajectories were strongly gendered, shaped by the processes we have outlined. The self-perpetuating power of these ‘paths of possibility’ was clear: the stories heard by students sustained the gendered discourses surrounding surgery, and the lack of any other avenues through which female students might form their perceptions of the surgical world left these discourses unchallenged.



 2013 Jun;47(6):547-56. doi: 10.1111/medu.12134.

The only girl in the room: how paradigmatic trajectories deter female students from surgical careers.

Source

School of Health Professions Education, Faculty of Health, Medicine and Life Sciences, Maastricht University, Maastricht, the Netherlands; School of Medicine, Faculty of Medical and Human Sciences, The University of Manchester, Manchester, UK.

Abstract

OBJECTIVES:

Over 60% of UK medical students are female, yet only 33% of applicants to surgical training are women. Role modelling, differing educational experiences and disidentification in female medical students have been implicated in this disparity. We are yet to fully understand the mechanisms that link students' experiences with national trends in career choices. We employ a hitherto unused concept from the theory of communities of practice: paradigmatic trajectories. These are visible career paths provided by a community and are cited by Wenger as potentially the most influential factors shaping the learning of newcomers. We pioneer the use of this theoretical tool in answering the research question: How do paradigmatic trajectories shape female medical students' experiences of surgery and subsequent career intentions?

METHODS:

This qualitative study comprised a secondary analysis of data sourced from 19 clinical medical students. During individual, in-depth, semi-structured interviews, we explored these students' experiences at medical school. We carried out thematic analysis using sensitising concepts from communities of practice theory, notably that of 'paradigmatic trajectories'.

RESULTS:

Female students' experiences of surgery were strongly gendered; they were positioned as 'other' in the surgical domain. Four key processes - seeing, hearing, doing and imagining - facilitated the formation of paradigmatic trajectories, on which students could draw when making career decisions. Female students were unable to see or identify with other women in surgery. They heard about challenges to being a female surgeon, lacked experiences of participation, and struggled to imagine a future in which they would be successful surgeons. Thus, based on paradigmatic trajectories constructed from exposure to surgery, they self-selected out of surgical careers. By contrast, male students had experiences of 'hands-in' participation and were not marginalised by paradigmatic trajectories.

CONCLUSIONS:

The concept of the paradigmatic trajectory is a useful theoretical tool with which to understand how students' experiences shape career decisions. Paradigmatic trajectories within surgery deter female students from embarking on careers in surgery.

© 2013 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.







  • 1910 Flexner Report이후 의학지식은 팽창했고, health care system 복잡성이 증가했으며, 교수방법이 진화했다. 하지만 학생들은 라이트 형제가 Kitty Hawk에서 어설프게 비행기를 만들고 땜질하던 시대와 별반 다를 없는 교육을 받고 있다.
  • 이제는 의사를 양성하는 방법을 바꿀 때다. 하루에 사용가능한 시간은 변하지 않았으니, 현실적으로 하나의 대안밖에는 남지 않는다. 바로 학생들의 시간을 효율적으로 활용하는 것이다.
  • 메시지를 'stickier' 달라붙게, 만들고 self-paced, mastery-based 학습 전략을 사용하는 것이 대안이 것이다.
    • 어떤 특징이 이야기를 " 달라붙게" 하는가에 대한 연구가 많이 되어있다. 하나는 호기심을 자극할 만한 unexpected 이야기를 하는 것이다.
    • 또한 청중의 감정을 자극할 이야기가 " 달라붙는" 다는 것도 알려져 있다. 환자로부터 직접 나오는 이야기는 의학지식에 관심을 두지않을 없게 만드는 효과가 있다.
      • Sir William Osler 이렇게 말했다. " 없이 의학을 공부한다는 것은 아무도 가보지 않은 미지의 바다를 항해하는 것과 같다. 하지만 환자 없이 의학을 공부한다는 것은 아예 바다에 나가지 않는 것과 같다"
      • 그러나 의과대학생들의 말에 따르면 1학년 과목의 절반 이상은 최소한의 환자에 대한 언급도 없이 이뤄진다고 되어 있다.
    • 20세기 이전까지는 강의(lecture) 지식을 전달하는 효과적인 방법이었다. 하지만 이제는 YouTube TED같은 방법이 있다. 이런 디지털 미디어의 발전으로 video lecture 만드는 것이 간편해졌고, 학생들은 자신의 학습 속도에 따라 공부할 있다. Khan Academy 예이다.

  • Class time 자유롭게 활용해서 상당한 차이를 만들 있다. 최근 연구에서 그룹은 노벨상을 받은 물리학자에게 강의를 들었고, 다른 학생 그룹은 TA 의해서 실제 세계의 물리 문제를 풀게 하였다. 후자의 그룹이 engaged하였고 수업에 참여하였다.



 2012 May 3;366(18):1657-9. doi: 10.1056/NEJMp1202451.

Lecture halls without lectures--a proposal for medical education.

Source

Stanford School of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA.

Comment in

PMID:
 
22551125
 
[PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]



(출처 : http://blogs.nature.com/naturejobs/2013/01/28/getting-an-internship-in-science-journalism)


  • Abstract
    • 인문의학을 학부 교육에 넣어야 한다는 의견은 많이 있었지만, patient care 도움이 된다는 근거가 부족하고, medical humanities culture 의학교육에 arts and humanities 넣어야 확고한 이론적 근거를 보여주지도 못했다.
    • Medical error 주요 원인은 커뮤니케이션의 실패이고, 커뮤니케이션 실패의 원인은 refusal of democracy within medical work (의료 업무 내에 민주주의의 부재) 있다.
    • 의학 분야에서 '커뮤니케이션의 과학' 대한 연구를 통해 얻은 교훈을 의학교육의 형태로 변환하여 가르치는데 arts and humanities 중요한 contextual media 역할을 것이다.
  • 인문의학에 대한 문제점
    • 무엇을 평가할 것인가
    • 다양한 confounding variable interaction 어떻게 통제할 것인가.
  • Mount Sinai School of Medicine 연구
    • 이과계열 졸업생과 문과계열 졸업생의 비교 : NBME에서 문과계열이 낫지는 않아도 비슷한 수준으로 하더라.
  • 의료분야의 커뮤니케이션에 대한 많은 연구가 있지만 환자안전의 outcome까지 비교한 것은 많지 않다.

  • Medical Error communication 관계
    • Medical error 암과 심장질환에 이어 번째 killer (255000/year)
    • 의사들의 소통 장애는 'clinical hypocompetence'라고 있다.
    • 개인의 특성이 아니라 cultural norm이다. Control style 문제와도 연관이 되어 있고 Status asymmetry 있어서 의사들은 종종 'teamwork 간호사가 복종하는 것이다' 라고 생각한다.
    • 메타분석 결과 의사들은 환자의 말을 듣지 않는다. '취조'이지 '경청' 아니다.
    • 마지막으로, 진단 오류는 malpractice 일으키는 번째 주요한 원인인데, 직접 측정할 방법은 없지만 간접적인 방법으로서 '25%에서 사망 전과 후의 진단이 다르다' 사실을 필요가 있다.

  • Empathy Cooperation 어떻게 가르칠 것인가?
    • 학생들은 팽배한 cynicism이나 unproductive autocracy 같은 medical culture 지닌 'hidden curriculum'으로 인해 처음 그들이 가지고 있던 이상적인 모습을 잃어간다.
    • Communication hypocompetence empathy 대한 여러 연구들의 결과를 종합해보면 현재 의학교육에서 의도하지 않은  결과가 나타나고 있는데, 의과대학 학생들이 work-based, professional social activity 대한 준비가 되어있지 않다. 'craft(기교) of communication'이라고도 부른다.

  • 의대 문화의 민주화 : 인문의학의 역할
    • 인문의학을 통해 얻고자 하는 주요한 outcome 하나는 empathy 대한 교육이다. Team-based communication intervention 통해 달성하고자 하는 주요한 역량 역시 empathy이다.
    • 간략하게 말하면, where training of communication skills is often limited to technical issues of face-to-face encounters, the broader issue of progressing this to establishing habits of democratic behaviour has not been articulated or pursued in medical education. 의학교육에서 민주적 행동(democratic behavior)습관을 키워주는 문제는 다뤄지지 않고 있음

  • 의과대학에서 인문의학의 성장
    • Medical humanities라는 단어는 1947 도입됨.
    • Crawshaw seminal paper ‘Humanism in medicine’ notes that the medical profession appears increasingly ‘more mechanical and less human’: ‘Our ears are bent, our minds filled, perhaps even our hearts weighed with the burgeoning catalogue of iatrogenic problems.’40
    • 1976 Moore published literature에서 처음으로 medical humanities라는 단어 사용.
    • 등등..
    • 그러나 널리 퍼진 용어에 대한 consensus 없었다.
    • Consensus 있어야 할까? 비록 표현에 있어 variety 존재했지만 patient care 향상시키겠다는 공통적 목적만은 잃지 않았다.
    • 인문의학을 통합시킴으로써 얻는 효과를 측정하는 alternative approach
      • Crawshaw’s concern ‘with the burgeoning catalogue of iatrogenic problems’ : 의인성문제를 본다.
      • Cook’s suggestion that the medical humanities offer the best medium for medical students to focus on the ‘ambiguities of the human condition’. '인간의 모호성'

  • 미래의 인문의학 역할
    • Medical work technical하면서 interpersonal하다.
      • "medicine not as a science, but a ‘science using’ practical activity whose heart is clinical judgment demanding high tolerance of uncertainty"
    • 인문의학의 연구를 종합한 개의 리뷰논문을 보면, 연구의 설계가 되어있지 않은 경우가 많다.
    • 의학교육은 측정불가능한 성과에 대해 투자해야 한다는 점에 있어 도전을 받을 것이다.
    • Humanity는 Empathy retention하는데 중요하다.
    • 의학은 임상, 과학적 연구를 환자 진료화 있는 'medium' 필요한데, 인문학이 바로 그러한 역할을 있다.
    • Pilpel et al.46 suggest that medical error may be reduced in the future not specifically by focusing upon teaching communication skills, but by teaching medical students about the cultural and institutional barriers to the acceptance of responsibility for medical error, primarily ‘institutional norms that encourage authoritarianism, intolerance of uncertainty and denial of error’.

 

  • 이론적 정당성
    • Humanity 의학계 내의 democracy 증진시키는 중요한 원동력이다
    • Social play : 다른 사람을 인내하고 자신의 약점을 인정하는데 중요함
    • 판단의 premature closure 경계(resist)함으로써 다른 사람을 존중하고 ambiguity 감내할 있게 해주는 potential space (어른의 'play') 필요하다.
    • 313명의 의대생을 10년간 조사한 결과에 따르면 ambiguity 대한 tolerance 약한 학생은 사는 사람이나 사회적 약자 계층에게 부정적인 태도를 보인다.
    • Empathy 저하, ambiguity 참는 (intolerance) 모두 'communication symptom 양면이다.

  • 결론
    • 현재 인문의학은 실험을 통한 근거를 쌓는데 고전하고 있으나, communication science patient safety study 통하여 영향에 대한 질문에 답할 있을 것이다




 2013 Feb;47(2):126-33. doi: 10.1111/medu.12056.

Can the science of communication inform the art of the medical humanities?

Source

Institute of Clinical Education, Peninsula Medical School, Peninsula College of Medicine and Dentistry, Universities of Exeter and Plymouth, Exeter, UK. alan.bleakley@pms.ac.uk

Abstract

CONTEXT:

There is increasing interest in establishing the medical humanities as core integrated provision in undergraduate medicine curricula, but sceptics point to the lack of evidence for their impact upon patient care. Further, the medical humanities culture has often failed to provide a convincing theoretical rationale for the inclusion of the arts and humanities in medical education.

DISCUSSION:

Poor communication with colleagues and patients is the main factor in creating the conditions for medical error; this is grounded in a historically determined refusal of democracy within medical work. The medical humanities may play a critical role in educating for democracy in medical culture generally, and in improving communication in medical students specifically, as both demand high levels of empathy. Studies in the science of communication can provide a valuable evidence base justifying the inclusion of the medical humanities in the core curriculum. A case is made for the potential of the medical humanities--as a form of 'adult play'--to educate for collaboration and tolerance of ambiguity or uncertainty, providing a key element of the longer-term democratising force necessary to change medical culture and promote safer practice.

CONCLUSION:

The arts and humanities can provide important contextual media through which the lessons learned from the science of communication in medicine can be translated and promoted as forms of medical education.

© Blackwell Publishing Ltd 2013.





  • LIC key feature
    • The key features of LICs include continuity with clinical teachers, patients and settings
  • students who undertake an LIC: (The international Consortium of Longitudinal Integrated Clerkships)
    • 1 participate in the comprehensive care of patients over time;
    • 2 participate in continuing learning relationships with these patients’ clinicians and the community, and
    • 3 meet the majority of the year’s core clinical competencies, across multiple disciplines simultaneously through  these experiences.2
  • LIC 뒷받침하고 있는(underpinning) 이론들
    • Symbiotic model
    • Social Learning theory
    • Transformative learning theory
  • LIC에서 학생은 community of practice 합당한 일원으로서 역할을 부여 받는다.
  • LIC foundation value
    • Social learning theory
    • Continuity
  • LIC 장점
    • 분절화된 clinical training negative impact 완화하는 역할
      • 학생이 marginalize 되는
      • Ethical erosion
      • 환자중심적 진료를 하는
      • 피드백의 문제
    • 전통적 방법의 문제
      • Cognitive learning approach 강조한다 : clinical reasoning, 지식과 기술의 습득, 진단과 치료.
    • LIC 특징
      • 사회적 community에서 transformative learning experience 있다.
      • 환자와 환자의 가족을 follow-up 하면서 사회적 context에서 health issue 바라볼 있게 해준다.
      • 'good company'
      • LICs foster a social system in which learners can critically reflect on, question, challenge and rejuvenate their personal values
    • 특징(1) : Integrated learning 가능케 한다 : formal and informal or opportunistic learning experience
    • 특징(2) : 환자 연속성 - 복통 환자라고 했을 외과, 부인과, 내과를 모두 있으나 BC에서는 과에 한정된 discipline-specific lens로만 바라보게 된다. Encountering greater diversity and differing perspectives.
    • 특징(3) : 실습 마무리 시점에서 peak knowledge 도달한다. BC 과가 끝날 peak 도달했다가 다시 초보자가

Transformative Learning (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformative_learning)


At the core of Transformative Learning theory, is the process of "perspective transformation", with three dimensions: psychological (changes in understanding of the self), convictional (revision of belief systems), and behavioral (changes in lifestyle).[1]

"Transformative learning is the expansion of consciousness through the transformation of basic worldview and specific capacities of the self; transformative learning is facilitated through consciously directed processes such as appreciatively accessing and receiving the symbolic contents of the unconscious and critically analyzing underlying premises."[2]

Perspective transformation leading to transformative learning occurs infrequently. Mezirow believes that it usually results from a disorienting dilemma, which is triggered by a life crisis or major life transition, although it may also result from an accumulation of transformations in meaning schemes over a period of time.[3] Less dramatic predicaments, such as those created by a teacher, also promote transformation.[4]

An important part of transformative learning is for individuals to change their frames of reference by critically reflecting on their assumptions and beliefs and consciously making and implementing plans that bring about new ways of defining their worlds. This process is fundamentally rational and analytical.[5][6] 




 2013 Apr;47(4):336-9. doi: 10.1111/medu.12139.

Transformative learning through longitudinal integrated clerkships.

Source

Rural Clinical School, Flinders University, PO Box 852, Renmark, South Australia 5341, Australia. jennene.greenhill@flinders.edu.au







  • Abstract
    • 결론 : 습이 끝날 시점에서 LIC학생들이 patient care 독립적으로 engage 하며, clinic pt 기회가 많았다. 대부분 ambulatory setting에서 이뤄지는 LIC 교육모델은 학생들이 많은 기회를 제공한다는 점에서 Workplace learning principle 일치한다.
      • By late year, LIC students engage in patient care more independently and have more opportunities to see clinic patients on multiple occasions than BC students. Consistent with the principles of workplace learning, these findings suggest that yearlong longitudinal integrated education models, that rely mostly on ambulatory settings, afford students greater opportunities to participate more fully in the provision of patient care.
  • Introduction
    • 학교마다 거의 동일했던 Core clinical year 이제는 모델이 다양해지고 외래/입원환자 경험이 다양해지고, 환자에 대한 연속성과 감독의사, 세팅 등이 다양해지고 있다. LIC 모델은 하나의 학생이 전문직으로서 배우고 성장하는 과정은 실제 의사가 환자를 care하는 과정에 meaningful, supported participation 함으로서 가능하다는 전제에서 출발한다. 이러한 전제를 지키기 위해서 LIC 주로 외래환자 중심이며, block보다는 longitudinal 경험을 중시하여 환자, 그리고 supervising doctor와의 관계를 쌓는 것을 가능케 한다.
    • 다양한 clerkship model 존재함에 따라 그들 사이에 상대적인 효과성의 문제가 항상 있어왔고, 일부 연구는 LIC 학생들이 BC 비해서 환자중심의 태도를 갖는다는 것을 보여주기도 했다. 또한 LIC학생은 시험에서는 거의 비슷한 수준의 능력을 보여줬고, 환자가 가진 질병의 전체 코스를 배울 있는 특징이 있다. 이론적으로 이러한 결과는 LIC 모델을 뒷받침하는 learning science 연관이 되어있으나, 아직 이러한 결과를 뒷받침하는 기전에 대한 근거는 없다. 어떻게 LIC BC 학습 경험이 다를까? 예를 들면 환자와 보내는 시간이나 감독의사와 보내는 시간이 얼마나 차이가 날까? LIC모델은 BC보다 환자에 대해 책임의식을 갖게 하고, 독립적으로 환자 care 있게 해주는가?
  • Sample
    •  University of California San Francisco (UCSF), the University of South Dakota Sanford School of Medicine (USD) and Harvard Medical School (HMS)
  • Conclusion
    • Clerkships 학생들이 임상현장에 처음으로 full-time으로 접하는 중요한 기간이다. 여기서는 종료 시점에서 차이가 발견되었으며 LIC학생이 환자와 독립적으로 직접 일하는 시간이 많았고, 환자를 관찰하는 시간은 적었고, BC학생보다 return visit환자를 많이 보았다. 이러한 결과로부터 workplace learning 핵심이라고 있는 independent practice 향상은 LIC모델이 가장 중요하게 강조하는 점이라는 사실과, rotation-based 기존 방법에서는 이루어지지 않는다는 사실을 있다.


Students' workplace learning in two clerkship models: a multi-site observational study.

Source

Department of Medicine, University of California San Francisco (UCSF), San Francisco, CA, USA. bridget.obrien@ucsf.edu

Abstract

CONTEXT:

Longitudinal integrated clerkships (LICs) are established, rapidly growing models of education designed to improve the core clinical year of medical school using guiding principles about workplace learning and continuity. This study is the first to report data from direct observations ofworkplace learning experiences of students on LICs and traditional block clerkships (BCs), respectively.

METHODS:

This multi-institution study used an observational, work-sampling methodology to compare LIC and BC students early and late in the core clinical year. Trained research assistants documented students' activities, participation (observing, with assistance, alone), and interactions every 10 minutes over 4-hour periods. Each student was observed one to three times early and/or late in the year. Data were aggregated at the student level and by in-patient or out-patient setting for BC students. One-way analysis of variance (anova) was used to compare two groups early in the year (LIC and BC students) and three groups late in the year (LIC, out-patient BC and in-patient BC students).

RESULTS:

Early-year observations included 26 students (16 LIC and 10 BC students); late-year observations included 44 students (28 LIC, eight out-patient BC and eight in-patient BC students). Out-patient activities and interactions of LIC and BC students were similar early in the year, but in the later period LIC students spent significantly more time performing direct patient care activities alone (25%) compared with out-patient (12%) and in-patient (7%) BC students. Students on LICs were significantly more likely to experience continuity with patients as 34% of their patients returned to them, whereas only 5% of patients did so for out-patient BC students late in the year.

CONCLUSIONS:

By late year, LIC students engage in patient care more independently and have more opportunities to see clinic patients on multiple occasions than BC students. Consistent with the principles of workplace learning, these findings suggest that yearlong longitudinal integrated education models, that rely mostly on ambulatory settings, afford students greater opportunities to participate more fully in the provision of patient care.



  • LIC BC 학생 모두 환자를 support하고 care 대한 정보를 공유하는데 있어서 중요한 역할을 하고 있다고 응답한 데에 반해, LIC학생만이 "doctor role with patients"로서 성장(grow)하는 것에 대한 지속적인 기회가 있었다고 응답했다. LIC학생들은 care system 높은 수준으로 통합(integration)되고, 교수자 또는 환자와 깊은 관계를 형성함으로써 환자중심care 역량이 향상되고 동기화됨을 느낀다고 하였다.
  • 전통적인 BC방식의 임상 교육은 in-patient service team 일원으로서 학생을 투입하지만, 임상 참여를 encourage하는 측면에서 부족한 점이 많다. 이러한 모델에서는 초보 학습자는 가장자리로 밀려나고(marginalize), 감독하는 staff 자주 바뀌게 된다. Clerkship 구조와 학생이 얼마나 integration되었느냐는 clerkship 만족도와 직결된다. 그러나 학생들은 학습 니즈에 맞지도 않고, 적절한 학습기회도 제공하지 못하는, 그러나 자주 변화하는 service 대해서 연속적으로 적응해야 한다. 학생들에게 과의 문화에 동화되는 것은 어려운 일이고, 바뀌는 세팅에 따라서 배운 것을 적용시키느라(transfer) 애를 먹는다. 심지어 core clerkship 마지막까지도 학생들은 novice처럼 새롭게 시작하게 된다.
  • 이러한 상황은 "supported or guided participation"으로 대변되는 successful workplace learning 대비된다. (health care provider 활발하게 상호작용하며, 환자 care 적극적으로 참여시킴으로써 학습의 기회를 주고, 의도적으로 도전적인 과제를 주는 방식)
  • Sample
    • We selected participants from the University of California San Francisco (UCSF), the University of South Dakota Sanford School of Medicine (USD) and Harvard Medical School (HMS).
    • All three schools have concurrent LICs (at a tertiary hospital for UCSF, and at community sites for USD and HMS) and BCs (at tertiary hospitals and affiliated clinics). Students rank their clerkship preferences; most receive their first choice. Each LIC included 2–6 weeks in an in-patient context during an otherwise predominantly out-patient core clerkship experience.
    • Block clerkship students had predominantly in-patient experiences with varying amounts of ambulatory time in discipline-based clerkships, and a single longitudinal clinical experience

 

  • Discussion
    • BC 학생들은 스스로를 감독 의사의 바쁜 스케줄로 인해 비는 시간을 채우는 역할로 인지하고 있었고, LIC 학생들은 환자를 위하여 의사와 같은 역할을 한다고 느꼈으며, 그들의 감독의사와 collaborate with 했다고 생각했다. 반면 BC학생들은 스스로를 연말이 되어서는 학생과 같은 역할로 묘사했다.


 2012 Jul;46(7):698-710. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2923.2012.04285.x.

The role of rolelearning in longitudinal integrated and traditional block clerkships.

Source

Department of Medicine, School of Medicine, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA. karen.hauer@ucsf.edu

Abstract

CONTEXT:

Traditional block clerkship (BC) structures may not optimally support medical student participation in the workplace, whereas longitudinalintegrated clerkship (LIC) structures seem more conducive to students' active engagement in patient care over time. Understanding the ways in which these two clerkship models influence students' roles and responsibilities can inform clinical learning programme design.

METHODS:

This was a multicentre qualitative study. We conducted semi-structured interviews with LIC and BC medical students at three institutions early and late in the core clinical year to explore their experiences with patients and the roles they served. Using the framework of 'workplace affordances', qualitative coding focused on students' roles and qualities of the learning environment that invited or inhibited student participation. We compared transcripts of early- and late-year interviews to assess students' changing roles and conducted discrepant case analysis to ensure that coding fit the data.

RESULTS:

Fifty-four students participated in interviews. They described serving three major roles in clinical care that respectively involved: providing support to patients; sharing information about patients across health care settings, and functioning in a doctor-like role. Both LIC and BC students served in the providing support and transmitting information roles both early and late in the year. By contrast, LIC students commonly served in the doctor-like role in managing their patients' care, particularly late in the year, whereas BC students rarely served in this role. Continuity in settings and in supervisors, and preceptors' endorsement of students' legitimate role afforded opportunities for students to participate actively in patient care.

CONCLUSIONS:

Although both LIC and BC students reported serving in important roles in supporting their patients and sharing information about their care, only LIC students consistently described opportunities to grow into a doctor role with patients. The high level of integration of LIC students into care systems and their deeper relationships with preceptors and patients enhanced their motivation and feelings of competence to provide patient-centred care.






  • 어떤 종류의 경험이 학생들로 하여금 특정 과를 선호하게 하고, 특정 과를 기피하게 하는가?
    • 임상 경험이 학생들의 전공 선택에 영향을 준다는 것은 이미 알려져 있다.
  • )
    • 가지의 clerkship 모두에서 intrinsic work factor 대한 긍정적인 반응은 강력한 양성 예측자였다.
    • Acute patient, favorable orientation towards technology 대한 선호가 있다면 외과를 선호한다. (clerkship이전, 이후 모두). General practice 대한 선호는 반대 방향이다.
    • 성별과도 연관이 있어 보임.(However, specialty preferences reflected a certain genderrelated pattern, with men favouring surgery, women favouring general practice and both genders exhibiting equal degrees of inclination for internal medicine. )

 2008 Jun;42(6):554-62. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2923.2008.03008.x. Epub 2008 Apr 23.

The impact of clerkships on studentsspecialty preferences: what do undergraduates learn for their profession?

Source

Institute of Medical Education, Faculty of Medicine, University of Maastricht, Maastricht, The Netherlands.

Abstract

OBJECTIVE:

Clinical experiences and gender have been shown to influence medical studentsspecialty choices. It remains unclear, however, which aspects of experiences make students favour some specialties and reject others. This study aimed to clarify the effects of clerkships on specialtychoice and to identify explanatory factors.

METHODS:

We carried out a longitudinal cohort study to collect data on career preferences and attitudes towards future careers among 3 cohorts ofstudents before and after clerkships in surgery (n = 200), internal medicine (n = 277) and general practice (n = 184). Regression analyses were performed to identify the determinants of career choice and the role of gender.

RESULTS:

Exposure to clinical settings encourages students to opt for a career in the corresponding specialty. Men were more stimulated than women by the general practice clerkship. Gender had no clear role as a predictor of career preference. The major predictor of career choice in all 3 specialties was positive evaluation of work-intrinsic factors. A preference for working with acute patients and technology-oriented work, prestige orientation and insignificance of a controllable lifestyle were determinants of a preference for surgery. Students with a preference for general practice had almost opposite preferences. Those who chose internal medicine favoured a controllable lifestyle.

DISCUSSION:

Factors other than gender appear to drive specialty decisions. Work content, type of patients and lifestyle options play major roles. Consequently, along with teaching about the practice of medicine, the matching of specialty preferences with reality is an essential outcome ofclerkships.











  • Preceptor student 모두 LIC에서의 evaluation 가지 측면에서 낫다고 생각했다.
    • 과정의 타당성 : Validity of evaluation process
    • 평가의 질 : Quality of clinical skill evaluation
    • 건설적 피드백 : Willingness to provide constructive feedback.

  • 전통적인 방식의 clinical performance 평가가 가지는 가지 문제
    • 실제로 학생이 환자와 접하는 과정을 보지 못한 상태에서도, 며칠, 주의 Block clerkship 끝날 평가를 하게 .
    • 학생들의 임상 기술은 평가와 피드백을 통해서 향상되나, 평가는 rotation 말미에만 시행되기 때문에 건설적인 제안을 받지 못하고, 학생들의 실수는 그대로 유지된다.
    • 요약하자면, LIC 경우 학생들과 교수자 모두 평가가 공정하고, 정확하고, block보다 학생의 performance   반영한다고 받아들인다. 또한 faculty 학생 모두 faculty staff LIC상황에서 정직하고, 건설적인 피드백을 한다는 것에 동의했다






 2011 May;45(5):464-70. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2923.2010.03904.x.

Perceptions of evaluation in longitudinal versus traditional clerkships.

Source

Department of Medicine, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, USA. Lindsay.A.Mazotti@kp.org

Abstract

OBJECTIVES:

Methods for evaluating student performance in clerkships traditionally suffer shortcomings, partly as a result of clerkship structure. The purpose of this study was to compare preceptors' and students' perceptions of student evaluation in block clerkships and longitudinal integratedclerkships (LICs).

METHODS:

From 2007 to 2009, preceptors who taught on both block clerkships and an LIC were surveyed on their perceptions of clerkshipevaluation. Year 3 students were surveyed on their perceptions of clerkship evaluation at the year end. Responses from preceptors who completed both block clerkship and LIC surveys were compared using paired-samples t-test; student responses were compared using independent-samples t-test.

RESULTS:

Overall, 66% (67/102) of block clerkship and 75% (77/102) of LIC preceptors responded; 44% of preceptors (45/102) completed both block and LIC surveys. In total, 62% (68/110) of block clerkship and 83% (19/23) of LIC students responded. Both preceptors and students favouredevaluation in the LIC on three factors (p ≤ 0.01): validity of evaluation process, quality of clinical skill evaluation, and willingness to provide constructive feedback.

CONCLUSIONS:

Preceptors and students perceived evaluation in an LIC more favourably than evaluation on block clerkships. For educators working to improve student evaluation, further examination of the LIC structure and evaluation processes that seem to enhance both formative assessment and summative evaluation may be useful to improve the quality of evaluation and feedback.







  • 무조건 환자 수를 많이 보는 것만이 능사는 아니다.
    • Q. 오히려 적은 수라도 제대로 보는 것이 나을 있을까?
    • 기존의 다른 연구들도 비슷한 결과를 내놓은 것이 많다.
  • 1쿼터에서 4쿼터로 갈수록 보는 환자 수가 감소한다 
    • (Post hoc Bonferroni multiple comparisons indicated that, on average, students in clerkships in quarter 1 reported significantly more patients than those in clerkships in quarters 3 (p < 0.01) and 4 (p < 0.01). )
  • Clinical exposure internal medicine clerkship performance 상관관계가 약하다.
    • (Clerkship process - Clerkship outcome 비교)







 2012 Jul;46(7):689-97. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2923.2012.04283.x.

Relationship between clinical experiences and internal medicine clerkship performance.

Source

Department of Preventive Medicine and Biometrics, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences (USUHS), Bethesda, MD 20814, USA. ting.dong@usuhs.mi

Abstract

OBJECTIVES:

This study was conducted to assess the associations between several clerkship process measures and students' clinical and examination performance in an internal medicine clerkship.

METHODS:

We collected data from the internal medicine clerkship at one institution over a 3-year period (classes of 2010-2012; n = 507) and conducted correlation and multiple regression analyses. We examined the associations between clerkship process measures (student-reported number of patients evaluated, percentage of core problems encountered, total number of core problems encountered, total number of clinics attended) and four clerkship outcomes (clinical points [a weighted summation of a student's clinical grade recommendations], ambulatory clinical points [the out-patient portion of clinical points], examination points [a weighted summation of scores on three clerkship examinations], and National Board of Medical Examiners examination score).

RESULTS:

After controlling for pre-clerkship ability and gender, percentage of core problems was significantly associated with ambulatory clinicalpoints (b = 3.84, total model R(2) = 0.14). Further, number of patients evaluated was significantly associated with clinical points (b = 0.19, total model R(2) = 0.22), but only for students who undertook first-quarter clerkships, who reported higher numbers of patients.

CONCLUSIONS:

Notwithstanding a few positive (but small) associations, the results from this study suggest that clinical exposure is, at best, weakly associated with internal medicine clerkship performance.




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