의과대학의 입학기준과 다양성

Admission criteria and diversity in medical school

Lotte O’Neill,1 Maria C Vonsild,2 Birgitta Wallstedt2 & Tim Dornan3


배경

의과대학에서 낮은 사회경제적 배경의 학생을 과소평가(under-representation)하는 것은 중요한 사회적 이슈이다. 현재까지는 입학 전형을 변화시키는 것이 의과대학 학생의 다양성을 높인다는 근거가 적다. 덴마크는 '자질중심(attribute-based)'이라는 입학전형을 만들어서 '성적중심(grade-based)' 입학전형에서는 입학이 어려운 학생들을 학문적 역량보다 '자질'을 갖춘 학생들을 선발하고자 했다. 이 연구의 목적은 각각의 입학전형을 통해서 들어온 학생들의 사회적 구성의 차이를 보고자 하는 것이다.


방법 

이 전향적 코호트 연구는 2002년부터 2007년까지 입학한 1074명의 학생을 대상으로 하였다. 이 중 454명은 성적중심 입학전형으로, 620명은 자질중심 입학전형으로 들어온 학생들이다. 각각의 입학전형에서 사회적 구성의 혼합정도를 평가하기 위해서 덴마크에서 학업성취와 관련이 되있다고 알려진 사회적 요인들에 대한 정보를 수집하였다(인종, 아버지의 직업, 어머니의 교육, Parenthood, 부모와 동거, 부모의 사회이득(social benefit))


결과

선발 전략은 의과대학 구성의 차이에 통계적으로 유의미한 차이를 주지 않았다.


결론

입학전형의 선택은 의과대학에 대한 접근성이나 사회적 다양성을 높이는데 그다지 중요하게 작용하지 않았다. 다양한 지원자 풀을 확보하는 것이 학생 구성의 다양성을 높이는데 더 좋은 전략으로 보인다.







 2013 Jun;47(6):557-61. doi: 10.1111/medu.12140.

Admission criteria and diversity in medical school.

Source

Centre of Medical Education, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark. lotte@medu.au.dk

Abstract

CONTEXT:

The under-representation in medical education of students from lower socio-economic backgrounds is an important social issue. There is currently little evidence about whether changes in admission strategies might increase the diversity of the medical student population. Denmark introduced an 'attribute-based' admission track to make it easier for students who may not be eligible for admission on the 'grade-based' track to be admitted on the basis of attributes other than academic performance. The aim of this research was to examine whether there were significant differences in the social composition of student cohorts admitted via each of the two tracks during the years 2002-2007.

METHODS:

This prospective cohort study included 1074 medical students admitted during 2002-2007 to the University of Southern Denmark medical school. Of these, 454 were admitted by grade-based selection and 620 were selected on attributes other than grades. To explore the social mix of candidates admitted on each of the two tracks, respectively, we obtained information on social indices associated with educational attainment in Denmark (ethnic origin, father's education, mother's education, parenthood, parents living together, parent in receipt of social benefits).

RESULTS:

Selection strategy (grade-based or attribute-based) had no statistically significant effect on the social diversity of the medical student population.

CONCLUSIONS:

The choice of admission criteria may not be very important to widening access and increasing social diversity in medical schools. Attracting a sufficiently diverse applicant pool may represent a better strategy for increasing diversity in the student population.

© 2013 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

PMID:

 

23662872

 

[PubMed - in process]







"우리는 그들로부터 배우고, 그들은 우리에게 배운다." 국제보건의 경험과 방문교수에 대한 주최국의 인식

“We Learn From Them, They Learn From Us”: Global Health Experiences and Host Perceptions of Visiting Health Care Professionals

Christian Kraeker, MD, FRCPC, MSc, DTM&H, and Clare Chandler, MSc, PhD



목적 : 선진국(developed countries)의 보건의료 전문직이 개발도상지역에 방문하여 가르치거나 교육을 하는 사례가 많아지고 있다. 이 프로젝트는 개발도상지역의 보건의료 전문직이 그 지역에 교육을 하기 위해서 방문한 사람들에 대한 인식을 조사하기 위해서 수행되었다.


방법 : 2011년 7월, Namibia 의과대학의 9명의 보건의료 전문직과 반구조화(semistructured)된 면접을 하였다. 혜택(benefits), 피해(harms), 윤리적 인상(ethical impressions)등에 관한 질문을 하였다. 인터뷰는 녹화되고 녹취록을 작성하여 inductive, iterative approach로 질적 분석을 수행하였다.


결과 : 인터뷰를 분석한 결과 세 가지 주된 주제가 확인되었다. (1)문화, 맥락(context), 그리고 관심(concern), (2)기대, 의도, 의사소통의 문제 (3)파트너쉽, 지식을 공유하고 얻으려는 열망


결론 : 인터뷰 참가자들의 말에 따르면 장기적으로 지속가능한 관계를 맺고 적절한 태도를 갖추기 위해서는 문화와 환경적 맥락에 대한 정보를 사전에 파악하여 수요조사(needs assessment)를 방문 전에 실시하는 것이 반드시 필요했다. 이러한 것들은 국제적 교육 협력이 상호간 모두 이익이 되려면 어떻게 만들어져야 하는지에 대한 귀중한 통찰을 제시해준다.





Analysis


The interviews were transcribed by one of the authors (C.K.), and we analyzed the data using an inductive, iterative approach, as described by Auerbach and Silverstein.10 


This method is designed to allow the researcher to generate hypotheses from the data rather than to impose existing theories. The principal investigator (C.K.) repeatedly read the interview transcripts and coded them by hand for relevant text and repeating ideas, grouping these into themes that represented narratives shared by groups of participants. The coinvestigator (C.C.) verified the coding and themes and had no disagreements with the initial classifications. In the last interviews, few new ideas or themes relevant to the research questions were apparent, and no more interviews were carried out.




 2013 Apr;88(4):483-7. doi: 10.1097/ACM.0b013e3182857b8a.

"We learn from them, they learn from us": global health experiences and host perceptions of visiting health careprofessionals.

Source

Department of Internal Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada. kraeker@mcmaster.ca

Abstract

PURPOSE:

It is increasingly common for health care professionals from developed countries to travel to developing regions of the world to learn or teach. This project aimed to describe the perceptions held by health care professionals in a developing region toward those who visit their communities to learn or teach.

METHOD:

Semistructured interviews were conducted in July, 2011, with nine health care professionals from the University of Namibia School of Medicine. Questions revolved around participants' perceptions of benefits, harms, and ethical impressions of a health care professional visiting from a developed country. Interviews were tape-recorded, transcribed, and analyzed qualitatively using an inductive, iterative approach.

RESULTS:

The interview analysis identified three main narratives that shaped participant perceptions of visits: (1) culture, context, and concern, (2) expectations, intentions, and miscommunications, and (3) partnership and the desire to share and gain knowledge.

CONCLUSIONS:

Participants' comments supported actively seeking out information regarding cultural and environmental context before visiting, completing a needs assessment to ensure that activities are needed and relevant, attempting to formulate long-term sustainable relationships, and traveling with the appropriate attitude. These themes provide valuable insight into how international educational collaborations can be created in order to be mutually beneficial.

PMID:

 

23425985

 

[PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]






임상 경험을 일찍 하는 것의 장점은 무엇인가? - 여러 셋팅간 비교

What are the benefits of early patient contact? - A comparison of three preclinical patient contact settings

Marjorie D Wenrich1*, Molly B Jackson2, Ineke Wolfhagen3, Paul G Ramsey1 and Albert JJ Scherpbier3


전임상을 배우고 있는 의과대학 학생들에게 환자 경험을 더 일찍 갖게 해주려는 관심에도 불구하고 그것이 실제로 어떤 결과와 연결되는가는 알려진 바가 적다. 저자들은 큰 규모의 미국 의과대학에서 세 가지의 환자조기노출(early patient experiences)을 비교하였다. 여기서 모든 전임상 학생들(preclinical students)이 preceptor로부터 배우고, 매주 bedside clinical skills training을 받으며, 절반정도의 전임상 학생들은 지역사회 중심의 경험을 쌓게 된다. 저자들은 "어떤 결과와 교육적 요소들이 학생들에게 있어서 중요한가?"를 알고자 했다.


2009~2011년 의과대학 2학년 학생들은 설문조사에 응답했고, 2009년에 학생들은 세 가지 중에서 두 가지 접근방법을 비교했다. 2010년과 2011년에 학생들은 세 가지 모두에 대한 평가를 하였다. 질적/양적 분석을 수행하였다.


학생들은 bedside training을 임상세팅에 대한 익숙함을 기르는 것, 일대일 임상술기 훈련, 피드백, 능동적 임상경험, 임상 교육의 질, 팀의 일원으로서 배우는 것의 측면에서 높게 평가했다. 반면 지역사회 임상 경험과 Preceptorship은 의사의 일과 생활, 진로와 과 선택결정 측면에서 좋았다고 평가했다.


전임상학생들은 다른 경험을 함으로서 서로 다른 것을 배웠다. 의과대학은 조기임상환경 노출에 대한 목적을 정확히 세우고 그에 따른 옵션을 제공해야 할 것이다. 여러 종류의 경험이 합해지면 학생들이 임상 또는 팀에 대해서 배우고, 임상 술기를 배우고, 의사의 일과 생활에 대해 이해하며 진로 선택에 있어 다양한 경험을 할 수 있을 것이다.









 2013 Jun 3;13:80. doi: 10.1186/1472-6920-13-80.

What are the benefits of early patient contact?--A comparison of three preclinical patient contact settings.

Source

Office of the CEO, UW Medicine and Executive Vice President for Medical Affairs, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195-6350, USA. maxter@uw.edu

Abstract

BACKGROUND:

Despite increasing attention to providing preclinical medical students with early patient experiences, little is known about associated outcomes for students. The authors compared three early patient experiences at a large American medical school where all preclinical students complete preceptorships and weekly bedside clinical-skills training and about half complete clinical, community-based summer immersion experiences. The authors asked, what are the relative outcomes and important educational components for students?

METHODS:

Medical students completed surveys at end of second year 2009-2011. In 2009, students compared/contrasted two of three approaches; responses framed later survey questions. In 2010 and 2011, students rated all three experiences in relevant areas (e.g., developing comfort in clinical setting). Investigators performed qualitative and quantitative analyses.

RESULTS:

Students rated bedside training more highly for developing comfort with clinical settings, one-on-one clinical-skills training, feedback, active clinical experience, quality of clinical training, and learning to be part of a team. They rated community clinical immersion and preceptorships more highly for understanding the life/practice of a physician and career/specialty decisions.

CONCLUSIONS:

Preclinical students received different benefits from the different experiences. Medical schools should define objectives of earlyclinical experiences and offer options accordingly. A combination of experiences may help students achieve clinical and team comfort, clinical skills, an understanding of physicians' lives/practices, and broad exposure for career decisions.







환자안전 향상을 위한 첫 단계로서의 환자안전교육과정

The Patient Safety Curriculum for Undergraduate Medical Students as a First Step Toward Improving Patient Safety


Sun Jung Myung, MD,* Jwa-Seop Shin, MD, PhD,* Ji Hyung Kim, MA,* HyeRin Roh, MD,† Yoon Kim, MD,‡ Jeongeun Kim,§ Sang-il Lee, MD, Jae-Ho Lee, MD,¶ and Suk Wha Kim, MD



목적 : 환자안전이 점차 더 강조되고, 그 교육에 대한 관심이 높아지고 있음에도 불구하고, 교과과정에 환자안전을 포함시킨 학교는 매우 적다. 의과대학생들은 적절한 환자 안전 기술을 이해하고 시행할 줄 알아야 한다. 따라서 우리는 파일럿 프로그램으로서의 일주일짜리 환자안전 교육과정을 소개하고 환자안전 교육과정의 효과성을 평가하고자 한다.


설계, 세팅, 참가자 : 1주일짜리 환자안전코스를 기존 환자-의사-사회 과목에 포함시켜 모든 2학년 의과대학생 대상으로 가르쳤다. 교과과정은 상호작용 강의, 토론, 소그룹발표로 이루어졌다. 학생들은 교과과정 전/후로 설문지를 작성하였다.


결과 : 교육 전/후의 설문데이터를 비교하보면, 학생들의 환자안전에 대한 인식이 크게 향상된 것을 알 수 있었다. 그 중에서도 의사에 의해서 저질러지는 의료과오와 의료과오에 의해서 생길 수 있는 결과에 대한 인식이 크게 향상되었다.


결론 : 이러한 결과는 환자안전교육과정이 학생들의 환자안전과 의료과오의 현실에 대한 인식을 향상시키는 것으로 나타났다. 환자안전 교육과정의 지속적 개발과 수행은 의과대학 학생들에게 더 도움이 될 것이다.



KEY WORDS: patient safety, medical error, curriculum development, medical education

COMPETENCIES: Patient Care, Medical Knowledge, Professionalism, Interpersonal and Communication Skills, Practice Based Learning and Improvement









 2012 Sep-Oct;69(5):659-64. doi: 10.1016/j.jsurg.2012.04.012. Epub 2012 May 23.

The patient safety curriculum for undergraduate medical students as a first step toward improving patient safety.

Source

Office of Medical Education, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea.

Abstract

OBJECTIVE:

Despite the growing emphasis on patient safety and the need for patient safety education, few schools have included this subject in their curriculumMedical students need to understand and demonstrate appropriate patient safety skills early and continuously in their professional education. Therefore, we introduced a week of patient safety curriculum as a pilot program and attempted to describe and evaluate the effectiveness of a patient safety curriculum for second-year medical students.

DESIGN, SETTING, PARTICIPANTS:

A 1-week patient safety course was developed and taught to all second-year medical students as part of an existing patient-doctor society course. The curriculum was composed of interactive lecture, discussion, and small-group debriefing facilitated by a tutor dealing with topics about patient safetyStudents were asked to complete questionnaires on awareness about patient safety before and after thecurriculum.

RESULTS:

The comparison of questionnaire data obtained before and after the curriculum revealed that the students' awareness about patient safetywas significantly increased. Among them, awareness of the frequency of medical errors made by physicians and the awareness of the adverse outcomes due to medical errors were remarkably changed.

CONCLUSIONS:

These findings suggest that a patient safety course could increase the medical students' awareness of patient safety and the reality of medical errors. Continued development and implementation of patient safety curriculum will make medical students, as future doctors and health-care leaders, prepared to better practice and offer safer health care services than ever.

Copyright © 2012 Association of Program Directors in Surgery. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

PMID:
 
22910166
 
[PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]


대규모 학회에서 학술 프로그램의 평가 : 제22회 세계 피부과학술대회

Evaluation of Scientific Programs at a Large-Scale Academic Congress: Lessons from the 22nd World Congress of Dermatology

Hyun-Sun Yoon a–c Oh Sang Kwon a–c Jiwon Lee d Jwa-Seop Shin e Seunghee Lee e Soo-Chan Kim f Jean-Hilaire Saurat g Wolfram Sterry h Hee Chul Eun a–c



배경 : 학회 프로그램을 구성하고 연좌를 정하는 것은 상당한 시간과 노력이 들어간다. 하지만 동시진행 세션이 있는 대규모 학회에서 참가자들의 만족을 어떻게 높일 수 있는가에 대한 연구는 부족하다.


목적 : 이 연구는 세 가지 주된 목적이 있다. (1)향후 학회에 대한 기준을 만든다 (2)각 세션의 인기와 참여도를 측정한다 (3)청중의 인식에 영향을 주는 세션의 특징을 찾는다.


방법 :제 22회 세계피부과학술대회(World Congress of Dermatology)의 총 216개의 학술세션(scientific session)을 설문지로 평가하였다.


결과 : 각 세션과 연자에 대한 평균 점수는 대체로 높았다. 일부 요소간 유의미한 차이가 있었다. 각 세션당 연자의 수는 세션의 결과와 상관관계가 없었으며, 세 개의 평가 단계(좋음-보통-나쁨)중에서 각 단계에 속하는 연자의 비율이 얼마나 되느냐가 그 세션의 평가에 영향을 주었다.


결론 : 이 조사는 학술 세션을 구성하고 학회의 질을 향상시키는데 도움이 될 것이다.







Statistical Analysis

Descriptive data were examined for all variables. For continuous variables, results were presented as the mean +/- SD. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) with a post hoc Tukey’s B test was used to compare the differences between session categories or session grades. Pearson’s correlation coefficient was used to evaluate the correlation between two continuous variables. A value of p < 0.05 was considered statistically significant throughout, and all probability values are 2 sided. All data were analyzed by PASW (SPSS; version 18.0; IBM, Somers, N.Y., USA).




















 2012;224(1):38-45. doi: 10.1159/000336573. Epub 2012 Mar 9.

Evaluation of scientific programs at a large-scale academic congresslessons from the 22nd World Congress ofDermatology.

Source

Department of Dermatology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea.

Abstract

BACKGROUND:

The organization of a scientific program and the arrangement of the speakers require a considerable amount of time and effort. However, little is known about how to reinforce the participants' satisfaction with scientific programs at a large-scale academic congress with multiple parallel sessions.

OBJECTIVES:

This study had three main purposes: (1) to create a reference for future congresses, (2) to determine session popularity and participation rate, and (3) to identify which characteristics of sessions can affect the perception of the audience.

METHODS:

A total of 216 scientific sessions during the 22nd World Congress of Dermatology were evaluated using printed evaluation surveys.

RESULTS:

The average scores for all sessions and speakers were relatively high. There were significant differences in the numbers of total session scores, collected surveys and speakers for each session category. The number of speakers at each session was not related to the session results. It was found that among the three different session grades (excellent, fair and poor), the proportion of speakers of each grade especially contributed to the perceived quality of the poor-grade sessions.

CONCLUSIONS:

This survey will help to organize scientific sessions and improve the quality of academic congresses.

Copyright © 2012 S. Karger AG, Basel.

PMID:

 

22414526

 

[PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]


















UC Davis 의과대학에서의 유연한 커리어 정책에 대한 지식, 인식, 활용을 높이기 위한 개입

Improving Knowledge, Awareness, and Use of Flexible Career Policies Through an Accelerator Intervention at the University of California, Davis, School of Medicine 

Amparo C. Villablanca, MD, Laurel Beckett, PhD, Jasmine Nettiksimmons, PhD, and Lydia P. Howell, MD



보건의료분야에 종사하는 여성들에게는 직장과 가정의 균형을 맞추는 일이란, 그로 인해서 생기는 승진속도 저하나 자기분야에서의 뒤쳐짐을 고려하면 무척 어려운 일이다. 이 논문에서 저자들은 교수들의 일과 일상생활의 균형을 향상시키기 위한 혁신적인 개입법을 도입한 UC Davis 의과대학의 경험을 소개한다. 이는 주로 '커리어 융통성 정책(flexible career policies)'에 대한 지식, 인식, 접근을 향상시키는 것을 기반으로 하였다.


그 후 두 개의 교수대상 설문조사의 결과를 요약하였다. 하나는 개입방법을 사용하기 전에 수행된 것이고, 다른 하나는 3년짜리 개입방법이 시행된 후 일년이 지났을 때의 설문결과이다. 두 개의 설문은 모두 교수들의 커리어 융통성 정책을 얼마나 활용하고, 활용할 계획이 있는지, 가능한 옵션에 대해서 얼마나 알고 있는지, 실제적인 장애물은 무엇이며 관련된 교육활동에 참여하는지, 정책에 대한 태도가 변하였는지, 느껴지는 장애물이 줄었는지 등을 설문하였다.


결과는 대부분 여성 교수들이나 50세 이하 교수들에서 두드러졌다(pronounced). 저자들은 비단 의학분야 뿐만 아니라 다른 분야에서도 향후 유사한 연구를 위해 더 논의해야 할 점을 제시하였다. 마지막으로 저자들은 유연한 커리어 정책만으로는 여자 교수들이 줄어드는 것을 저지할 수 없고, 이러한 정책이 기관의 문화에 완전히 스며들어야 한다고 말하고 있다.








 2013 Jun;88(6):771-7. doi: 10.1097/ACM.0b013e31828f8974.

Improving knowledgeawareness, and use of flexible career policies through an accelerator intervention at theUniversity of CaliforniaDavisSchool of Medicine.

Source

Department of Internal MedicineUniversity of CaliforniaDavisSchool of MedicineDavisCalifornia 95616-8636, USA. avillablanca@ucdavis.edu

Abstract

The challenges of balancing a career and family life disproportionately affect women in academic health sciences and medicine, contributing to their slower career advancement and/or their attrition from academia. In this article, the authors first describe their experiences at the University ofCaliforniaDavisSchool of Medicine developing and implementing an innovative accelerator intervention designed to promote faculty work-life balance by improving knowledgeawareness, and access to comprehensive flexible career policies. They then summarize the results of two faculty surveys--one conducted before the implementation of their intervention and the second conducted one year into their three-year intervention--designed to assess faculty's use and intention to use the flexible career policies, their awareness of available options, barriers to their use of the policies, and their career satisfaction. The authors found that the intervention significantly increased awareness of the policies and attendance at related educational activities, improved attitudes toward the policies, and decreased perceived barriers to use. These results, however, were most pronounced for female faculty and faculty under the age of 50. The authors next discuss areas for future research on faculty use of flexible career policies and offer recommendations for other institutions of higher education--not just those in academic medicine--interested in implementing a similar intervention. They conclude that having flexible career policies alone is not enough to stem the attrition of female faculty. Such policies must be fully integrated into an institution's culture such that faculty are both aware of them and willing to use them.

PMID:
 
23619063
 
[PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE] 
PMCID:
 
PMC3665650
 [Available on 2014/6/1]






자동화 과정으로 제작된 의학 다지선다형 문항의 질 평가

Evaluating the quality of medical multiple-choice items created with automated processes

Mark J Gierl1 & Hollis Lai2



목적 : 평가의 컴퓨터화로 인해 엄청난 수의 평가 문항들이 필요해졌다. 자동 문제 제작(Automatic item generation, AIG)은 새로운 문제를 빠르고 효과적으로 만들어 낼 수 있기 때문에 문항 개발에 도움을 줄 수 있다. 그러나 지금까지 자동화된 방법으로 만들어진 문항의 질에 대한 평가는 이루어지지 않았다. 


이 연구의 목적은 자동화 과정으로 만들어진 문항들이 의학분야 시험에 적절한 평가의 질을 담보해주는지를 알아보기 위한 것이다. 문제의 질에 대한 평가는 (1)AIG와 전통적 과정으로 만들어진 문항을 네 명의 의학 전문가 패널에 의해서 주관적으로 평가하게 하는 방법 (2)패널들에게 어떤 문제가 자동화 과정으로 만들어졌는지를 블라인드 테스트로 맞추게 하는 방법으로 이루어졌다. 


방법 : 세 가지 방법으로 각각 15개의 문항을 만들었다. 첫 번째로는 컨텐츠 전문가 그룹이 전통적인 방법(Traditional)으로, 두 번째로는 동일한 컨텐츠 전문가 그룹이 AIG 방식을 활용하여, 세 번째로는 새로운 컨텐츠 전문가 그룹이 전통적 방식으로 만들었다. 4명으로 이뤄진 의학전문가 패널은 이 45개의 문제를 평가하여, Traditional 또는 AIG 문제로 분류하였다.


결과 : 크게 세 개의 결과를 얻었다. 

(1)전통적 방식으로 만든 문항과 AIG방식으로 만들어진 문항 모두 다지선다형 문항의 질을 평가하는 8개의 지표 중에서 7개에서 대등한 점수를 받았다.

(2)AIG문항은 전통적 방식과 비교하여 보기의 질을 통해서 구분할 수 있다.

(3)네 명의 의학전문가들의 전반적인 예측정확도(predictive accuracy)는 42%였다.


결론 : 의학전문가들의 관점에서 AIG방법으로 제작된 문항들은, 대부분 전통적인 방법으로 만들어진 문항과 비교해서 거의 동등하였다. AIG방법으로 만들어진 문항에서 보기(distractor)들이 좀 덜 그럴듯하긴 했지만, 의학전문가들은 블라인드 테스트에서 AIG문항을 일관성 있게 가려내지 못했다.















 2013 Jul;47(7):726-33. doi: 10.1111/medu.12202.

Evaluating the quality of medical multiple-choice items created with automated processes.

Source

Centre for Research in Applied Measurement and Evaluation, Faculty of Education, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada.

Abstract

OBJECTIVES:

Computerised assessment raises formidable challenges because it requires large numbers of test items. Automatic item generation (AIG) can help address this test development problem because it yields large numbers of new items both quickly and efficiently. To date, however, thequality of the items produced using a generative approach has not been evaluated. The purpose of this study was to determine whether automaticprocesses yield items that meet standards of quality that are appropriate for medical testing. Quality was evaluated firstly by subjecting items createdusing both AIG and traditional processes to rating by a four-member expert medical panel using indicators of multiple-choice item quality, and secondly by asking the panellists to identify which items were developed using AIG in a blind review.

METHODS:

Fifteen items from the domain of therapeutics were created in three different experimental test development conditions. The first 15 itemswere created by content specialists using traditional test development methods (Group 1 Traditional). The second 15 items were created by the same content specialists using AIG methods (Group 1 AIG). The third 15 items were created by a new group of content specialists using traditional methods (Group 2 Traditional). These 45 items were then evaluated for quality by a four-member panel of medical experts and were subsequently categorised as either Traditional or AIG items.

RESULTS:

Three outcomes were reported: (i) the items produced using traditional and AIG processes were comparable on seven of eight indicators of multiple-choice item quality; (ii) AIG items can be differentiated from Traditional items by the quality of their distractors, and (iii) the overall predictive accuracy of the four expert medical panellists was 42%.

CONCLUSIONS:

Items generated by AIG methods are, for the most part, equivalent to traditionally developed items from the perspective of expertmedical reviewers. While the AIG method produced comparatively fewer plausible distractors than the traditional method, medical experts cannot consistently distinguish AIG items from traditionally developed items in a blind review.

© 2013 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.




의과대학 학생들은 비만한 사람들에 대한 스스로의 부정적 편견을 인지하고 있을까?

Are Medical Students Aware of Their Anti-obesity Bias?

David P. Miller, Jr., MD, MS, John G. Spangler, MD, MPH, Mara Z. Vitolins, DrPH, RD, Stephen W. Davis, MA, Edward H. Ip, PhD, Gail S. Marion, PA, PhD, and Sonia J. Crandall, PhD


목적 : 비만에 대한 부정적 편견(Anti-obesity prejudices)는 비만한 환자들이 받는 돌봄(care)의 질에 영향을 미친다. 저자들은 의과대학 학생들 사이에 체중과 관련한 편견이 어느 정도나 있는지, 그리고 그들이 스스로 인지하고 있는지를 알아보고자 하였다.


방법 : 2008년과 2011년 사이에, 저자들은 Wake Forest School of Medicine에 재학중인 모든 의과대학 3학년 학생들에게 Weight Implicit Associate Test (IAT)검사를 수행하였다. 이 검사는 학생들이 뚱뚱한, 혹은 날신한 사람에 대해 은연중에 가지고 있는 선호도를 검사하기 위한 것이다. 학생들은 또한 겉으로 표현되는(explicit) 체중 관련 선호도에 대해 의미차별척도 문항(semantic differential item)으로 응답하였다. 저자들은 학생들이 편견을 인식하는 정도를 Explicit Preferences와 IAT score과의 연관성으로 평가하였다.


결과 : 354명의 의과대학 학생들 중에서 310(88%)명이 설문에 응하고, 참여에 동의했다. 

Explicit : 전체적으로는 33% (101/310) 학생이 비만한 사람들에 대한 부정적 편견이 있음을 스스로 보고하였다(self-reported). 날씬한 사람에 대한 부정적 편견이 있다고 스스로 보고한 학생은 아무도 없었다. 

Implicit : IAT점수에 따르면, 절반 이상의 학생이 체중과 연관된 편견을 가지고 있었다. 39%는 비만한 사람에 대한, 17%는 날씬한 사람에 대한 편견이 있었으며, 67%의 학생은 스스로의 비만에 대한 편견을 인지하지 못하고 있었다. 남학생들만이 Explicit한 anti-fat bias이 있는 것으로 나타났다. 


Implicit anti-fat bias와 상관관계가 있는 인구학적 요소들은 없었으며, 학생들의 explicit bias와 implicit bias는 상관관계가 없었다.


결론 : 의과대학 학생의 1/3 이상이 implicit anti-fat bias를 가지고 있었으나, 그것을 인지하고 있는 학생은 매우 적었다. 따라서 의과대학의 비만 관련 교과과정은 이러한 편견과 그것이 의료에 미치는 영향을 다루도록 해야 할 것이다.







Data analysis

To determine which factors, if any, predicted a significant anti-obesity bias, we created logistic regression models for the outcomes of having a significant implicit (unconscious) anti-obesity bias and a significant explicit (conscious) anti-obesity bias. We included as covariates age (as a continuous variable), gender, race/ethnicity, and time in the academic year when the survey was taken (beginning of third year, middle of third year, end of third year). We conducted all analyses using SPSS software, version 19 (IBM Corporation, Armonk, New York) with two-sided tests and an alpha of .05. 


We examined whether students were aware of their implicit bias in three ways. 

First, we compared students’ self-reported biases with their implicit (unconscious) biases (prefer fat, slight or no preference, prefer thin) using chi-square tests

Second, we used the Pearson correlation coefficient to determine whether students’ self-reported biases (measured on the seven-point Likert scale) predicted their implicit biases (measured by the difference in latency times from the IAT). 

Third, we reran our multivariate logistic regression model for implicit bias, including students’ explicit bias as a predictor variable to obtain the beta coefficient and significance level for explicit bias.







Awareness of bias

Among the students with a significant weight-related bias, only 23% (40/173) were aware of that bias. Two-thirds of students (67%, 81/121) with a significant anti-fat bias thought they were neutral, and all students (100%, 52/52) with an anti-thin bias thought they were neutral or had an anti-fat bias. We found no significant correlation between students’ stated bias and their implicit bias when examining the entire sample (Pearson correlation coefficient 0.03, P = .58) or individual subgroups by gender, age, or race. Similarly, an explicit weight-related bias was not a significant predictor of an implicit bias in our logistic regression model (β = −0.14, P = .30).


Logistic regression

In our multivariate logistic regression model, only male gender predicted an explicit anti-fat bias (odds ratio [OR] 3.0, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.8–5.3). Students’ explicit anti-fat bias decreased with age, but this finding was not statistically significant (OR 0.9 for each one-year increase in age, P = .18). Similar to the results of our bivariate analyses, no demographic or clerkship timing factors were associated with an implicit anti-fat bias in our multivariate model.



















 2013 Jul;88(7):978-982.

Are Medical Students Aware of Their Anti-obesity Bias?

Source

Dr. Miller is associate professor, Department of Internal Medicine, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina. Dr. Spangler is professor, Department of Family and Community Medicine, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina. Dr. Vitolins is professor, Department of Epidemiology and Prevention, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina. Mr. Davis is assistant professor, Department of Family and Community Medicine, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina. Dr. Ip is professor, Department of Biostatistical Sciences, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina. Dr. Marion is professor, Department of Family and Community Medicine, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina. Dr. Crandall is professor, Department of Physician Assistant Studies, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina.

Abstract

PURPOSE:

Anti-obesity prejudices affect the quality of care obese individuals receive. The authors sought to determine the prevalence of weight-related biases among medical students and whether they were aware of their biases.

METHOD:

Between 2008 and 2011, the authors asked all third-year medical students at Wake Forest School of Medicine to complete the Weight Implicit Association Test (IAT), a validated measure of implicit preferences for "fat" or "thin" individuals. Students also answered a semantic differential item assessing their explicit weight-related preferences. The authors determined students' awareness of their biases by examining the correlation between students' explicit preferences and their IAT scores.

RESULTS:

Of 354 medical students, 310 (88%) completed valid surveys and consented to participate. Overall, 33% (101/310) self-reported a significant ("moderate" or "strong") explicit anti-fat bias. No students self-reported a significant explicit anti-thin bias. According to the IAT scores, over half of students had a significant implicit weight bias: 39% (121/310) had an anti-fat bias and 17% (52/310) an anti-thin bias. Two-thirds ofstudents (67%, 81/121) were unaware of their implicit anti-fat bias. Only male gender predicted an explicit anti-fat bias (odds ratio 3.0, 95% confidence interval 1.8-5.3). No demographic factors were associated with an implicit anti-fat biasStudents' explicit and implicit biases were not correlated (Pearson r = 0.03, P = .58).

CONCLUSIONS:

Over one-third of medical students had a significant implicit anti-fat bias; few were aware of that bias. Accordingly, medical schools' obesity curricula should address weight-related biases and their potential impact on care.








남인도 지역사회에서 교육 후 조충증/낭미충증(taeniasis/cysticercosis)에 대한 지식과 수행능력 변화

Changes in knowledge and practices related to taeniasis/cysticercosis after health education in a south Indian community

A.M. Alexandera, V.R. Mohana, J. Muliyila,1, P. Dornyb,c, V. Rajshekhard,∗


낭미충증의 풍토평(endemic for cysticercosis)이 있는 남부 인도지역의 시골 지역사회에서 조충증/낭미충증(taeniasis/cysticercosis)에 대한 교육 프로그램을 초등학생을 대상으로 시행하였다. 기초조사를 시행했을 때 임의로 선택된 831명의 참가자들은 조충증과 신경낭미충증에 대한 지식이 매우 부족한 상태였다. 또한 적절한 위생시설이나 개념도 부족했다.


이 마을 사람들에게 갈고리촌충의 생활주기, 조충증이나 낭미충증의 전파경로, 예방에 대한 보건교육이 시행되었다. 교육 6개월 후 수행한 시험에서 1060명의 참여자가 전반적으로 46%의 지식과 수행능력 향상을 보였다.


조충증/낭미충증의 전파에 대한 인식수준도 3배 가까이 향상되었으며, 식사 전과 화장실 다녀온 후에 비누로 손을 씻는다는 응답은 각각 4.8배, 3.6배 증가하였다. 조충증/낭미충증의 예방에 대한 교육은 지역사회에서 지식와 수행능력을 증진시키고 자가보고를 통한 진단을 높이는데 효과가 있다.





















Changes in knowledge and practices related to taeniasis/cysticercosis after health education in a south Indian community

  1. V. Rajshekhard,

-Author Affiliations

  1. aDepartment of Community Health, Christian Medical College, Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India
  2. bDepartment of Biomedical Sciences, Institute of Tropical Medicine, Antwerp, Belgium
  3. cLaboratory of Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Belgium
  4. dDepartment of Neurological Sciences, Christian Medical College, Vellore 632004, Tamil Nadu, India
  1.  Corresponding author. Tel.: +91 416 228 2767; fax: +91 416 223 2103. E-mail address:rajshekhar@cmcvellore.ac.in (V. Rajshekhar).
  • Received August 11, 2011.
  • Revision received October 1, 2011.
  • Accepted April 30, 2012.

Abstract

A health education programme for taeniasis/cysticercosis was implemented and evaluated among schoolchildren and the general community in a rural block in southern India, an area that is endemic for cysticercosis. The baseline survey among 831 participants from three randomly selected villages showed poor knowledge regarding the spread of taeniasis and neurocysticercosis. There was also a lack of adequate hygiene and sanitation practices. Health education was given in these villages and in the schools located in these villages regarding the lifecycle of the pork tapeworm, spread of taeniasis and cysticercosis, and prevention of these conditions. The post-intervention test conducted 6 months later among 1060 participants revealed a 46% increase in the overall score of knowledge and practices. Awareness about the mode of spread of taeniasis and cysticercosis improved by almost 3 times and the reported practice of washing hands with soap and water before eating improved by 4.8 times and after using the toilet by 3.6 times. One person who reported the passage of tapeworm segments was confirmed to be a carrier of Taenia solium and was treated. The health education given on prevention of taeniasis and cysticercosis was useful in improving the knowledge and practices of the community and also in diagnosing taeniasis through self-reporting.

Key words







방글라데시에서 지역사회 보건인력 훈련과 결핵 사례의 관계 연구

Training of community healthcare providers and TB case detection in Bangladesh


Shayla Islam a,*, Anthony D. Harries b,c, Sumit Malhotra d, K. Zamane, Ashaque Husain f, Akramul Islama and Faruque Ahmeda


배경 : 지난 몇 년간 BRAC(Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee)은 방글라데시의 국가적 결핵 관리(control) 노력을 지원해왔으며, 특히 지역사회의 보건의료 인력의 훈련에 집중해왔다. 이 연구는 지역사회 기반 결핵 훈련 프로그램과 같은 지역에서의 결핵 사례간 상관관계를 보고자 하였다.


방법 : 이 연구는 후향적 단면 연구(cross-sectional retrospective study)로서 객담(가래) 등록자(registers)와 BRAC의 훈련보고서를 바탕으로 하였다.


결과 : 2005년과 2010년 사이에 536회의 훈련 과정을 통해 9037명의 사람들을 훈련시켰다. 검사를 받는 환자의 숫자는 훈련 전 8211명(2004년)에서 훈련 시작시점에서 10961명(2005년)으로 증가하였고, 동시에 도말검사에서 결핵 양성으로 나온 사람도 7.1%에서 11.2%로 증가하였다. 그 후에 결핵으로 의심되거나 진단된 사람의 숫자든 2010년까지도 비슷하게 유지되었다. 환자를 의뢰해온 가장 중요한 소스는 지역사회 건강 자원봉사자와 자기보고 환자들이었고 이들의 전체 환자의 58%를 차지하였다.


결론 : 이 operational research에서 결핵 사례는 초반에 증가하나가, 나중에는 포화(plateau)상태에 이르렀다. 이러한 현상을 설명하기 위한 추가의 연구가 필요해 보인다.











Training of community healthcare providers and TB case detection in Bangladesh

  1. Faruque Ahmeda

+Author Affiliations

  1. aBRAC Health Programme, Dhaka, Bangladesh
  2. bInternational Union Against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease (The Union), Paris, France
  3. cDepartment of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, UK
  4. dAll India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, India
  5. eInternational Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Dhaka, Bangladesh
  6. fMinistry of Health, Bangladesh
  1. *Corresponding author: Present address: BRAC Health Programme, BRAC Centre, 16th floor, 75 Mohakhali, Dhaka-1212, Bangladesh; E-mail: shayla.i@brac.net
  • Received January 29, 2013.
  • Revision received April 3, 2013.
  • Accepted April 15, 2013.

Abstract

Background For several years, BRAC (previously known as the Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee) has been assisting with national TB control efforts in Bangladesh and has especially focused on training of community healthcare personnel. This study attempts to determine whether there is any association between a community-based TB training programme in peri-urban Dhaka and TB case finding within the same catchment area.

Methods This was a cross-sectional retrospective study using laboratory sputum registers and annual BRAC training reports.

Results Between 2005 and 2010, there were 536 training activities for community healthcare providers with 9037 people trained. Numbers of patients attending laboratories with suspected TB increased from 8211 in 2004 (before training) to 10 961 in 2005 (start of training) with the proportion diagnosed with smear-positive TB increasing from 7.1% to 11.2%. Thereafter, the numbers with suspected and diagnosed TB remained similar up to 2010. The most important sources of referral of patients for investigation were community health volunteers and self-referring patients accounting for 58% of all patients.

Conclusion In this operational research study in peri-urban Dhaka, there was an initial increase in TB case finding with numbers then reaching a plateau despite continued training activities. Further prospective evaluation is required to understand these phenomena.

Key words












개별 요구에 맞춘 성건강 개입법(sexual health intervention)과 관련한 동료촉진자 훈련 프로그램의 효과

Impact of a customized peer-facilitators training program related to sexual health intervention

Abdulmumin Saada,∗, Lekhraj Rampalb, Kabiru Sabituc, Hejar AbdulRahmanb, Ahmed Awaisud, Bahaman AbuSamahe, Auwal Ibrahimf



이 연구는 HIV-STI(성 매개 감염) 위험을 낮추기 위한 개입법(intervention)과 관련된  훈련 프로그램을 개발하고 수행하기 위한 목적으로 시행되었다. 또한 훈련 프로그램을 통해서 피훈련자의 지식, 태도, (자가보고)역량, 자신감의 변화가 어느 정도 되는가를 살펴보고자 하였다.


우리는 한 대학에 HIV와 STI 예방을 위한 훈련 프로그램과 자료를 개발하여 배포하였고, 훈련은 Integrated HIV-STI Risk Reduction Program이라는 더 넓은 범위의 프로젝트에 참여하기로 되어 있는 facilitator 후보들을 대상으로 시행하였다.


열 명의 facilitator들이 훈련 전-후의 설문을 작성하였고, 훈련 프로그램의 영향을 분석을 위해서는 SPSS를 이용하여 Wilcoxon signed rank test를 시행하였다. 전반적으로 HIV와 관련한 피훈련자의 수행능력, STI 지식, 태도, 스티그마 점수(stigma score)가 크게 향상되었다.


훈련을 마친 후 HIV와 STI지식의 중앙값은 각각 22.0에서 30.5, 8.0에서 9.5로 크게 상승하였으며, HIV와 STI 예방에 대한 긍정적인 태도는 39.0에서 57.0으로 상승하였다. 또한 프로그램을 마친 뒤, 80~100%의 피훈련자가 성건강 개입 활동(sexual health intervention activities)의 수행에 대해 스스로 능력을 갖췄고 자신감이 생겼다고 응답하였다. 


이번 예비 연구로부터 성건강개입(sexual health intervention)에서, 개별 요구에 맞춘 현지 교육은 HIV-STI 예방과 관련한 지식, 태도, 수행능력에 향상 효과가 있음을 알 수 있다.










Peer 교육방법은 HIV/AIDS를 해결하기 위한 전략 중에서 전세계적으로 가장 많이 사용되는 방법 중 하나이다. 통상적으로 타겟 그룹의 멤버를 훈련하고 지원하여 그 그룹에 지식, 태도, 믿음(belief), 행동 등을 개개인 수준에서 변화시키고자 하는 것이다. 사회의 규범을 변화시키거나 정책이나 프로그램에 영향을 줄 수 있는 총체적인 행동의 변화를 유도하여 사회적 수준의 변화도 일으킬 수 있다.


Peer education is one of the most widely used strategies throughout the world to address the HIV/AIDS pandemic.14,15 It typically involves training and supporting members of a given group to effect change among members of that group, and often used to effect changes in knowledge, attitudes, beliefs and behaviors at the individual level.16–18 It can also create change at the group or societal level by modifying norms and stimulating collective action that contributes to changes in policies and programs.19 In Nigeria, where young people now make up the main pool sustaining the epidemic, the role of effective youth specific educational and behavioral change interventions aimed at preventing HIV and other STIs cannot be overemphasized in curbing the escalating HIV epidemic.






Impact of a customized peer-facilitators training program related to sexual health intervention

  1. Auwal Ibrahimf

-Author Affiliations

  1. aJohns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Center for Communication Programs, 111 Market Place, Suite 310, Baltimore, Maryland 21202, USA
  2. bFaculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
  3. cFaculty of Medicine, Department of Community Medicine, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria
  4. dClinical Pharmacy and Practice Section, College of Pharmacy, Qatar University, Doha, Qatar
  5. eInstitute for Social Sciences, University Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
  6. fInfectious Diseases Hospital, Kano, Nigeria
  1.  Corresponding author. Tel.: +1202 704 9622/2348035224530. E-mail address:elsaad99@yahoo.com (A. Saad).
  • Received September 26, 2011.
  • Revision received July 2, 2012.
  • Accepted September 4, 2012.

Summary

This study aimed to develop and implement a customized training program related to the delivery of an integrated human immunodeficiency virus – sexually transmitted infections (HIV-STI) risk reduction intervention for peer-facilitators and to evaluate its immediate outcome including changes in trainee knowledge, attitudes, and self-reported competence and confidence. We developed and delivered a structured training program and materials about HIV and STI prevention in a university setting. The training was offered to candidate facilitators who were planned to be involved in a larger project, known as Integrated HIV-STI Risk Reduction Program. Ten candidate facilitators participated in the training program and completed both the pretest and posttest survey questionnaire. The data were analyzed using SPSS version 17.0 software package and Wilcoxon signed rank test was applied to assess the impact of the training program. Overall, the trainees’ performance in HIV-related and STI knowledge, attitude and stigma scores had significantly increased compared to the baseline. The median scores for HIV and STI knowledge after the training significantly increased from 22.0 to 30.5 (p=0.007) and 8.0 to 9.5 (p=0.005), respectively, whereas the median score on the positive attitude towards HIV and STI prevention rose from 39.0 to 57.0 (p=0.011). Upon completion of the program, 80–100% of the trainees believed that they were competent and confident in performing most of the designed sexual health intervention activities. This preliminary study suggests that a customized on-site training program on sexual health intervention could significantly improve their knowledge, attitude and practice related to HIV-STI prevention.

Key words















USMLE Step 1 시험에 한 번에 합격하지 못한 졸업생의 학업적,직업적 특성

Academic and professional career outcomes of medical school graduates who failed USMLE Step 1 on the first attempt

Leon McDougle • Brian E. Mavis • Donna B. Jeffe • Nicole K. Roberts • Kimberly Ephgrave • Heather L. Hageman • Monica L. Lypson • Lauree Thomas • Dorothy A. Andriole


이 연구는 USMLE Step 1을 한 번에 합격하지 못한 졸업생들의 학업적, 직업적 결과를 알아보기 위하여 수행되었다. 이 후향적 코호트 연구는 여섯개의 중서부 의과대학에서 1997~2002년 사이에 졸업한 2003명의 졸업생으로부터 데이터를 수집하였다. Step 1 시험을 한 번에 통과하지 못한 졸업생의 인구학적, 학접적, 직업적 특성을 한 번에 통과한 학생들과 비교하였다.


50명의 졸업생(2.5%)이 Step 1을 한 번에 통과하지 못했고, 한 번에 통과하지 못한 졸업생들이 더 높은 비율로 일차의료의가 되었으며, 덜 발전된 지역에서 의사를 하고 있었고, 졸업까지 5년 혹은 그 이상의 시간이 걸렸다. 


상대위험도(relative risk) 측면에서 African Americans는 13.4, Latino는 7.4, 22살 이상의 지원자(Matriculant)는 3.6, 여성은 3.2, College graduate의 first generation은 2.3이었다. Step 1시험에 한번에 통과하지 못한 사람들이 전문의를 따지 못할 relative risk는 2.2였다. 


이러한 연구결과는 Step 1에서 떨어진 학생들을 찾아서 더 지원을 해 줄 필요가 있음을 보여준다.









 2013 May;18(2):279-89. doi: 10.1007/s10459-012-9371-2. Epub 2012 Apr 7.

Academic and professional career outcomes of medical school graduates who failed USMLE Step 1 on the firstattempt.

Source

The Ohio State University College of Medicine, Meiling Hall, Room 066, 370 West 9th Avenue, Columbus, OH 43210, USA. Leon.McDougle@osumc.edu

Abstract

This study sought to determine the academic and professional outcomes of medical school graduates who failed the United States Licensing Examination Step 1 on the first attempt. This retrospective cohort study was based on pooled data from 2,003 graduates of six Midwestern medicalschools in the classes of 1997-2002. Demographic, academic, and career characteristics of graduates who failed Step 1 on the first attempt were compared to graduates who initially passed. Fifty medical school graduates (2.5 %) initially failed Step 1. Compared to graduates who initially passedStep 1, a higher proportion of graduates who initially failed Step 1 became primary care physicians (26/49 [53 %] vs. 766/1,870 [40.9 %]), were more likely at graduation to report intent to practice in underserved areas (28/50 [56 %] vs. 419/1,939 [ 21.6 %]), and more likely to take 5 or more years to graduate (11/50 [22.0 %] vs. 79/1,953 [4.0 %]). The relative risk of first attempt Step 1 failure for medical school graduates was 13.4 for African Americans, 7.4 for Latinos, 3.6 for matriculants >22 years of age, 3.2 for women, and 2.3 for first generation college graduates. The relative risk of not being specialty board certified for those graduates who initially failed Step 1 was 2.2. Our observations regarding characteristics of graduates in our study cohort who initially failed Step 1 can inform efforts by medical schools to identify and assist students who are at particular risk of failing Step 1


레지던트 선발 전략과 의사로서의 능력 : 메타분석

Associations between residency selection strategies and doctor performance: a meta-analysis


Stephanie Kenny, Matthew McInnes & Vivek Singh


목적

본 연구의 목적은 메타분석을 통해서 레지던트선발과 관련된 어떤 정보가 레지던트나 의사로서의 수행능력과 연관이 있는가를 알아보고자 하였다.


방법

다양한 전자 데이터베이스를 조사하였다. 두 명의 리뷰어가 독립적으로 기준에 맞는 연구를 골라서 중복된 것은 제하고, 의견이 다른 것은 합의를 보았다. 평가 중에 생길 수 있는 Bias에 대한 위험은 customised bias 평가 툴을 이용하여 평가하였다. 연관성의 척도는 common effect size (Hedges' g)로 변환되었다. 각각의 레지던트 선택 전략과 그에 따른 결과를 pooling하지 않고 random-effect model로 메타분석을 수행하였다. 각각의 선발전략-결과 쌍은 effect size를 pooling하여 Sensitivity analysis를 수행하였다.


결과

총 41704명의 지원자에 대한 80개의 연구 논문이 메타분석에 포함되었다. 17가지의 서로 다른 선발 전략과 17가지의 outcome을 평가하였다. 가장 강력한 양의 연관성은 USMLE step1과 같은 시험 기반 선발전략과 in-training exam과 같은 시험 기반 결과였다. 의과대학 성적과 시험기반/주관적 결과 사이에는 중등도의 양의 연관성이 있었다. 면접이나 추천서 등과 같은 선발전략은 매우 작거나 거의 연관성이 없었다.


결론

표준화된 시험의 점수나 의과대학의 성적은 현재 의사의 performance를 측정하는 방식과 가장 강력한 연관성을 보였다. 추천서나 면접은 연관성이 약했다. 현재의 평가 시스템에서는 객관적인 선발 전략이 더 강력해보인다. 하지만 장기적인 측면에서 의사의 수행능력을 다룬 연구는 부족한 실정이다.







 2013 Aug;47(8):790-800. doi: 10.1111/medu.12234.

Associations between residency selection strategies and doctor performance: a meta-analysis.

Source

Department of Medical Imaging, Ottawa Hospital, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.

Abstract

OBJECTIVES:

The purpose of this study was to use meta-analysis to establish which of the information available to the resident selection committee is associated with resident or doctor performance.

METHODS:

Multiple electronic databases were searched to 4 September 2012. Two reviewers independently selected studies that met the present inclusion criteria and extracted data in duplicate; disagreement was resolved by consensus. Risk for bias was assessed using a customised bias assessment tool. Measures of association were converted to a common effect size (Hedges' g). Meta-analysis was performed using the random-effects model for each selection strategy and all outcomes without pooling. Sensitivity analysis for each selection strategy-outcome pair was performed with pooling of effect size.

RESULTS:

Eighty studies involving a total of 41 704 participants were included in the meta-analysis. Seventeen different selection strategies and 17 outcomes were assessed across these studies. The strongest positive associations referred to examination-based selection strategies, such as the US Medical Licensing Examination (USMLE) Step 1, and examination-based outcomes, such as scores on in-training examinations. Moderate positive associations were present for medical school marks and both examination-based and subjective outcomes. Minimal or no associations were seen for the selection tools represented by interviews, reference letters and deans' letters.

CONCLUSIONS:

Standardised examination performance and medical school grades show the strongest associations with current measures ofdoctor performance. Deans' letters, reference letters and interviews all show a lower than expected strength of association given the relative value often assigned to them during resident doctor selection. Objective selection strategies are potentially the most useful to residency selectioncommittees based on current evaluative methods. However, reports in the literature of validated long-term doctor performance outcomes are scant.

© 2013 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.


USMLE 시험의 점수화 평가 vs Pass/Fail평가 : 의과대학 학생들과 레지던트는 무엇을, 왜 원하는가?

Numerical Versus Pass/Fail Scoring on the USMLE: What Do Medical Students and Residents Want and Why?


Catherine E. Lewis, MD, Jonathan R. Hiatt, MD, LuAnn Wilkerson, EdD, Areti Tillou, MD, Neil H. Parker, MD, O. Joe Hines, MD


배경 

USMLE시험의 일차 목적은 면허발급을 위한 평가이지만, USMLE점수는 종종 다른 목적으로도 사용되며, 그 중 하나가 레지던트 선발이다. USMLE프로그램 평가를 위한 위원회는 현재 몇 가지 큰 변화를 고려중에 있고, 그 중 하나가 Pass/Fail system으로의 변화이다.


모델

3학년과 4학년 의과대학 학생과 레지던트를 대상으로 USMLE의 Pass/Fail system에 대하여 설문하였다.


결과

응답률은 59%였다. 26%의 응답자만이 Step 1 시험이 Pass/Fail로 바뀌는 것에 동의하였고, Step 2 시험에 대해서는 38%가 동의하였다. Step1 시험을 Pass/Fail이 아닌 점수화하여 평가하는 것에 대해 동의하는 응답자들은 (1)시험을 통해 지식 수준을 정확히 측정할 수 있다고 생각했으며 (2) 점수가 240점 이상이었고 (3) Pass/Fail로 바뀔 경우 지식 습득이 줄어들 것이라 생각하였다.

Step 2 CK에 대해서 점수화 평가를 선호하는 사람들은 (1) 시험을 준비하며 얻은 지식이 많다고 생각했고 (2) 240점 이상 받았으며 (3) Pass/Fail로 바뀌면 지식 습득이 줄어들 것이라 생각하였고 (4) 레지던트 지원시에 Step 2 CK점수가 중요하게 작용한다고 생각했다.


결론

학생과 레지던트들은 점수화 평가(numerical scoring)을 계속 하는 것을 더 선호했고, 그 이유로 그것이 레지던트 선발에 중요하고, 레지던트 지원시에 점수에 따라 advantage가 있으며, 의학지식을 복습하고 강화하는데 시험점수가 크게 작용하기 때문이라 생각하는 것으로 나타났다.









 2011 Mar;3(1):59-66. doi: 10.4300/JGME-D-10-00121.1.

Numerical Versus Pass/Fail Scoring on the USMLE: What Do Medical Students and Residents Want and Why?

Abstract

BACKGROUND:

Although the primary purpose of the US Medical Licensing Examination (USMLE) is assessment for licensure, USMLE scores often are used for other purposes, more prominently resident selection. The Committee to Evaluate the USMLE Program currently is considering a number of substantial changes, including conversion to pass/fail scoring.

METHODS:

A survey was administered to third-year (MS3) and fourth-year (MS4) medical students and residents at a single institution to evaluate opinions regarding pass/fail scoring on the USMLE.

RESULTS:

Response rate was 59% (n  =  732 of 1249). Reported score distribution for Step 1 was 30% for <220, 38% for 220-240, and 32% for >240, with no difference between MS3s, MS4s, and residents (P  =  .89). Score distribution for Step 2 Clinical Knowledge (CK) was similar. Only 26% of respondents agreed that Step 1 should be pass/fail; 38% agreed with pass/fail scoring for Step 2 CK. Numerical scoring on Step 1 was preferred by respondents who: (1) agreed that the examination gave an accurate estimate of knowledge (odds ratio [OR], 4.23; confidence interval [CI], 2.41-7.43; P < .001); (2) scored >240 (OR, 4.0; CI, 1.92-8.33; P < .001); and (3) felt that acquisition of knowledge might decrease if the examination werepass/fail (OR, 10.15; CI, 3.32-31.02; P < .001). For Step 2 CK, numerical scoring was preferred by respondents who: (1) believed they gained a large amount of knowledge preparing for the examination (OR, 2.63; CI, 1.52-4.76; P < .001); (2) scored >240 (OR, 4.76; CI, 2.86-8.33; P < .001); (3) felt that the amount of knowledge acquired might decrease if it were pass/fail (OR, 28.16; CI, 7.31-108.43; P < .001); and (4) believed their Step 2 CK score was important when applying for residency (OR, 2.37; CI, 1.47-3.84; P < .001).

CONCLUSIONS:

Students and residents prefer the ongoing use of numerical scoring because they believe that scores are important in residency selection, that residency applicants are advantaged by examination scores, and that scores provide an important impetus to review and solidifymedical knowledge.






NBME점수와 USMLE Step 1, Step2 점수와의 상관관계

Correlation of National Board of Medical Examiners Scores with United States Medical Licensing Examination Step 1 and Step 2 Scores


Christopher M. Zahn, MD, Aaron Saguil MD, MPH, Anthony R. Artino Jr, PhD, Ting Dong, PhD, Gerald Ming, Jessica T. Servey, MD, Erin Balog, MD, Matthew Goldenberg, MD, and Steven J. Durning, MD, PhD


목적 : 여섯 개의 Clerkship에 대한 NBME Subject Examination에서 성적이 USMLE Steps1 과 2 CK 시험 점수와 상관관계가 있는지를 살펴보았다. 또한 의과대학 학생들의 전임상(preclinical), 임상(clinical) 성적, subject exam, USMLE performance와 상관관계가 있는가도 살펴보았다.


방법 : 2008년부터 2010년에 졸업한 507명의 학생을 대상으로 하였다. Stepwise linear regression에 이은 Pearson correlation을 통해 USMLE Steps 1과 2CK 점수의 분산이 subject exam점수과 GPA에 의해서 설명이 되는가를 보았다.


결과 : 484명의 데이터가 분석에 사용되었다. USMLE Steps1 과 2CK 점수는 모든 subject exam점수와 GPA 점수에 대해 중등도~고도의 양의 상관관계를 보였다. subject exam score와 Step1, Step2CK의 상관계수는 각각 0.69와 0.77이었다. 회귀분석을 통해서 GPA가 Step1과 Step2 CK 점수 분산의 62%와 61%를 설명할 수 있음이 나타났다. 


결론 :  중등도~고도 상관관계는 subject exam 점수가 USMLE performance와 관련이 있음을 보여준다. 또한 USMLE점수의 분산의 상당부분이 primary care NBME점수에 대해서 설명가능한데, 이는 primary care와 관련된 주제들이 모든 임상실습(clerkship)에 걸쳐서 강조되고 있으며, USMLE, 특히 Step 2 CK 시험 내용의 상당부분을 차지하기 때문인 것으로 생각된다.








 2012 Oct;87(10):1348-54.

Correlation of National Board of Medical Examiners scores with United States Medical Licensing ExaminationStep 1 And Step 2 scores.

Source

Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, F. Edward Hébert School of Medicine, Bethesda, Maryland 20814-4799, USA. czahn@usuhs.mil

Abstract

PURPOSE:

Determine whether the National Board of Medical Examiners (NBME) Subject Examination performance from six clerkships correlated with United States Medical Licensing Examination (USMLE) Steps 1 and 2 Clinical Knowledge (CK) Examination scores. Also, examine correlations between medical students' preclinical and clinical year mean cumulative grade point average (GPA), subject exam, and USMLE performance.

METHOD:

The sample consisted of 507 students from the 2008-2010 graduating classes from the authors' medical school. Pearson correlations followed by stepwise linear regressions were used to investigate variance in USMLE Steps 1 and 2 CK scores explained by subject exam scores and GPA.

RESULTS:

Data from 484 (95.5%) students were included. USMLE Steps 1 and 2 CK scores had moderate-to-large positive correlations with all subject exam scores and with both GPA variables. Correlations between composite subject exam scores and USMLE Steps 1 and 2 CK exams were 0.69 and 0.77, respectively. Regression analysis demonstrated that subject exams and GPA accounted for substantial variance in Steps 1 and 2 CK exam scores (62% and 61%); when entered into the regression model first, primary care clerkship subject examination scores accounted for most of this variance.

CONCLUSIONS:

The moderate-to-large correlations between subject exam performance and USMLE scores provide reassurance that subject exam scores are associated with USMLE performance. Furthermore, the considerable variance in USMLE scores accounted for by primary care NBME scores may be due to primary care topics being reinforced through all clerkships and comprising a significant portion of the USMLE examinations, particularly Step 2 CK.




원인일까 결과일까? 의과대학 학생들의 학습환경에 대한 인식과 USMLE Step 1 성적과의 관계

Cause or effect? The relationship between student perception of the medical school learning environment and academic performance on USMLE Step 1


SHARON J. WAYNE, SALLY A. FORTNER, JUDITH A. KITZES, CRAIG TIMM & SUMMERS KALISHMAN University of New Mexico School of Medicine, USA


배경 : 학교의 학습환경이 학업 수행능력에 영향을 주는 것으로 알려져 있지만, 이러한 관계를 이전 학업능력(prior academic ability)을 통제하고서 확인한 연구는 별로 없다. 이전 학업능력이 좋았던 학생은 그렇지 못한 학생보다 학교의 환경에 대해서 더 우호적으로 평가하는 경향이 있기 때문에 중요하다.

목적 : Prior academic ability를 통제한 상태에서 학생의 학습환경에 대한 인식이 표준화된 면허시험에서의 수행능력에 미치는 영향을 평가하고자 했다.

방법 : 1학년의 267명 학생에 대해 학습 환경에대한 인식을 조사하고, 그 뒤로 약 6개월 뒤에 치뤄진 USMLE step 1 시험의 결과와 비교하였다. Prior academic performance는 선형회귀분석 모델에서 MCAT시험 점수와 학부 성적으로 통제하였다.

결과 : 학습환경에 대한 subscale 다섯 개 중 세 개가 Step 1 성적과 관련이 있었다. subscale의 점수가 한 단위 상승할수록 Step 1 시험에서 각각 6.8, 6.6, 4.8점 상승하였다

결론 : 학습 환경을 우호적으로 평가할수록 학업 성취가 좋아진다는 가정을 뒷받침한다.










 2013 May;35(5):376-80. doi: 10.3109/0142159X.2013.769678. Epub 2013 Feb 27.

Cause or effect? The relationship between student perception of the medical school learning environment andacademic performance on USMLE Step 1.

Source

Office of Program Evaluation, Education and Research, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA. swayne@salud.unm.edu

Abstract

BACKGROUND:

school's learning environment is believed to influence academic performance yet few studies have evaluated this association controlling for prior academic ability, an important factor since students who do well in school tend to rate their school's environment more highly than students who are less academically strong.

AIM:

To evaluate the effect of student perception of the learning environment on their performance on a standardized licensing test while controlling for prior academic ability.

METHODS:

We measured perception of the learning environment after the first year of medical school in 267 students from five consecutive classes and related that measure to performance on United States Medical Licensing Examination (USMLEStep 1, taken approximately six months later. We controlled for prior academic performance by including Medical College Admission Test score and undergraduate grade point average in linear regression models.

RESULTS:

Three of the five learning environment subscales were statistically associated with Step 1 performance (p < 0.05): meaningful learningenvironment, emotional climate, and student-student interaction. A one-point increase in the rating of the subscales (scale of 1-4) was associated with increases of 6.8, 6.6, and 4.8 points on the Step 1 exam.

CONCLUSION:

Our findings provide some evidence for the widely held assumption that a positively perceived learning environment contributes to better academic performance.





(출처 : http://blogs.utas.edu.au/snm-pep/2013/03/26/clinical-reasoning-resources-for-professional-experience-facilitators/)






진단의 실수는 예방가능한 의료과오 중 상당부분을 차지하고 있으며, 다양한 인지적 비뚤림(bias)에 의해서 일어난다. 흔히 생기는 것으로서 Premature closure, Anchoring, Confirmation bias 등이 있다.

Diagnostic errors comprise a large proportion of preventable medical errors and can be a result of numerous types of cognitive bias (Graber et al. 2005). Common cognitive bias include premature closure (‘‘the tendency to stop considering other possibilities after reaching a diagnosis’’), anchoring (‘‘the tendency to perceptually lock onto salient features too early in the diagnostic process’’), and confirmation bias (‘‘the tendency to seek data to confirm, not refute, the hypothesis’’) (Croskerry 2003).


분석적 사고력은 이러한 비뚤림에 대응하는 한 가지 방법으로서, 다른 진단의 가능성을 고려하면서 가설을 지지할 수 있는 근거 뿐만 아니라 반박할 수 있는 근거도 모아야 한다. 그러나 분석적 사고력이 진단의 실수를 줄일 수 있다는 연구는 별로 없다. 표준화 환자(standardized patient, SP)를 활용한 OSCE시험 세팅에서, 우리는 분석적 사고력을 높여주는 것이 진단의 정확도를 높여준다는 것을 무작위 대조군 연구(RCT)로 확인하였다..

Analytic reasoning, one method used to combat bias, is a reflective approach that involves the consideration of alternative diagnoses and of evidence to refute a diagnosis as well as to support it (Norman & Eva 2010). However, there are few studies evaluating the effect of analytic reasoning on reducing diagnostic error (Mamede et al. 2010a, b). We conducted a randomized controlled study to determine whether the enhancement of analytic reasoning increases medical students’ diagnostic accuracy on the objective structured clinical examination (OSCE) using standardized patients.


환자와 대면했을 때 analytic reasoning group의 학생들은 analytic reasoning을 높여줄 수 있도록 디자인 된 표를 받았다. 그리고 이 표를 작성하고 진단을 추측하도록 했다.

After encountering patients, students in the analytic reasoning group received an answer sheet containing a table designed to enhance analytic reasoning. Students in the analytic reasoning group were asked to complete the table with differential diagnoses and symptoms or signs compatible with or differing from each diagnosis, and then provide one most probable diagnosis.


Control group은 analytic reasoning group에게 주어졌던 표는 주지 않고, 진단을 추측하도록 했다.

Students in the control group were simply asked to provide one most probable diagnosis on an answer sheet that lacked the table provided to the test group







Analytic reasoning group에서 진단의 정확도가 더 높았다.

Mean diagnostic accuracy scores were significantly higher in the analytic reasoning group than in the control group (3.400.66 versus 3.050.98; 95% CI of difference, 0.08– 0.62; p¼0.016). In the analytic reasoning group, diagnostic accuracy did not change significantly with respect to case order (p¼0.93 for trend).






 2013;35(3):248-50. doi: 10.3109/0142159X.2013.759643. Epub 2013 Jan 18.

Effect of enhanced analytic reasoning on diagnostic accuracy: a randomized controlled study.

Source

Seoul National University College of Medicine, Republic of Korea.

Abstract

BACKGROUND:

Diagnostic error can be caused by several types of cognitive bias, which may be reversed by enhancing analytic reasoning.

AIMS:

To evaluate whether enhancing analytic reasoning can increase diagnostic accuracy in objective structured clinical examination (OSCE) in medical students.

METHODS:

All fourth-year medical students, randomly assigned to the analytic reasoning or control groups, undertook the OSCE with four cases using standardized patients. The analytic reasoning group was requested to list differential diagnoses and findings compatible or not compatible with each diagnosis prior to providing a diagnosis, while the control group provided a diagnosis without these processes. Mean diagnostic accuracy scores (perfect score, 4.0) from four cases of OSCE were compared between the two groups.

RESULTS:

One hundred forty-five students were randomly assigned to the analytic reasoning group (n = 65) or the control group (n = 80). The baseline characteristics, including grade point average and the scores from each patient encounter, were comparable between groups. Meandiagnostic accuracy scores were significantly higher in the analytic reasoning group than in the control group (3.40 ± 0.66 versus 3.05 ± 0.98; p = 0.011).

CONCLUSION:

Enhancement of analytic reasoning may improve diagnostic accuracy in novice doctors.



(출처 : http://www.wisconsinhistory.org/whi/fullimage.asp?id=8538)



카데바 해부는 해부학 교육의 가장 핵심적인 부분임에도, 

학생들은 그 과정을 흥미없어하거나 스트레스를 받곤 한다. 

더 흥미로운 실습 시간을 만들기 위해서 특별이 설계된 임무(specially designed task)를 학생에게 주었다. 






 2012 Mar-Apr;5(2):76-82. doi: 10.1002/ase.1251. Epub 2011 Dec 5.

The use of specially designed tasks to enhance student interest in the cadaver dissection laboratory.

Source

Division of Medical Education, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea.

Abstract

Cadaver dissection is a key component of anatomy education. Unfortunately, students sometimes regard the process of dissection as uninteresting or stressful. To make laboratory time more interesting and to encourage discussion and collaborative learning among medical students, specially designed tasks were assigned to students throughout dissectionStudent response and the effects of the tasks on examination scores were analyzed. The subjects of this study were 154 medical students who attended the dissection laboratory in 2009. Four tasks were given to teams of seven to eight students over the course of 2 weeks of lower limb dissection. The tasks were designed such that the answers could not be obtained by referencing books or searching the Internet, but rather through careful observation of the cadavers and discussion among team members. Questionnaires were administered. The majority of students agreed that the tasks were interesting (68.0%), encouraged team discussion (76.8%), and facilitated their understanding of anatomy (72.8%). However, they did not prefer that additional tasks be assigned during the other laboratorysessions. When examination scores of those who responded positively were compared with those who responded neutrally or negatively, no statistically significant differences could be found. In conclusion, the specially designed tasks assigned to students in the cadaver dissectionlaboratory encouraged team discussion and collaborative learning, and thereby generated interest in laboratory work. However, knowledge acquisition was not improved.




(출처 : http://www.daveswhiteboard.com/archives/4398)




Barrows와 Abrahamson은 이미 1960년대부터 SP를 임상교육과 평가에 활용할 것을 제안했다. SP는 특정 환자의 사례를 묘사하는 동시에 학생의 수행능력을 정확하고 일관되게 평가하도록 훈련된 비의사(non-physician)연기자이다.

Barrows and Abrahamson (1964) proposed the standardized patient (SP) in the early 1960s as a tool for clinical skill instruction and assessment. The SP is a non-physician who has been trained not only to portray a specific patient case but also to accurately and consistently record student performance. 


SP의 활용은 지난 십년간 계속 증가하여, 최근의 보고를 보면 미국 의과대학의 75%가 SP를 술기 평가에 활용하고 있으며, 63%는 OSCE나 CPX시험에 활용하고 있다.

The use of SPs has increased, particularly over the past decade. A recent annual survey reported that 75% of U.S. medical schools are using SPs for evaluations in introductory skills courses, and 63% are using SPs in an objective structured clinical examination or the clinical performance examination (CPX) (Barzansky & Etzel 2003). 


SP가 일관되게 연기를 하고 평가를 하는 것은 굉장히 중요하다. 여기서는 반복적으로 일관되게 응시자의 역할을 하도록 훈련된 모의학생(simulated student)을 활용하여 서로 다른 SP들의 신뢰도(reliability)를 평가하고자 하였다.

The consistency of SP performance and rating is very important in SP assessments, particularly when several SPs have been trained to simulate a given case. We designed the concept of ‘simulated students’ who repeatedly and consistently performed the role of examinee to evaluate the utility of simulated students as a means to check the reliability of the rating of different SPs in a CPX.



Result

학생간 차이가 가장 큰 열 쌍의 SP-학생 pair에서 중앙값은 30점(26~38)이었으며,

같은 SP-학생 pair를 교수가 평가한 점수는 중앙값이 3점(0~7)이었다.







 2007 Nov;29(9):978-80.

Evaluation using simulated students for reliability of multiple standardized-patients scoring in clinical performance examinations.

Source

Office of Medical Education, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Republic of Korea.

Abstract

BACKGROUND:

The consistency of rating among different standardized patients (SPs) is very important in clinical performance examinations (CPX). Aims: We evaluated the usefulness of simulated students to assess the reliability of a group of standardized patients in a CPX.

METHODS:

Five SPs in each case were trained to simulate the same patient in a CPX. Ten fourth-year medical student volunteers were selected to act as simulated students. After the simulated students encountered the first SP, they reviewed a video of their performance and sequentially repeated the performance with the other 4 SPs.

RESULTS:

The average maximum difference (Deltamax +/- SD) of multiple SPs' percent scores on a simulated student was 18 +/- 7. In 10 pairs of SPs who gave largest Deltamax on a given student, the median Deltamax was 30 (range, 26-38) while median difference of percent score in the faculty scoring on the same simulated student was 3 (range, 0-7). Five problematic SPs whose ratings were significantly different from 3 or more other SPs' ratings in each case were identified.

CONCLUSIONS:

Simulated students may be a useful means to check the consistency of rating among different SPs in a CPX.




(출처 : http://www.temple.edu/ics/about/standardized.html)





지난 십년간 의료에 있어 가장 변화는 입원(inpatient) 중심에서 외래(ambulatory care) 중심으로 옮겨갔다는 것이다. 입원환자는 질병의 중증도가 더 심하고 특정 분과에 관련된 사례를 대표하는 경우가 많아 학생 교육에 있어서도 적절하지 않은 측면이 있다. 또한 환자들도 좀 더 외래 중심으로 진료를 받고 싶어한다. 

One of the most dramatic changes in healthcare during the past decade has been the shift of care from the inpatient to the ambulatory care setting. The changes in healthcare delivery mean that the inpatient setting is less than ideal for teaching undergraduate students (Irby 1995; Levinsky 1998). Since inpatients tend to be more representative of subspecialty conditions or be more critically ill, they become less representative of routine medical practice. Patients in hospital are more likely to be under acute active management than convalescing. As contemporary practice and patient expectations are in favor of a shorter hospital stay, more patients with common conditions are being treated as outpatients than as inpatients. These changes place the emphasis of clinical teaching on ambulatory care rather than the traditional inpatient setting (Fincher et al. 1997; Cardarelli & Sanders 2005; Dent 2005).


학부의학교육에서 환자와의 상호작용을 가르치는 것은 매우 중요하다. 그러기 위해서는 교육에 도움을 줄 환자가 필요한데, 가장 적합한 환자를 선택하는 것은 어려움이 많다.

Patient interactions have always been an integral part of undergraduate medical education. Patient interactions help students build integrated skills for history taking and communication, physical examinations, and clinical reasoning (Dammers et al. 2001; Littlewood et al. 2005; Dornan et al. 2006) However, to maximize educational efficiency, appropriate patient selection is essential. As described in a previous qualitative study, several key factors, such as, educational value, the doctor-patient relationship, and time efficiency should be considered to find ‘‘the best’’ patients for medical teaching (Simon et al. 2003). However, despite the importance of appropriate patient selection, this can be a difficult and time-consuming process in the ambulatory care setting. 


표준화환자를 활용할 경우 여러 이점이 많다. 표준화환자를 활용하여 외래 상황을 시뮬레이션하는 방식으로의 교육을 디자인하고 시도해보았다.

Barrows described several advantages of using standardized patients (SPs) as compared with real patients, including their availability, flexibility, and standardization (Barrows 1993). Other studies demonstrated that students regarded the standardization of the learning experience, a safe learning environment and the feedback offered by SP as important advantages (Bokken et al. 2008, 2009). Given that increasing proportion of care is delivered in ambulatory settings and access to real patients with educational value are limited, we describe the design, implementation, and evaluation of a simulated outpatient clinic using SPs.









 2010;32(11):e467-70. doi: 10.3109/0142159X.2010.507713.

The use of standardized patients to teach medical students clinical skills in ambulatory care settings.

Source

Seoul National University College of Medicine, Republic of Korea.

Abstract

BACKGROUND:

Ambulatory medicine is being increasingly emphasized in undergraduate medical education. Because of the limited availability of real patients, we introduced a standardized patient (SP) encounter program in an ambulatory care setting.

AIMS:

This study was undertaken to assess the usefulness of SPs for teaching undergraduate students clinical skills in ambulatory settings.

METHOD:

Third-year medical students met two different SPs, who presented common authentic problems, during internal medicine clerkship. Each SP encounter of 30 min was followed by SP and a tutor's feedback, using a video recording of the SP encounter. We surveyed students for program evaluation purposes at the end of their three-year internal medicine clerkships (from 2006 to 2008).

RESULTS:

Most students found that the consecutive SP sessions were instructive and helpful. Video recordings of clinical encounters allowedstudents to reflect on their behavior and receive feedback from tutors. However, students identified several weaknesses of these SP encounters. For example, pre-exposure to the SP scenario reduced tension of the experience and inconsistent feedback from tutors caused confusion.

CONCLUSIONS:

SP encounters in an ambulatory care setting, followed by tutor's feedback based on a video recording, can be used for teachingbasic clinical ambulatory care skills.












(출처 : http://berlinstirredup.wordpress.com/2012/02/10/opposites-attract/)





상식의 실패, 그리고 융합의 성공

THE FAILURE OF ‘COMMON SENSE’ AND THE SUCCESS OF MULTIPLE DISCIPLINES


학습

Learning


의학교육의 많은 연구가 학습에 대한 상식적 개념에서 출발했다.

Much research in medical education is driven by commonsense notions about the nature of learning: 

(i) learners have different needs, motivations, aptitudes and abilities; instruction should accommodate these; 

(ii) different instructional methods and formats lead to different outcomes, and 

(iii) the more the instructional method encourages activities that are closer to those carried out in the real world, the better the learning.


실패(The failures)


불행하게도, 많은 연구에서 이러한 상식은 하나도 증명되지 못했다. 학습방법에 맞춘 교육이 더 나은 결과를 가져오지도 않았고, 다양한 교육방식이 다른 결과를 가져올 것이라는 생각도 systematic review에 의해 반박당하고 있다.

Unfortunately, despite multiple studies, none of these commonsense axioms finds much support in the literature. Matching learning styles has never been demonstrated to lead to superior outcomes, in either general8 or medical9,10 education. The idea that different instructional formats lead to consistently different outcomes has been challenged by several systematic reviews of e-learning11 and PBL.4


성공(The successes)


반대로, 인지심리학에서 유래한 이론들은 예측가능하고 일관적성있게 도움이 되는 교육 전략을 제공했다. 

Conversely, theories derived from cognitive psychology point to some general instructional strategies that lead to predictable and consistent benefits.12 

Problem-based learning curricula that are directed at the activation of prior knowledge lead to better transfer.13 

The use of multiple examples and commonsense analogies that direct students to the deep conceptual structure of the problem results in significant gains in transfer.14 

Mixed practice, in which examples from different categories are mixed together, and distributed learning, in which learning is spread over several occasions, are both effective strategies directly related to cognitive theories of learning.15,16 

Cognitive load theory17 provides a strong theoretical basis for effective instructional design, is generally directed to simpler presentations and has consistent and strong effects.



임상 문제해결 기술과 임상 추론

Clinical problem-solving skills and clinical reasoning


실패(The failure)


아마 가장 좋은 사례는 McGuire의 연구일 것이다.

Perhaps the best example of a failure of common sense derives from McGuire’s own work.2


많은 학교들이 급진적으로 PBL과 같은 접근법을 도입했다.

New medical schools pioneered radical approaches such as PBL


문제해결능력을 위한 것이었고, 전문가와 초심자의 차이는 전문가는 뛰어난 문제해결 능력을 가지고 있다는 근거로부터 출발한 것이다.

toward measures of ‘problem-solving skills’. The term had common appeal; it was proposed that the differences between experts and novices derived from the fact that experts had good problem-solving skills and novices had still to acquire them.


이 분야에서 가장 발전한 것은 McGuire와 Babbott의 PMP이다.

The best-developed of these was McGuire and Babbott’s patient management problem (PMP),18


그러나 PMP에 대한 psychometric연구와 임상문제해결에 관한 기초연구 모두 불분명한 결과만을 보였다. 

However, both psychometric study of PMPs and fundamental research around ‘clinical problem solving’ revealed a disquieting finding. However, it was measured, the correlation across problems was 0.1–0.3.19,20


성공(The success)


Content Specificity에 관한 일관된 연구결과는 일반적 기술(general skill)은 손실되기 쉽고, 지식이 전문가에게 있어 핵심적인 것이라는 점이었다. 그러나 이것은 지식은 전문성과 관련이 없고, 5년마다 근본적으로 바뀐다는 인식이 널리 퍼져있던 시절에는 직관에 반하는 결론이었다.

The consistent finding of content specificity led inexorably to the conclusion that general skills are evanescent and that knowledge plays a central role in expertise; this represented a counter-intuitive result at a time when proclamations that knowledge was irrelevant and fundamentally changed every 5 years were rife.


이는 약간의 패러다임의 변화를 가져와서, 지식의 이론을 바탕으로 한 연구의 새로운 세대의 시작이 되었다.

This led to a small paradigm shift within the domain and the birth of a new generation of research strongly driven by theories of knowledge


비록 각각의 연구는 임상추론에 관해서 조금씩만 기여할 뿐이지만, 그것들이 합해져서 더 풍부하고, 더 강력한 설명을 제공한다.

Although each theory provides at best only a partial representation of the phenomenon of clinical reasoning, the collective provides a far richer, and more powerful, explanation of the phenomenon that is frequently at variance with common sense.





평가

Assessment



실패(The failure)


학습에 대한 상식이 그랬던 것처럼, 평가에 대한 것도 그럴듯하지만 틀린 것들이 많았다. 첫 번째는 평가의 포멧이 다르면 다른 능력을 평가할 것이라는 상식이었다.

Parallel to commonsense views of learning, assessment research has been driven by some plausible but incorrect views about assessment. First is that different assessment formats necessarily assess different abilities


두 번째 가정은 평가 방식이 실제상황과 비슷할수록, 더 나은 평가라는 것이다.

A second assumption is that the closer the assessment resembles reality (and the higher up the Miller31 pyramid it goes), the better the assessment.


'의학적 역량에 대한 평가를 디자인 할 때는 얼마나 현실과 가까운가(authenticity)가 우선되어야 한다. 이는, 평가를 하는 상황이 실제로 그 역량이 활용되는 환경과 비슷해야 한다는 것이다.'

‘Authenticity should have high priority when programmes for the assessment of medical competence are being designed. This means that the situations in which a candidate’s competence is assessed should resemble the situation in which the competence will actually have to be used.’32


그러나, 아쉽게도 이런 가설은 연구에 의해 뒷받침되지 못했다.

Regrettably, again, the research evidence does not support either assumption



성공(The success)


일찍부터 의학교육은 최신의 psychometric 방법을 도입하기 시작했다. 이러한 변화는 미국과 캐나다의 면허기관에서 주로 도입되었다. 그 결과는 summative assessment(총괄평가)의 방법을 바꾸어놓았고, 현재 사용되는 generalizability theory와 IRT를 분석에 사용하여 의학교육의 방법론이 보통교육(general education) 방법론의 엄격함을 능가할 정도였다.

Quite early in its history, medical education began to adopt state of-the-art psychometric methods. These changes were primarily driven by the national licensing bodies in the USA and Canada. The consequence was sweeping changes in approaches to summative assessment, with the adoption of contemporary methods like generalisability theory and IRT for analysis, to the extent that medical education overtook general education in its methodological rigour.37


시험의 효율성이 높아졌을 뿐만 아니라, 더 높은 예측타당도도 가진다는 것이 증명되었다.

Not only has the efficiency of testing been improved by the application of methods like IRT, but the latter has also been accompanied by consistent evidence of high predictive validity.34,38,39







학제간 융합의 유용성

THE USEFULNESS OF MULTIPLE DISCIPLINES



위의 예들이 보여주는 바와 같이 MER의 강점은, 마치 영어와 같이, 특별한 노력을 기울이지 않고도 다양한 학문의 언어를 흡수할 수 있다는 것이다.

As these examples illustrate, one great strength of MER derives from its ability, like the English language, to effortlessly absorb other disciplinary languages


어떻게 그럴 수 있을까?

What makes this possible? 


첫 번째로, 의학교육은 다양한 관점을 증명할 수 있는 바탕이 되며, 관심의 영역이 수술실에서의 전문가간 의사소통부터, 영상의학에서의 패턴 인식과 인지까지 다양하다.

Firstly, medical education is a rich proving ground for different perspectives, whether the issue of concern relates to factors in interprofessional communication in the operating theatre or a study of pattern recognition and perception in radiology


두 번째로, 더 중요한 것은, Buffalo에서 시작할 때부터 교육환경을 더 풍요롭게 만들고 싶어하는 다양한 보건의료인력을 끌어당겼다는 것이다.

Secondly, and most importantly, from its humble origins in Buffalo, MER has always attracted a coterie of dedicated health professionals with an interest in enriching the teaching environment.


마지막으로, 가장 중요한 것은 MER이 지속적으로 다양한 분야의 학자들의 마음을 끌고 있다는 점이다.

Finally and, in my view, most critically, MER has attracted and continues to attract scholars from multiple disciplines in the behavioural and social sciences. 


실제로, 교육 과학을 흥미롭게 만드는 것은 상식에 의해서 증명되지 않는 것들이 있고, 오히려 직관에 반하기도 한다는 점이다.

Indeed, what makes education science, like all science, such an exhilarating voyage of discovery is that findings so often turn out to be not predictable by common sense, but instead appear to be counter-intuitive,


이 리뷰에서 말하고자 하는 두 번째 것은, 최근 몇몇 commentaries에서 언급된 허무주의적인 태도에 대한 것이다. 교육은 너무 복잡해서 잘 정의되지 않고, 일반화하려는 시도는 빈번히 실패한다는 주장은, 내가 인용한 많은 사례들은 현실적인 문제들과 환경에서 성공적이었을 뿐만 아니라 그 효과도 컸다.

A second insight to emerge from this review refers to the fact that the examples I have chosen provide, I believe, a strong antidote to somewhat nihilistic recent commentaries,6,41 the thesis of which appears to be that education is so complex and ill defined that any attempt to find generalisable truths is bound to fail. Many of the studies I have cited on the ‘success’ side are based on realistic tasks and environments – such as diagnosis of electrocardiograms or learning from resident half-days – yet show large effects.



의학교육연구의 미래

THE FUTURE OF MER


‘Rigorous and relevant research requires a combination of well-trained educationalists and researchers with good practical knowledge of medicine and teaching. One conclusion from all of these is that a close collaboration between doctors and educationalists is indispensable for good medical education and development of better education. Any monodisciplinary endeavour will lead to a suboptimal result.’32







 2011 Aug;45(8):785-91. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2923.2010.03921.x.

Fifty years of medical education researchwaves of migration.

Source

Department of Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Faculty of Health Sciences, McMaster University, 1200 Main Street West, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada. norman@mcmaster.ca

Abstract

CONTEXT:

Medical education research has been an academic pursuit for over 50 years, tracing its roots back to the Office of Medical Education at the State University of New York at Buffalo, New York, with George Miller. As the field has matured, the nature of the questions posed and the disciplinary bases of its practitioners have evolved.

METHODS:

I identify three chronological 'generations' of academics who have contributed to the field, at intervals of roughly 10-15 years.

RESULTS:

Members of the first generation came from diverse and unrelated academic backgrounds and essentially learned their craft on the job. A second generation, emerging in the 1980s and 1990s, consisted of individuals with PhD-level training in relevant fields such as psychology, psychometrics and sociology, who actively chose a career in health sciences education, often during graduate work. These individuals brought a strong disciplinary orientation to their research. Finally, the proliferation of graduate programmes in medical education means that we are now seeing the evolution of a new type of academic, often a health professional, whose only discipline is medical education.

CONCLUSIONS:

I propose that we should strike a balance between seeking to create a separate specialty of medical education and continuing to actively recruit from other academic disciplines. I believe that the strong disciplinary roots of these individuals are a critical element in the continuing growth and progress of medical education research.

© Blackwell Publishing Ltd 2011.






The Stemmler Fund was established in 1995 and subsequently named in honor of Dr. Edward J. Stemmler, who was largely responsible for the conception of the program while chair of the NBME. Dr. Stemmler served as the first chair of the Fund's Steering Committee.


(출처 : http://www.nbme.org/research/stemmler.html)






1960년대에 각 기관으로 흩어진 사람들(Miller, Abrahamson, Jason)은 의학교육실(offices of medical education)을 만들고 교수를 모집했다. 그 세대의 교수들을 MER의 1세대라고 할 수 있다.

1990년대에 새로운 세대(2세대)가 유입되기 시작했고, MER를 전공하지는 않았지만, 관련있는 다른 분야(인지심리학, 인류학, 역학)를 공부한 사람들이었다.

이제는 3세대에 들어섰다. 이들은 다른 분야의 언어는 어설프게밖에 하지 못한다. 그들의 모국어는 MER이다.


다양한 학문이 결합되었을 때 존재하던 의학교육의 강점이 있다고 생각한다. 지속적으로 학문적 모자이크를 유지할 수 있다면, 그래서 용광로처럼 될 수 있다면 이론과 방법론적 지식은 넓어질 것이지만, 다른 분야에서의 유입이 감소한다면 우리는 중요한 자산을 잃게 될 것이다.






의학교육연구(이하 MER)분야는 1950년대에 SUNY at Buffalo의 George Miller에 의해서 탄생했다.

The field we now call medical education research (MER) was born in the 1950s, with George Miller at the State University of New York at Buffalo, New York.1


1960년대에 각 기관으로 흩어진 사람들(Miller, Abrahamson, Jason)은 의학교육실(offices of medical education)을 만들고 교수를 모집했다. 그 세대의 교수들을 MER의 1세대라고 할 수 있다. 이 사람들은 배경이 다양했다.

In the 1960s these individuals moved on to other institutions – Miller to Illinois, Abrahamson to Los Angeles and Jason to Michigan State – where they founded the first research-intensive (and PhD-intensive) offices of medical education and began to employ new faculty members. It is that generation of faculty, myself included, who can be seen as first generation immigrants – people who migrated into MER more or less through a process of random wandering. Our backgrounds were diverse: 


(이 당시 유럽은 조금 사정이 달랐다. 유럽에서는 1970년대에 1세대 연구자들이 생겼다.)

(The European situation was somewhat different; MER came a little later to Europe and many of its first-generation researchers in the 1970s – individuals such as Chris McManus and Colin Coles in the UK, and Wijnand Wijnen, Henk Schmidt and Cees van Boven in the Netherlands – had undergone formal postgraduate training in psychology.)


1990년대에 새로운 세대(2세대)가 유입되기 시작했고, MER를 전공하지는 않았지만, 관련있는 다른 분야(인지심리학, 인류학, 역학)를 공부한 사람들이었다.

The 1990s saw a new generation of researchers enter the field in North America. Although they may not have been trained in MER, they were, nevertheless, like the Europeans, actively recruited from relevant fields, including those of cognitive psychology, anthropology and epidemiology.


이 세대는 이주민 2세대와 비슷하다. 그들은 그들의 원래 국가(원래 전공)과 새로운 국가(의학교육학)에 모두 속해있다. 이들은 MER의 언어를 쓸 수 있으면서, 원래의 언어를 잃지 않았다.

This generation can be likened to the children of immigrants. They belong to both the old country – their host discipline – and the new – MER. They can converse in the new language of MER, but they also retain the mothertongue of their host discipline.


Item Response Theory(IRT)이나 Structural Equation Modelling(SEM)과 같은 Multivariate Statistical Method를 사용할 줄 알았다. 복잡하고 기민하게 실험을 수행했다.

They use multivariate statistical methods like item response theory (IRT) and structural equation modelling (SEM). They do complex and clever experiments.


이 세대의 개개인들은 각자의 분야에서 심도있게 훈련을 받고 나왔기 때문에 그들이 모이면 각자의 전공을 살려서 넓은 범위에서 복잡한 기술을 발휘하여 MER을 더 풍부하게 만들어 줄 수 있었다.

that each individual in this second generation has undergone in-depth training in a particular discipline in the social or behavioural sciences and that collectively they enrich the field with a wide variety of sophisticated skills rooted in their host disciplines.


1세대와의 결정적인 차이는 초반의 생산성(논문 생산성)이었다.

One index of the difference between the two generations is initial productivity. 


이제는 3세대에 들어섰다. 이들은 다른 분야의 언어는 어설프게밖에 하지 못한다. 그들의 모국어는 MER이다.

We are now into a third generation. They speak the languages of other disciplines only haltingly; their disciplinary mothertongue is that of MER.


더이상 다른 전공에서 전문가를 모셔올 필요는 없게 되었다. 우리는 필요한 만큼 충분한 수를 양성하고 있다. 하지만 이에 동반되는 위험도 있다.

No longer need we import specialists from other lands; we are producing sufficient of our own number to be independent. Perhaps, but my central thesis is that this assimilation and maturation carries with it some potential dangers. 


'교육의 연구방법론이 재미있는 이유는, 교육은 그 자체가 학문이 아니기 때문입니다. 교육은 연구의 '분야'라고 할 수 있습니다. 현상과, 사건과, 조직, 문제, 사람, 과정을 포함한, 그래서 그 하나하나가 많은 종류의 연구 재료가 됩니다. 많은 학문의 다양한 관점과 절차들이 연구의 분야로서의 교육에 질문을 던져줍니다.'

‘A major reason why research methodology in education is such an exciting area is that education is not itself a discipline. Indeed, education is a field of study [his italics], a locus containing phenomena, events, institutions, problems, persons, and processes, which themselves constitute the raw material for inquiries of many kinds. The perspectives and procedures of many disciplines can be brought to bear on the questions arising from and inherent in education as a field of study.'


다양한 학문이 결합되었을 때 존재하던 의학교육의 강점이 있다고 생각한다. 지속적으로 학문적 모자이크를 유지할 수 있다면, 그래서 용광로처럼 될 수 있다면 이론과 방법론적 지식은 넓어질 것이지만, 다른 분야에서의 유입이 감소한다면 우리는 중요한 자산을 잃게 될 것이다.

I am concerned that the strength of medical education resides in the bringing together of various disciplinary perspectives. If we succeed in moving from a disciplinary mosaic, in which diversity is recognised and celebrated, to a melting pot, in which practitioners become homogenised, the range of theoretical and methodological knowledge is broad, but immigration from other disciplines is reduced, we may lose a major asset.


그러면 구체적으로 어떻게 다양한 학문이 MER에 기여했을까? 한 가지는 방법론적인 것이다. 단순히 여러 학문의 방법이 MER을 풍부하게 만들었다는 것이 아니라, 관점이나 프로그램, 이론, 그리고 인식론적인 것을 다 포괄하는 것이다.

What, specifically, do these diverse disciplines bring to MER? One contribution is methodology. It is not simply their methods that enrich MER; it is their perspectives, their programmes, their theories and their epistemologies.






 2011 Aug;45(8):785-91. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2923.2010.03921.x.

Fifty years of medical education researchwaves of migration.

Source

Department of Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Faculty of Health Sciences, McMaster University, 1200 Main Street West, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada. norman@mcmaster.ca

Abstract

CONTEXT:

Medical education research has been an academic pursuit for over 50 years, tracing its roots back to the Office of Medical Education at the State University of New York at Buffalo, New York, with George Miller. As the field has matured, the nature of the questions posed and the disciplinary bases of its practitioners have evolved.

METHODS:

I identify three chronological 'generations' of academics who have contributed to the field, at intervals of roughly 10-15 years.

RESULTS:

Members of the first generation came from diverse and unrelated academic backgrounds and essentially learned their craft on the job. A second generation, emerging in the 1980s and 1990s, consisted of individuals with PhD-level training in relevant fields such as psychology, psychometrics and sociology, who actively chose a career in health sciences education, often during graduate work. These individuals brought a strong disciplinary orientation to their research. Finally, the proliferation of graduate programmes in medical education means that we are now seeing the evolution of a new type of academic, often a health professional, whose only discipline is medical education.

CONCLUSIONS:

I propose that we should strike a balance between seeking to create a separate specialty of medical education and continuing to actively recruit from other academic disciplines. I believe that the strong disciplinary roots of these individuals are a critical element in the continuing growth and progress of medical education research.

© Blackwell Publishing Ltd 2011.




























(출처 : http://www.royalcollege.ca/portal/page/portal/rc/resources/aboutcanmeds)




INTRODUCTION



지난 100년간 서양의 의학교육은 의학을 의생명과학으로 만들었다. 진료(=의학의 수행)는 가장 최신의 의학지식을 객관적으로 적용하는 것이 되었다.

For the last 100 years, Western medical education has constructed medicine as biomedical scienceOver that time, scientific discoveries and medical breakthroughs have changed the face of medical practice. Biomedical research has flourished within medical schools, and non-clinical bench science in particular has become a major part of many of their missions.1–3 The practice of medicine has come to be understood as the objective application of the most advanced medical sciences to patient care; such medical sciences, in turn, have been limited to those which produced bioscientific knowledge. 



이에 따라 의학교육도 진료에 필요한 생명과학을 학습하는 것 위주로 구성되었다. 많은 사람들이 의학에는 'art'적 측면도 있다고 말했지만, 그럼에도 불구하고 의사가 된다는 것은 거의 전적으로 방대한 양의 생명과학 지식을 학습하는 과정이 되어갔다.


Medical education thus has become a predominantly bioscientifically oriented preparation for practice, with medical schools assuming the tasks of both producing biomedical knowledge and creating a curriculum to teach future doctors to practise within this bioscientific framework. Although many recognise that there is also an ‘art’ to the practice of clinical medicine, becoming a doctor continues to entail, almost exclusively, the acquisition of large amounts of bioscientific knowledge. 




생명과학지식이 의료에 많은 이득을 가져다 준 것은 분명하지만, 이것만이 의학교육의 유일무이한 기초는 아니다. 플렉스너는 물론이고, 최근에도 과학 지식을 강조하는 것과 미래에 의사를 키워내는 것의 연관성에 의문을 제기하는 보고서가 나오고 있다. 


Certainly scientific knowledge has brought large benefits to patients in clinical practice, but it is not the only foundation necessary for medical education. Flexner himself, often cited in defence of scientism, did not think scientific knowledge on its own constituted adequate medical training.2,4–6 More recently, reports7,8 and academic publications2,6,9–11 have questioned the exclusivity of the link between the emphasis on scientific knowledge in medical schools and teaching future doctors what they will actually need to know in order to practise medicine. The history of medical education also reminds us that the current generic medical curriculum is not the inevitable result of perfect understanding of how to train future doctors. 




역사적으로 사회적, 정치적, 경제적 힘이 의학교육에 작용해왔고 교육과정을 만들고 변화시켰다. 의학 커리큘럼은 "어떤 것이 되어야 하는 것"이 아니라 "현재 요구되는 것"이다.


Rather, it is the historically mediated result of the social, political and economic forces acting on medical education and its institutions over the time the curriculum was created and modified.12 This realisation that the medical curriculum is not ‘what must be’, but only ‘what is currently’, means that the structure and contents of the curriculum can change to concur with changing conceptions of its goals and objectives. 




현재 역량있는 의사에게 요구되는 다양한 영역은 무엇인가?


We are therefore obliged to ensure that the medical curriculum contains the appropriate kinds of knowledge doctors-in-training need to achieve what is currently believed to be competenceImplications of competency frameworks It is now widely accepted that there are multiple domains in which doctors are required to be competent. 




이러한 역량은 의사가 갖춰야 할 자질에 대한 의학교육자의 의견일 뿐만 아니라, 사회가, 대중이, 환자가, 가족이 요구하는 것이다.


It is not sufficient for doctors to have biomedical knowledge and technical skills. They must also, for example, be able to communicate well, to act in a professional manner and to work effectively with doctor and non-doctor colleagues. These competencies not only represent what medical educators and the medical profession as a whole believe to be important; they also reflect what the public, including patients and their families, want their doctors to be.




CanMEDS 역량은 이러한 것 중 하나이다. EFPO프로젝트로 만들어졌다. 


For example, the CanMEDS competencies (Fig. 1),13 one of the earliest and perhaps best known of the national competency frameworks, arose out of a series of public consultations in Ontario (the most populous Canadian province) in the 1980s.14 That public process and subsequent professional stakeholder consultations, all part of the Educating Future Physicians for Ontario (EFPO) project, identified the doctor roles which then became the CanMEDS competencies unveiled in 2000.15 


Other English language competency frameworks have similar claims to professional and public consultation or support.16–18 The societal expectations of doctors identified and drawn upon in such documents are, of course, as much the historically mediated outcomes of social, political and economic forces as the medical curricula with which they interact. Nonetheless, these frameworks can be seen to be (and are often presented as) surrogates for the current shared understanding between medical professionals, educators and patients about what doctors should be by the end of their training.




RESULTS 


Students educated in the foundational knowledge necessary for competence in all doctor roles would need to be exposed to ideas and ways of thinking from a wide array of disciplines outside the traditional biomedical sciences. These would need to be introduced in context and in ways that would support future medical practice. They would also broaden students’ understanding of the nature of legitimate medical knowledge.




CONCLUSIONS 


There are currently major gaps between the goals and objectives of competency frameworks such as CanMEDS and the actual contents of medical curricula. Addressing these will require curricular transformation to add knowledges, in context and in ways that positively affect practice, from disciplines not currently present within the medical school. In order to accomplish this, we will need to engage with colleagues throughout the university







 2011 Jan;45(1):36-43. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2923.2010.03791.x.

Rethinking the basis of medical knowledge.

Source

Department of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada. ayelet94@post.harvard.edu

Abstract

CONTEXT:

Twentieth-century medical education constructed medicine as biomedical science. Although bioscientific knowledge has brought large benefits to clinical practice, many have questioned the appropriateness of its domination of the medical curriculum. As the content of that curriculum is itself a historically mediated social construct, it can be changed to fit current descriptions of the competent doctors medical schools are expected to produce. Such doctors are expected not only to have biomedical expertise, but also to carry out multiple other roles as described in competency frameworks such as that of CanMEDS. Many of these other roles are socio-culturally based and thus not supported by bioscientific knowledge.

METHODS:

We designed a thought experiment to delineate the need to identify and integrate the range of foundational knowledges required to support the development of doctors capable of performing all the roles described in the competency frameworks. We specified assumptions and demarcated our scope. To illustrate our ideas, we selected examples from the medical curriculum that linked to non-Medical Expert roles and outlined the disciplines that supported them.

RESULTS:

Students educated in the foundational knowledge necessary for competence in all doctor roles would need to be exposed to ideas and ways of thinking from a wide array of disciplines outside the traditional biomedical sciences. These would need to be introduced in context and in ways that would support future medical practice. They would also broaden students' understanding of the nature of legitimate medical knowledge.

CONCLUSIONS:

There are currently major gaps between the goals and objectives of competency frameworks such as CanMEDS and the actual contents of medical curricula. Addressing these will require curricular transformation to add knowledges, in context and in ways that positively affect practice, from disciplines not currently present within the medical school. In order to accomplish this, we will need to engage with colleagues throughout the university.

© Blackwell Publishing Ltd 2010.






(출처 : http://www.doceo.co.uk/tools/p-c_s-s.htm)





첫 번째는 의학교육이 근본적으로 서로 양립할 수 없는 두 개의 패러다임(자연과학과 사회과학) 사이의 껄끄러우면서도 미약한 파트너쉽을 형성하게 되었다는 것이다.


두 번째로 지적할 것은, 의학교육의 '재민주화'이다. '재민주화'라는 단어는 사회-정치적 의미로 사용된 것이 아니라, 의학교육 외부의 비전문가에게 문호를 열거나 그들을 초대해서 더 나은 관점을 도입하고자 하는 것이다.


세 번째 측면은 의학계가 더 넓은 사회로 나가고자 하는 것이다. 많은 책과 글들이 전문직인 내부인의 관점을 외부로 알리고 있으며, 실패과 불확실성에 대해 생각해보는 장으로서의 역할을 하고 있다.


마지막 측면은 자기분석(self- analysis)의 노력이다






20세기 미국의 의학교육 혁명에 앞장선 그 누구도 의학을 전공하지 않았다. Abraham Flexner는 고등교육을 전공했고, Henry Pritchett는 수학자이자 천문학자였으며, Andrew Carnegie는 경영주면서 자선가였고, John D Rockefeller는 석유왕이면서 은행가였다.

None of the primary managers of early 20th century medical education reform in the USA were trained in medicine: Abraham Flexner came from higher education; Henry Pritchett was a mathematician and astronomer; Andrew Carnegie was an industrialist and philanthropist, and John D Rockefeller an oil magnate and banker.


외부인은 사회학자들이 소위 이미크적 관점(emic perspective)에는 약하다. 기능적인 면을 보는 능력이나, 문화적 신념과 현실이 가지는 의미와 중요성에 대한 지식, 그리고 사람들이 어떤 것에 관심을 가지고 어떤 것을 무시하는지에 대한 미묘한 이해가 부족하다.

Outsiders can possess little of what social scientists term the emic perspective, the knowledge of significances and meanings attached to cultural beliefs and practices and the nuanced understanding of what to pay attention to and what to ignore. 


반대로 불편한 사실들을 다 벗어던지고 마구 덤벼드는 외부인들은, 현재의 모습은 무엇이고, 과거의 모습은 어땠어야 했는지에 대한 관찰을 통해 질문을 던질 수 있다. 다른 관념과 가능성을 가지고 이해를 할 수 있으며, 사회과학자들은 이를 에티크적 관점(etic perspective)라고 부른다.

On the other hand, unencumbered by the inconvenience of facts, the outsider wades in, making observations and asking questions about what might be, or what could have been, drawing on perspectives from a different universe of possibilities. This, in part, is what social scientists refer to as an etic perspective.


Pritchett는 의학 외부인중에서 변화를 일으킬 수 있는 영향을 줄 만한 사람을 심사숙고해서 골랐고, 그 사람이 바로 Flexner였다. 이제 이런 사람이 필요할 때가 다시 온 듯 하다. 의학교육은 내부의 원동력, 내부의 훈련, 내부의 사고방식에서 벗어난, 진정한 외부의 관점이 부족다. 

Pritchett’s deliberate selection of a medical outsider made explicit his view that medical schools did not have within themselves the tools necessary to effect the changes he sought, a perspective with which Flexner,3 apparently after his very first medical college inspection, fully agreed. Such may be the case today; medical education may be struggling for the lack of truly outside perspectives from sources that are uninitiated, untrained and unsophisticated in the ways of the insider.


물론, 생산적인 대화가 이루어지기 위해서는 외부의 etic과 내부의 emic 관점이 모두 어우러져야 할 것이다.

Nevertheless, it is at the precise juncture of the outsider’s etic perspective and the insider’s emic understanding that fruitful conversations may begin.



OBSERVATIONS


첫 번째는 의학교육이 근본적으로 서로 양립할 수 없는 두 개의 패러다임(자연과학과 사회과학) 사이의 껄끄러우면서도 미약한 파트너쉽을 형성하게 되었다는 것이다.

The first observation is that medical education involves an inherently strained and tenuous ‘partnership’ between the natural sciences and the social sciences, two potentially incompatible paradigms.


위험을 무릅쓰고 두 패러다임의 공통점을 설명하기보다는, 여기서는 논의를 위해서 Kuhn의 주장을 따르고자 한다. Kuhn은 자연과학은 하나의 지배적인 관념이 있고, 그 관념이 무너지기 전까지는 그 아래서 작동한다. 이는 사회과학과는 다른데, 어느 이론이 보편적으로 공유되고 적용되지 않으며, 조금씩 변형되고 재활용되며, 논쟁과 조정을 거치지만, 통째로 폐기되는 경우는 거의 드물다.

At the risk of overstating the homogeneity of the two paradigms, we may, for the sake of discussion, follow Kuhn’s assertion that the natural sciences operate under a single dominant vision of what can be investigated and how (what he calls ‘normal science’), and work that paradigm until it collapses of its own inconsistencies and a new one takes over sole dominance.4 This is not so in the social sciences, where theory, not universally shared to begin with, is modified and recycled, debated and adjusted, but rarely discarded altogether.


노벨상 수상자인 Rotblat은 자연과학의 지식의 성장은 사회과학의 지식의 성장에 비해서 과급(supercharged)되었다고 했다.

Nobel Prize laureate Rotblat6 refers to knowledge growth in the natural sciences as ‘supercharged’ relative to the growth in the social sciences.


이러한 현상은 좋게 말하면 문제적 불균형이고, 나쁘게 보면 학문적 마비 또는 자기파괴를 앞둔 비옥한 토양이다.

A problematic imbalance at best, and fertile soil for disciplinary paralysis or self-destruction at worst 


의학교육은 생의학적 진료를 치료의 인간적인 면으로부터 분리시키고자 하는 초기의 충동으로 인해 고생하고 있다. '의학과 질병의 비사회화'라고 불리는 이것은, 의학을 지원해준 사회구성원이 받아들이기 힘든 방향으로 의생명과학이 발전하면서 많은 사람에게 실망을 안겨줬다.

Medical education suffered the initial impulses of a decoupling of biomedical practice from the humanity of healing, which has been termed the ‘desocialisation of sickness and medicine’.8 To the consternation of many, the advances of biomedicine continue to outstrip our abilities to administer them in ways acceptable to the societies that are their beneficiaries.





두 번째로 지적할 것은, 의학교육의 '재민주화'이다. '재민주화'라는 단어는 사회-정치적 의미로 사용된 것이 아니라, 의학교육 외부의 비전문가에게 문호를 열거나 그들을 초대해서 더 나은 관점을 도입하고자 하는 것이다.

The second observation notes what appears to be a ‘re-democratisation’ of medical education. The term ‘re-democratisation’ is employed here without regard to its technical socio-political connotations, but rather to denote an ‘opening up’ to or ‘inviting’ of non-specialists to obtain a better view inside the world of medical education.


플렉스너 이전의 의학교육은 포퓰리즘(민주주의)적이었다. 사회적 지위나 지적인 수준이나 학위나 성별, 인종 등 모든 것과 상관없이 하고자 하는 사람을 막지 않았다.

The pre-Flexner world of medical education in the USA was a populist (democratic?) one, for it invited all comers, irrespective of social standing, intellectual acumen, scholarship, resources, race or gender, to participate.


플렉스너는 그 당시 상황을 모든 가능한 면에서 공격했다.

Flexner attacked that status quo at every conceivable level


그 결과로 의과대학의 수가 크게 감소하여, 대중의 접근성을 떨어뜨렸으며 - 예상하지는 못했겠지만 - 엘리트 계급만이 '힘들고 비싼 의학교육'을 감당할 수 있었다.

The resulting reduction in the number of medical schools severely limited the hitherto broad public access to the system and resulted in the creation, probably unanticipated, of an elite class of people who had the requisite preparation and resources to undertake the ‘uniformly arduous and expensive medical education’.9,10


현재의 의학교육의 재민주화는 다양한 측면이 있는데, 한 가지는 위에서 설명한 플렉스너의 개혁 직후 나타난 결과를 수정하려는 것이다.

The current re-democratisation of medical education has multiple dimensions, one of which is a corrective to an immediate outcome of Flexner’s reforms: 


의학교육자들과 학생들은 대학의 두 가지 역할 - 연구기간과 사회에 대한 봉사기관 - 을 해야 한다.

Medical educators and their students are left to negotiate the interstices between the university’s twin roles as research cloister and utilitarian service organ to society.5



'재민주화'의 두 번째 측면은 외부에서 동력과 에너지를 얻으려는 것이다. 1980년 Katz의 논문에서 환자의 자율권을 인정하고 의료와 관련한 더 많은 결정권을 주고자 하는 것과 관련이 있다.

A second dimension to re-democratisation appears to find its impulses and energy outside, and occasionally in opposition to, the institution. Its way was probably paved by the move in the 1980s (following Katz’s work11) to acknowledge and grant greater patient autonomy with regard to health care decisions.


무수한 정보가 집약된 많은 사이트들이 등장했다. WebMed, Google Health, My Health Info 등등. 그러나 사람들은 점차 이것이 너무 좁은 범위만을 다루고 있다고 생각했고, 글로벌 네트워크인 'e-patient'를 만들기에 이르렀다. 여기서는 자신의 의료정보를 올리고 지식과 경험을 공유한다. 의료기관의 관리나 제한, 내용제한에서 벗어난 것이다.

Increasingly sophisticated and information-dense sites such as WebMed, Google Health, My Health Info and others have fed a voracious public appetite for raw and unfiltered medical information, options, warnings, trends and recommendations. However, society has found even this access too narrow, as evidenced by the explosive emergence of a global network of ‘e-patients’,13 who blog and share their own medical information, knowledge and experiences with one another online, quite outside the medical establishment’s ability to monitor, restrict or filter the contents





세 번째 측면은 의학계가 더 넓은 사회로 나가고자 하는 것이다. 많은 책과 글들이 전문직인 내부인의 관점을 외부로 알리고 있으며, 실패과 불확실성에 대해 생각해보는 장으로서의 역할을 하고 있다.

A third dimension to re-democratisation can be seen quite simply in medicine’s ‘reaching out’ to wider society. A plethora of books and popular articles such as the award-winning works by Gawade14 offer readers an insider’s view into the medical profession and a platform from which to ponder its failings and uncertainties.


이 세 번째 측면은 의학과 의료를 인간답게 만들기 위한 노력의 일부이다.

The third observation concerns this re-democratisation as part of a broader call for the humanising of medicine and medical training.


다루기 힘들고, 비효율적이고, 개인화된 멘토-도제식 모델과 지역사회 중심의, 전인적인, 인간적 요소들은 새로운 생의학적 교육이 요구하는 것(효율적이고, 표준화되어있고, 최점단의, 근거중심의) 과 공존하기가 쉽지 않다.

The cumbersome, gently inefficient, individualised mentor–apprentice model and the community-oriented, holistic, hightouch and human-paced elements became increasingly difficult to maintain on an equal footing with the efficient, standardised, evidence-based, state-of-the-art, student-production demands of the new biomedical education.


이 애매함이 의사에 대해서만 요구되는 것은 아니다. 사회의 거의 모든 측면에 걸쳐서 인간미를 갈망하면서도, 이에 필수적으로 동반될 수 밖에 없는 편견은 매도한다.

This ambiguity is not unique to society’s demands on its doctors; in all areas of society we crave the personal touch while decrying the accompanying problems that form an integral part of the human equation.


하지만 인간이 가진 특징은, 좋든 나쁘든, 적당히 적응하는 것으로 만족하지 못한다는 것이다. 우리가 프로토콜에 얼마나 집착하는지를 보면 알 수 있다.

An indelible attribute of human nature, however, whether it be for good or ill, is our refusal simply to cope, evidenced in our society by an addiction to the protocol


프로토콜을 어설프게 손봐가면서 우리는 그럭저럭 해 나간다. Edgerton이 말했던 것처럼, 우리는 가끔 뒤죽박죽(muddle)으로 하다가 처음 상태로 돌아가버리기도 한다.

This constant tinkering with cultural and social circumstances often finds us ‘muddling through’, as Edgerton1 puts it, although sometimes we ‘muddle’ back to an earlier starting point, spiralling back to what we may once have rejected


이런식으로 순환하면서 PBL을 도입하거나 호스피탈리스트(hospitalist)를 양성하고자 하는 움직임이 플렉스너 이전 시대의 모습을 재현하고 있다.

Such cyclicity, evident in educational and health care initiatives like problem-based learning and the hospitalist movement,17–19 reintroduces several features of pre-Flexner medical practice


사례를 하나하나 해가면서 문제해결을 배우는 것, 도제식 관계, 제너럴리스트, 멘토에 의한 추가 학습 등등이 예전의 시대가 가지고 있던 모습이며, 그 시절에는 치유의 예술이 과학과 쉽게 조화를 이뤘다.

Case-by-case problem solving, the apprentice–preceptor relationship, the generalist, the extra time involved on the part of mentors9 all hark back to an earlier era, during which – we imagine – the art of healing partnered easily with science


의학교육에 인간적인 측면을 더 담으려는 노력은 플렉스너가 말한 그 유명항 '골고루 더 힘들고 비싼'것이 될지도 모른다. 그리고 그 비용은 아마 금전적인 것 많은 아닐 것이다.

Injecting more humanity into medical education may force us to reconsider Flexner’s famous ‘more uniformly arduous and expensive’ claim; perhaps the expense is not exclusively financial. (Time and Vulnerability)





마지막 측면은 자기분석(self- analysis)의 노력이다

The final observation concerns medical education’s attempts at self-analysis, attempts which may flounder from the density of the discipline’s own complexities.


플렉스너는 그의 보고서에서 많은 의과대학의 집행부들이 스스로 외부에서 인정받는 것 만큼 잘 하고 있지 않다는 것을 인정했다고 서술하고 있다.

Flexner’s account of his reform work indicates that administrators of a number of medical schools agreed that their business was less than reputable


최근의 의학교육을 살짝만봐도, 비판이 그렇게 강하지도 않고 의학교육 내부의 요구나 사회적 요구를 담을만큼 넓거나 깊지도 않다.

Even a cursory review of today’s medical education literature and conference proceedings offers a sobering verdict: the critique is never intense, broad or deep enough to satisfy either the demands medical education places on itself or those placed on it by society at large


앞서 언급된 모습에 대한 지칠 줄 모르는 자기성찰이 의학교육 내부에서 이루어지고 있다. 최신의 지식을 갖추면서 환자를 편안하게 돌보고 작은 마을의 의사와 같은 인내심을 가질 것을 요구하는 외부의 요구도 동시에 존재한다. 이 시스템에 대한 분석은 철저하고, 복잡하고, 약해질 줄을 모른다.

Internal to medical education is its unflagging introspection as it contends with the tensions outlined in the observations above. External are the twin societal demands that doctors suffer no gaps in the currency of their knowledge yet treat their patients with the ease and patience of small-town physicians. The examination of this system is exhaustive, intricate and unabating.



CONCLUSIONS


의학교육과 같이 복잡한 분야에서 꼬여있는 상황을 변화시킬 수 있는 힘은 아마도 외부적 힘이나 상황이 가지고 있는 특별한 재능에 있을지도 모른다.

In a complex field like that of medical education, where does one begin to ‘disentangle the conditions of its history from the density of discourse’?16 For all its unnerving prospects, that disentanglement, that change, may find part of its genius residing in another ‘external event or circumstance’.






 2011 Jan;45(1):29-35. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2923.2010.03772.x.

Outside looking in: Observations on medical education since the Flexner Report.

Source

Department of Foreign Languages and Anthropology, Southeast Missouri State University, Cape Girardeau, Missouri 63701, USA. wdanderson@semo.edu

Abstract

CONTEXT:

This article focuses on the current state of medical education as it relates to the reforms introduced in the wake of the Flexner Report of 1910. The usefulness of outsiders in both understanding and analysing any specialised endeavour, and, specifically, medical education, is carefully considered. No voices call more loudly for change in medical education today than those emanating from within the arena itself. Interestingly, however, the monumental reforms of the Flexner Report were impelled largely from outside the specific discipline of medical education.

OBSERVATIONS:

Internal tensions exist between the natural and social sciences. These tensions present formidable obstacles to the balance between advances in biomedical knowledge and the humane and socially acceptable application of that knowledge. Medical education's responses to society's pressures for accessibility and humaneness occupy the next discussion point, named here as 're-democratisation' and 're-humanisation'. A final observation questions whether the current proliferation of literature about reforms in medical education can lead to real change, or whether it constitutes a self-referential agitation that, in the aggregate, holds little promise.

CONCLUSIONS:

It is suggested that not only are outsiders useful, but they may perhaps represent the only channel through which medical education can align its current practice with both its internal ideals and the demands of the public, members of which live and die by its efforts.

© Blackwell Publishing Ltd 2010.














(출처 : http://clinicalcreativity.squarespace.com/about-us/)



첫번째로, '능숙한 의사소통'이 목적이더라도 '의사소통의 기술'이 필요한 상황이 있다. 

두 번째로, 교육의 목적은 의사소통을 둘러싼 내재적인 불확실성을 항상 고려해야 한다.

마지막으로, 교육 방법에 변화가 필요하다. 예측하기 어려운 상황, 맥락에 따라 변하는 결과, 학습의 초점이 불확실한 경우 등등이 더 강조되어야 한다.


평가는 의사소통의 창의적이고 전인적인 면을 평가해야 한다.


전문가는 '감정사'가 되어야 한다. 평가의 타당성에 대한 권위는, 평가가 이뤄지는 상황에 공감하는 능력에서 나오며, 그 상황을 판단할 수 있는 능력에서 나온다. 기술적으로 이미 정의된 기술이 발휘되는지가 아니라 실제로 의사소통이 '효과가 있었는지'를 미학적으로 판단하는 것이다.


의학과 의료는 도덕적 사업이며, 고객의 만족을 넘어서 환자와 공공의 이익을 우선해야 한다. 본말이 전도되어 의사소통기술에 대한 과도한 충성이 의학의 '도덕'을 왜곡시키지 않도록 해야 하며, 창의성 그 자체가 목적이 되어서는 안된다.







IMPLICATIONS FOR TEACHING AND EVALUATING COMMUNICATION



많은 교육자들은 기술중심의 의사소통 교육의 대안을 연구하고 있다.

Many educationists are already exploring alternatives to skill-based communication teaching


그러나 이러한 연구만으로 교육적 진보가 이뤄질 수는 없다.

However, continuing to cast these and future developments in the language of communication skills will stymie pedagogical development.


의사소통을 연구하는 교육자들은 창의력을 중요시하는 영역, 특히 창의적 예술 영역으로부터 배워야 한다.

Educationists in communication might therefore learn from pedagogy in explicitly creative disciplines, particularly the creative arts.


첫번째로, '능숙한 의사소통'이 목적이더라도 '의사소통의 기술'이 필요한 상황이 있다. 어떤 의사소통의 기술은 그 효과가 보편성을 지니거나(환자의 ID 확인하기), 특정 상황에 따라서는 구체적인 목표 달성에 어떤 기술이 필요한 경우도 있다.

Firstly, at a conceptual level, although educators aim for ‘skilled communication’, the term ‘communication skills’ could be reserved for the rare instances in which consistent meaning lies in behaviours themselves, either because of the universality of their effect (such as in checking a patient’s identity) or because they achieve specific ends in a constrained situation.62 


두 번째로, 교육의 목적은 의사소통을 둘러싼 내재적인 불확실성을 항상 고려해야 한다. 이미 나와있는 기술을 권장하기보다는 교육자들은 학습자들이 '옳은 판단'을 할 수 있도록 도와야 하며, 개개인의 성향에 맞는 스타일을 만들어나갈 수 있도록 도와줘야 한다. 또한 비슷한 상황을 제공하기보다는 새로운 환경을 다룰 수 있도록 가르쳐야 하며, 의사소통을 둘러싼 불확실성을 기민하게 알아챌 수 있도록 가르쳐야 한다.

Secondly, education aims need to recognise the inherent uncertainty around communication, which will require humility for educators and learners alike. Instead of encouraging the deployment of predetermined skills, educators will aim for learners to make good judgements, to develop a style tailored to their individual characteristics,50 to develop the capacity to handle novel situations rather than simply delivering consistency, and to appreciate keenly the uncertainty surrounding their communication.63


또한 학습자의 '동기'에 더 신경을 쓸 필요가 있다.

There will be more explicit focus on learners’ motivation, too including curiosity, forming more personal connections with patients or, simply, being more effective practitioners.


마지막으로 교육 방법에 변화가 필요하다. 예측하기 어려운 상황, 맥락에 따라 변하는 결과, 학습의 초점이 불확실한 경우 등등이 더 강조되어야 한다.

Finally, there will be changed emphases in teaching methods.52 There will be additional emphasis on learning experiences and outcomes that are less predictable, on making contextual variability and ambiguity explicit foci of learning and on the tentative and conditional nature of the judgements of learners and educators alike.51,63


따라서 교육자들은 학생들을 가르칠 때 환자가 제공할 수 있는 다양한 자원을 더 활용할 것을 고려해보아야 한다.

Educators therefore might consider how to harness the resource of diversity of patient contact for students’ learning.


일부 연구자들은 물론 학생들 역시 임상 상황의 다양성에 대비하기 위해서 도제식 교육과 실제 환자를 보는 것의 가치를 강조한다. 

some theorists66 and, indeed, students67 emphasise the value of apprenticeship and ‘real patient learning’ in preparing for the diversity of clinical care, as well as for being more veridical, motivating and memorable than other forms of learning.


평가의 측면에서는, 객관적인 구조화된 임상 시험이 중요하다.

Turning to assessment, the objective structured clinical examination will probably remain central to undergraduate assessment,68,69 


세팅이 어떻든, 평가는 의사소통의 창의적이고 전인적인 면을 평가해야 한다.

Regardless of setting, assessment needs to be appropriate to the creative and holistic nature of communication.


많은 체크리스트들은 행동의 수행능력보다 의사소통의 '적절성'을 평가하게 해서 창의성과 관련된 부분을 다루고자 하고 있다. 실제로 SEGUE는 특정한 의사소통 임무를 달성하기 위해서 유연하게 대처할 것을 분명히 인정하고 있다.

By requiring ratings of ‘appropriateness’ of communication, or the achievement of tasks rather than performance of behaviours, many existing checklists already have the potential to accommodate creativity. Indeed, the SEGUE framework explicitly allows learners flexibility in achieving 32 specified communication tasks.16


많은 의사소통 교육자들은 전체적 평가(global rating)을 활용하고 있다. 비록 이러한 방법이 주관적이라는 비판은 받지만, 표면적으로는 객관적이라고 하는 체크리스트도 대개 주관적인 판단에 의존하고 있다.

Many communication educators already use global ratings,18,71 with psychometric properties as good as, or better than, those of checklists.72 Although such ratings might be criticised as subjective, we have seen that ostensibly objective checklist items usually require subjective judgements.14


전체적 평가와 관련해서 예술 분야의 평가에서 배울 점이 있다.

In developing the use of global ratings, there are potentially important lessons about assessment to be learned from creative, artistic disciplines. 


Eisner는 이러한 맥락에서 전문가는 '감정사'가 되어야 한다고 한다. 전문가도 물론 오류에 빠질 수 있고, 주관적인 편견에 따라 평가를 하곤 하지만, 비전문가보다는 낫다.

Eisner46,75 described experts in this context as ‘connoisseurs’ who derive their authority from personal familiarity with their field. Experts are, of course, fallible and their assessments are subject to biases,76 albeit less than those of non-experts.77


그들의 권위는, 즉 평가의 타당성에 대한 권위는, 평가가 이뤄지는 상황에 공감하는 능력에서 나오며, 그 상황을 판단할 수 있는 능력에서 나온다. 기술적으로 이미 정의된 기술이 발휘되는지가 아니라 실제로 의사소통이 '효과가 있었는지'를 미학적으로 판단하는 것이다. 실제로 의사소통의 의미가 있었는가를 보기 위해서는 평가에 있어 환자의 관점도 포함시켜야 한다는 주장도 있다. 

Their authority – that is, the validity of their judgements – would depend on their ability to empathise with the situation in which the assessment is taking place, and their resulting ability to judge, not, technically, whether predefined skills were displayed, but, aesthetically, whether the communication ‘worked’. It is argued that assessment should include patient perspectives because it is their subjective experience that defines the meaning of communication.13


예술가들에게도 자신의 '도구상자'가 필요한 것처럼, 기술적인 면을 무시해서는 안된다.

It will be important not to neglect skills. Just as creative artists need their ‘toolboxes’ of skills and techniques, so do practitioners.12


교육자들은 의사의 '기술'이 아니라 결과가 지니는 가치와 창의성에 더 초점을 두어야 한다.

Therefore, educators need to shift the primary focus of their gaze from the ‘skills’ that practitioners use to the value and creativity of the result.



RESEARCH IMPLICATIONS


Clearly, practitioners need to continue to learn from communication educators and researchers because communication is too important to be left to personal habits and prejudices. Therefore, researchers need to find out more about how flexibility can be taught and assessed, and how internal motivation can be identified and fostered.



LIMITATIONS OF VIEWING COMMUNICATION AS A CREATIVE ART


예술에서의 창의성과 의사환자대화에서의 창의성에는 분명한 차이가 있다.

There are, of course, fundamental differences between the creative arts and imaginative clinical communication.


의학과 의료는 도덕적 사업이며, 고객의 만족을 넘어서 환자와 공공의 이익을 우선해야 한다. 본말이 전도되어 의사소통기술에 대한 과도한 충성이 의학의 '도덕'을 왜곡시키지 않도록 해야 하며, 창의성 그 자체가 목적이 되어서는 안된다.

Health care is a moral enterprise with obligations to patients and the population that transcend consumer satisfaction. Given that upholding an exclusive allegiance to the concept of communication skills risks distorting the morality of health care by putting means before ends,12 it is important not to elevate creativity to an end in itself.


환자의 역할 역시 예술과는 다르다.

The role of patients also differs from that of an audience in terms of their active contribution to the creative product. 


Haidet은 의사환자대화를 재즈와 비교하면서, 환자와 함께 즉흥성을 발휘할 때 의사소통이 중요하다고 하였다.

Indeed, Haidet compared clinical communication with jazz, arguing that the important business of communication comes about when practitioners improvise with patients.81


사실 예술에서도 즉흥연주는 미리 공지되어야 하며, 원칙이 있어야 한다고 말한다. 창의성을 위한 창의성만으로는 충분하지 않다.

Even in the arts, it is acknowledged that improvisation needs to be informed and disciplined82 and that creativity for creativity’s sake is not enough.64








 2011 Mar;45(3):217-26. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2923.2010.03801.x.

Creativity in clinical communication: from communication skills to skilled communication.

Source

Division of Clinical Psychology, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK. psalmon@liv.ac.uk

Abstract

Medical Education 2011: 45: 217-226 Objectives  The view that training in communication skills produces skilled communication is sometimes criticised by those who argue that communication is individual and intuitive. We therefore examine the validity of the concept of communication as a skill and identify alternative principles to underpin future development of this field. Methods  We critically examine research evidence about the nature of clinical communication, and draw from theory and evidence concerning education and evaluation, particularly in creative disciplines. Results Skilled communication cannot be fully described using the concept of communication skills. Attempts to do so risk constraining and distorting pedagogical development in communication. Current education practice often masks the difficulties with the concept by introducing subjectivity into the definition and assessment of skills. As all clinical situations differ to some extent, clinical communication is inherently creative. Because it is rarely possible to attribute specific effects to specific elements of communicationcommunication needs to be taught and evaluated holistically. Conclusions  For communication teaching to be pedagogically and clinically valid in supporting the inherent creativity of clinical communication, it will need to draw from education theory and practice that have been developed in explicitly creative disciplines.

© Blackwell Publishing Ltd 2011.






(출처 : www.cpso.on.ca)

의사소통은 근본적으로 창의적인 것이다. (Communication is inherently creative)


의사소통은 전인적이어야 한다. (Communication is holistic)









PRINCIPLES FOR FUTURE COMMUNICATION TEACHING


좋은 의사환자대화란 단순한 기술로 분해될 수 없지만 고도로 기술적이어야 한다

Good clinical communication is clearly highly skilled, although it defies reduction into elements that can be called skills. 


의사소통이 직관적이고 창의적이어야 한다고 해서, 이것이 훈련이 필요하지 않다는 것은 아니다. 의사소통기술이 교육과정으로 들어 온 것은 무엇보다도 단순히 의사의 직관에 의존할 경우 환자에게 해를 가할 수 있기 때문이다.

Observing that communication is intuitive and imaginative does not mean that it should be undisciplined by training. After all, communication skills teaching won its place in curricula because communication that depends solely on the intuition of practitioners may be hurtful or damaging,


대신 우리는 의사환자대화를 새롭게 개념화함으로서 교육과 현장을 조화시킬 수 있어야 한다. 두 개의 원칙을 언급하고자 한다.

Instead, we need new ways to conceptualise clinical communication that reconcile pedagogy and practice. These will need to incorporate two principles that the concept of communication skills cannot.



의사소통은 근본적으로 창의적인 것이다.

Communication is inherently creative


매우 일반적인 한 가지 원칙을 지키는 것 만으로도, 의사환자대화에서는 독창성이 항상 존재할 수 밖에 없다. '환자의 이름을 부르며 인사하고' '환자의 독특한 임상상을 설명해주는 것' 만으로도 그 전에 어떤 의사도 하지 않았던 것이 이뤄지는 것이다.

At one level, originality is always present, simply as a result of following general rules. Greeting a patient by his or her name or explaining a unique and complex clinical picture may mean saying something that no practitioner has said before


그러나 여기서 독창성이 '규칙'으로 환원될 수는 없다. 창의성이 중요한 교육분야, 특히 예술 영역에서는 독창성과 연결된 복잡성을 교육 목표로 만들 수 밖에 없었다.

However, we are concerned here with originality that cannot be reduced to rules. Pedagogy concerned with creativity, particularly in the creative arts, has had to confront the complexities associated with originality as an education objective.46,50–52 


의학에서의 창의성은 '불확실성'과 밀접한 관련이 있다.

In this field, it is recognised that creativity is intimately associated with uncertainty.


불확실성은 예술가가 창의력을 발휘하여 즉흥적 작업을 하고, 실험을 할 수 있는 여지를 준다.

This inherent uncertainty creates the space within which creative artists improvise and experiment.


이것이 Reed가 말한 "전문가에 의해서 구성된 간접적인 지식을, 자신의 경험을 통해서 직접 습득한 지식으로 보완하는 것"의 중요성이다. 창의적인 작업은 규칙을 잘 따르는 것이 아니라 어떠한 판단을 내리는가에 달려있다.

This points to the importance of what Reed characterised as the ‘first-hand’ knowledge of learners’ own experience to complement the ‘second-hand’ knowledge shaped and selected by experts;54 that is, creative work depends on judgement rather than on following rules,50,52



의사소통은 전인적이어야 한다.

Communication is holistic


의사소통기술과 관련한 어떤 구체적인 행동도 모든 상황에 들어맞지는 않는다. 의사소통이 이루어지고 있는 상황을 둘러싼 모든 환경에 따라 그 행동의 가치가 달라질 수 있다. 실제로 환자는 세세한 의사소통기술보다는 전반적인 상황에 더 관심을 갖는다.

it is implausible to regard any specific behavioural communication skill as desirable in all possible contexts. Its quality only exists in the context of the whole situation, including the communication surrounding it. Indeed, patients can be more concerned with the whole picture – their impression of the practitioner’s character and caring – than with specific communication skills.27,55








 2011 Mar;45(3):217-26. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2923.2010.03801.x.

Creativity in clinical communication: from communication skills to skilled communication.

Source

Division of Clinical Psychology, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK. psalmon@liv.ac.uk

Abstract

Medical Education 2011: 45: 217-226 Objectives  The view that training in communication skills produces skilled communication is sometimes criticised by those who argue that communication is individual and intuitive. We therefore examine the validity of the concept of communication as a skill and identify alternative principles to underpin future development of this field. Methods  We critically examine research evidence about the nature of clinical communication, and draw from theory and evidence concerning education and evaluation, particularly in creative disciplines. Results Skilled communication cannot be fully described using the concept of communication skills. Attempts to do so risk constraining and distorting pedagogical development in communication. Current education practice often masks the difficulties with the concept by introducing subjectivity into the definition and assessment of skills. As all clinical situations differ to some extent, clinical communication is inherently creative. Because it is rarely possible to attribute specific effects to specific elements of communicationcommunication needs to be taught and evaluated holistically. Conclusions  For communication teaching to be pedagogically and clinically valid in supporting the inherent creativity of clinical communication, it will need to draw from education theory and practice that have been developed in explicitly creative disciplines.

© Blackwell Publishing Ltd 2011.










(출처 : http://www.securedgenetworks.com/secure-edge-networks-blog/bid/55492/5-Top-Applications-for-Hospital-Wireless-Networks)





의사소통은 '기술'이라는 것들로 분해될 수 없다.

의사소통에 있어서 일반화된 원칙이라는 것은 현실적으로 한계가 있다.

의사소통의 의미는 객관적 기술이 아니라 주관적 경험에 달려있다.

의사소통의 결과에 대한 연구에서 완벽한 원칙을 찾을 수 없다.

기술과 진정성은 일치하는 개념이 아니다.

가치와 가치전도 : '의사소통 기술'에 의해 '좋은 의사소통'이 무엇인가가 정의되다.






INTRODUCTION


의사환자대화는 진료를 전달하는 매개체일 뿐만 아니라, 그 자체로서도 하나의 치료이다.

Clinical communication is the vehicle for most patient care and can represent a treatment in its own right.1,2


따라서 의사소통을 가르치는 것은 임상 교육과정 전, 후로 중요한 요소가 되었다. 이 교육과정은 흔히 '의사소통기술'을 가르치는 과정으로 묘사된다. 즉, 이론적인 뼈대를 다루면서 의사소통을 각각의 요소, 또는 기술로 분해하여 가르치고 평가하게 된다. 이 요소에는 '행동기능(eg. 눈맞춤)' 또는 '목표(eg. 환자의 입장 이해하기)' 등이 있다.

Communication teaching has therefore become an established component of pre- and post-qualification clinical curricula. This area of the curriculum is typically described as ‘communication skills’, indicating an underpinning theoretical framework in which communication can be divided into discrete elements, or skills, that can be taught and assessed alongside clinical skills.3,4 These elements are variously defined as behavioural actions (e.g. maintaining eye contact) or as goals (e.g. understanding patients’ perspectives). 


이들 기술을 활용할 수 있도록 가르치는 원리라든가 가이드라인이 있지만, 교육을 하는 입장에서 궁극적인 목표는 뛰어난 의사소통의 기술을 갖추는 것 만큼이나, 그러한 기술을 활용해서 좋은 환자의사관계를 쌓아갈 수 있게 하는 데에 있다.

Principles and guidelines are available to guide practitioners in drawing on these skills.6 The ultimate aim of educators is that, just as good clinical care is delivered through the deploying of clinical skills, practitioners are equipped to build good clinical relationships by deploying communication skills.3,7


그럼에도 불구하고 의사소통 교육은 학생들을 이 이슈에 대해서 시니컬하게 만들거나, 의사소통 능력에 대한 자신감을 떨어뜨리고, 복잡한 임상 환경에 제대로 대비하지 못하게 한다. 또한 의사소통을 가르치는 선생님들도 창학생들의 회의적인 태도를 반적으로 접하게 된다.

Nevertheless, communication teaching can leave students cynical about the issue, less confident in their communication abilities or poorly prepared for the complexities of clinical settings,8,9 and an undercurrent of criticism among practitioners occasionally emerges in print.10 Communication teachers continue to encounter scepticism in learners who argue that communication is imaginative and individual or is ‘caught by example’11 and cannot be taught formally. 


의사소통 교육이 더 발전하기 위해서는 이러한 목소리에 귀를 기울이고, 새로운 원칙이나 교육방법을 도입해야 한다. 의사소통의 기술은 지난 30년간 인간적 측면(humanistic), 언어적 측면(linguistic), 임상적 측면(clinical perspective)에서 연구되어왔다. 또한 일부 교육자들은 의사소통업무(관계 형성하기, 관심 표현하기)가 세세한 의사소통 기술보다 중요하다고 주장해왔다.

The future strength of communication teaching depends on hearing these voices and being ready to question and renew the principles and practices involved. The concept of communication skills has been criticised over three decades from humanistic, linguistic and clinical perspectives,12–15 and some educationists have prioritised communication tasks (such as ‘forming a connection’, ‘expressing caring’) over specific behavioural skills.16


그렇지만 이 영역에서는 여전히 '기술'이라는 것의 개념이 중요하게 자리잡고 있다. 따라서 우리는 이 개념을 비판적으로 보라보고, 교육적 발전을 위한 실질적, 철할적, 도덕적 관점 제시하고자 한다.

Nevertheless, the concept and language of ‘skills’ still dominate the field. Therefore, we critically re-examine the concept, drawing from empirical, philosophical and moral perspectives to show how it continues to constrain pedagogical development.



SOME DIFFICULTIES WITH THE CONCEPT OF COMMUNICATION SKILLS


행동을 변화시키려면, 먼저 그 행동에 대해 스스로 성찰할 수 있어야 한다. 의사소통을 구성하는 하나의 요소로서 '기술'이라는 개념을 활용하는 것은 이와 같은 '성찰'을 도와주는 좋은 방법으로서 활용되어 왔다.

Before people can improve behaviour, they need to be able to reflect on it. Using the concept of skills to help practitioners label and distinguish different elements of communication has been a powerful way to promote this reflection.14 


의사소통을 '기술'의 모음으로 바라보는 것은 교육과정에 도입하기 위한 목적으로는 유용한 방법이긴 하다. 그러나 이러한 강점이 있다고 단점을 무시해서는 안된다.

Conceptualising communication as skills has been politically effective, too, in introducing communication into curricula that are widely regarded as skills-based. However, these strengths should not blind us to weaknesses


의사소통은 '기술'이라는 것들로 분해될 수 없다.

Communication cannot be atomised into skills


의사소통기술 이라는 개념은 자문을 구하거나, 관계를 형성하는 것과 같은 복잡한 행동들을 기술 요소로 분해하려는 환원주의적 접근이다. 그러나 이는 타당하지 않다.

The concept of communication skills is inherently reductionist inasmuch as it proposes that complex behaviour such as conducting a consultation or building a relationship can be atomised into component skills. This is questionable.


의사소통에 있어서 일반화된 원칙이라는 것은 현실적으로 한계가 있다.

Generalised principles for guiding communication are practically limited


환자들은 의사들에게 복잡한 것, 맥락에 맞는 것, 때로는 일관되지 않은 것들을 요구한다.

As patients, our demands on practitioners prove more complex, context-dependent and inconsistent than general principles for deploying skills can allow for.


예를 들면 암환자를 대상으로 한 연구에서 100%의 환자가 자신의 의사가 정직하기를 바라면서도 91%의 환자는 동시에 낙관적이기를 바란다.

However, practitioners need considerable ingenuity here, as a survey of cancer patients illustrated: 100% of respondents wanted practitioners to be honest, but 91% also wanted them to be optimistic.23


또한 환자들은 자신이 치료과정에 더 참여하길 원하면서 자신의 의사가 가부장적이기를 바라지 않으면서, 또 동시에 치료 선택에 대한 책임은 의사가 지기를 바란다.

Similarly, although patients generally do want to feel involved and not to feel that practitioners are paternalistic, they often need practitioners to take responsibility for treatment decisions.20


그래서 Skelton은 14명의 의사소통을 교육하는 사람들의 체크리스트를 분석한 결과, '옳은 행동'을 주관적인 용어, 예를 들면 적절한, 적합한, 등의 단어로 정의한다는 것을 확인했다. 비슷하게 SEGUE 프레임워크는 어떻게 목표에 도달하였는가가 아니라 '실제로 의사소통의 목표를 달성했는가'를 강조한다.

Therefore, as Skelton observed,14 educators’ checklists often define correct behaviour using subjective terms, such as ‘appropriate’ or ‘proper’. Similarly, the influential SEGUE (Set the stage, Elicit information, Give information, Understand the patient’s perspective, and End the encounter) framework emphasises the attainment of communication goals, leaving learners to decide how to reach them.16


의사소통의 의미는 객관적 기술이 아니라 주관적 경험에 달려있다.

The meaning of communication lies in subjective experience, not objective skills


환자에 따라서 같은 의사소통을 두고도 의사가 관심을 보였다고 하기도 하고, 보이지 않았다고 하기도 한다.

Similarly, different patients may experience the same piece of communication as caring or uncaring.29,30 


어떤 행동들을 '기술'이라고 할 것인가 라는 문제는 이와 같은 주관성을 무시한 것이다.

Designating some behaviours as ‘skills’, implying that they have a constant meaning or value, neglects this subjectivity.12


실제로 환자들의 관점은 전문가들의 관점과는 또 달라서, 의사소통 기술이 향상되었다고 해서 반드시 환자에게 도움이 되는 것도 아니다. 반대로 환자들은 전문가가 좋지 않다고 생각한 의사소통을 더 좋다고 판단하기도 한다.

Indeed, patients’ views can diverge from those of experts27,30 and communication that displays improved ‘skills’ does not necessarily help patients.34  Conversely, patients can value communication that experts think is poor.13


의사소통의 결과에 대한 연구에서 완벽한 원칙을 찾을 수 없다.

Communication outcome research cannot deliver exhaustive principles


그러나 어떻게 정의를 하더라도 의사소통의 요소에 원천적으로 내재된 '주관성'과 '상황 의존성'은 여전히 범접할 수 없는 영역으로 남는다.

However, the inherent subjectivity and context-dependence – and consequent individual differences – in the meaning of a given element of communication will remain inaccessible to any design that averages groups of people or communication instances, however narrowly defined. 


실제로, Stiles는 원천적으로 내재된 다양성과 개개 환자들의 의사소통 요구 때문에 의사소통 과정에 대한 평가를 하는 것을 (질병 치료) 결과로 연결시킬 수 없다고 말한다.

Indeed, Stiles warned that the inherent variability in individual patients’ communication needs and practices means that we should not expect measurements of communication processes to correlate with outcomes,37


또 다른 한계점은, 어떤 말도 항상 동일한 결과로 이어지지 않아서, 한 결과에 따르면 부적절했던 의사소통이 다른 결과에 따라서는 적절한 것이 될 수도 있다.

A second constraint on the potential for outcome research is that there is rarely a single outcome for any utterance, so communication that is inappropriate for one outcome (e.g. because it distresses the patient) may be appropriate for another (e.g. because it challenges denial).1


또한 결과라는 것이 국소적으로, 일시적으로 나타날 때는 어떤 결과가 어떤 의사소통과 관련이 있는지 알 수가 없다.

Moreover, outcomes exist locally and transiently in dialogue40 and it will often be impossible to know which outcomes were relevant to any specific utterance.


기술과 진정성은 일치하는 개념이 아니다.

Skills and sincerity are inimical concepts


감정을 묻는 간호사의 질문에 별로 감명을 받지 못한 한 환자는 '아마도 방금 의사소통 수업을 듣고 왔나봐요' 라고 했다. 적어도 일반인의 입장에서는, 공감이나 관심을 표현하는 기술을 배우는 것은 오히려 진정성에 반하는 것일 수 있다.

Unimpressed at a nurse’s enquiries about her emotional feelings, a patient explained that the nurse had probably ‘just been on a course’.41 To the public gaze, at least, learning skills in appearing empathic or caring is potentially inimical to authenticity42


Alexander에 따르면 여기서 딜레마가 생긴다. 학생들에게 미리 학습목표를 정해주는 것은, 그 목표를 달성해서 나타나는 행동의 변화가 자기 스스로의 결정에 따른 것(self-determined)이 아닌데, '자기결정'이 진정성 있는 의사소통에는 반드시 필요한 것이기 때문이다.

According to Alexander, educationists therefore face a dilemma: predetermining objectives for students means that, when students deliver those objectives, the students’ behavioural change cannot be regarded as selfdetermined, whereas assuming self-determination is essential to viewing students’ communication as authentic.45



가치와 가치전도 : '의사소통 기술'에 의해 '좋은 의사소통'이 무엇인가가 정의되다.

Values and ‘value-creep’: communication skills define ‘good’ communication


의사환자대화는 기본적으로 도덕적 사업이다. 의사는 좋은 의사소통 기술을 갖춤으로서 환자의 이익을 돌봐줄 수 있어야 한다. 의사소통 '기술'의 최종적인 문제는 교유자나 의사가 가진 개념을 뒤틀어놓아서 의사소통의 도덕적 목적을 뒤틀게 되는 것이다. Eisner는 Winston Churchill의 말(우리는 건물을 만들고, 건물은 우리를 만든다)을 빌어 '우리는 커리큘럼을 만들고, 커리큘럼은 우리를 만든다' 라고 했다.

Clinical communication is fundamentally a moral enterprise. Practitioners need to communicate well in order to look after patients’ interests. The final problem with the concept of skills concerns the way that it can distort the values held by educators and practitioners and thereby distort the moral aims of communication. Eisner echoed Winston Churchill’s statement that ‘we make our buildings and then our buildings make us’ in warning that ‘we make our curriculum and then our curriculum makes us’.46


무엇보다 환자에게 도움이 된다는 근거가 부족한데, 의사소통기술을 어떻게 가르칠 것인가에 대한 연구는 무수히 많으나, 실제로 이것이 환자에게 도움이 되었는가에 대한 연구결과는 부족한다. 기술을 갖추는 것이 성공적인 수련의 충분조건으로 인식되고 있다.

There is no evidence of benefit for patients. For example, there has been extensive research into how to teach communication skills to ‘break bad news’, but little has examined whether patients benefit.47 Acquisition of skills is regarded as sufficient evidence of successful training


기술을 정의하고 가르치는 것에 있어서 의사가 아니라 연구자들과 교육자들이 관여하면서 '의사소통의 가치가 무엇인지'의 관리인(custodian)격 역할을 하고 있다.

Through their involvement in defining and teaching skills, researchers and educators, rather than practitioners, become custodians of what is valued in communication.


연구와 교육의 영역에서 '좋은' 의사소통이 무엇인가에 대한 개념을 바꿈으로써 '환자가 된다는 것' 또는 '의사가 된다는 것'의 의미까지 바꾸어놓고 있다.

By changing what is regarded as ‘good’ communication, research and teaching change what it means to be a patient or practitioner








 2011 Mar;45(3):217-26. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2923.2010.03801.x.

Creativity in clinical communication: from communication skills to skilled communication.

Source

Division of Clinical Psychology, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK. psalmon@liv.ac.uk

Abstract

Medical Education 2011: 45: 217-226 Objectives  The view that training in communication skills produces skilled communication is sometimes criticised by those who argue that communication is individual and intuitive. We therefore examine the validity of the concept of communication as a skill and identify alternative principles to underpin future development of this field. Methods  We critically examine research evidence about the nature of clinical communication, and draw from theory and evidence concerning education and evaluation, particularly in creative disciplines. Results Skilled communication cannot be fully described using the concept of communication skills. Attempts to do so risk constraining and distorting pedagogical development in communication. Current education practice often masks the difficulties with the concept by introducing subjectivity into the definition and assessment of skills. As all clinical situations differ to some extent, clinical communication is inherently creative. Because it is rarely possible to attribute specific effects to specific elements of communicationcommunication needs to be taught and evaluated holistically. Conclusions  For communication teaching to be pedagogically and clinically valid in supporting the inherent creativity of clinical communication, it will need to draw from education theory and practice that have been developed in explicitly creative disciplines.

© Blackwell Publishing Ltd 2011.








Oath of the Class of 2015 As I put on my white coat for the first time, I wholeheartedly devote myself to the medical profession. I pledge to serve with both compassion and creativity, keeping in mind that true healing can only come through care of the whole person, cura personalis. I will care for my patients with integrity and empathy. With a humble heart and an open mind, I vow not only to educate my patients, but also to learn from them in return. Never forgetting that trust must be earned, I will treat all people with dignity. 


My stethoscope connects my ears to my patients' hearts. In order to heal, I will listen to the needs of my patients, adapting to their unique cultural values. I will tirelessly advocate for my patients, with the understanding that the health of the individual is reflected in the wellbeing of the community. I shall strive to build bridges through communication and sensitivity. 


Soon, the pockets of my coat will overflow with the instruments of healing. So too, will I gather the knowledge and experience required to deliver the highest level of care. I will seek out the wisdom of my colleagues and be an active voice through collaboration and innovation. As my coat becomes worn, I will forever remain a passionate student of medicine. 


As a member of the Albert Einstein College of Medicine Class of 2015, I pledge to live this oath.



(출처 : http://www.einstein.yu.edu/features/stories/711/the-sworn-identity-einsteins-first-years-create-their-own-oath/)




정체성은 고정된 스키마가 아니다. '무슨 행동을 하는가'가 곧 정체성이다. 

정체성은 끊임없는 상호작용을 통해서 나타난다. 


정체성은 우리가 다른 사람에게 우리의 이야기를 전할 때에도 드러난다.


어렵더라도 적절한 관계-중심적 교육이 필요하다. 

다른 사람들과의 상호작용 과정에서 linguistic ritual을 학습하게 된다.


우리 모두는 나름의 이야기를 가지고 있다. 

이 이야기를 이해하고, 발전시키는 것은 전문직업적 정체성을 성공적으로 발전시키는 핵심 요소이다. 

교육학적 공간(pedagogical space)를 제공하여 학생들이 스스로와 동료의 이야기를 통해서 의사로서의 정체성을 개발할 수 있게 해주는 것이 필요하다. 


"어느 조직이 하고 있는 것이 무엇이든, 그것은 구성원의 정체성을 만든다."


따라서 의과대학 학생들의 정체성확립 과정에서 중요하게 이해해야 할 것은, 

그 기관에서 학생들이 마주치게 될 '어떻게 일들이 이뤄지는가'의 모습이다. 


즉 의과대학학생을 전문직의 합당한 일원으로 받아주지 않는 것("너는 .... 할 때 까지는 진짜 의사라고 할 수 없어")은 심각한 결과를 가져올 수 있다.





INTERACTIONAL RELATIONSHIPS

앞에서 강조된바와 같이, 정체성은 고정된 스키마가 아니다. '무슨 행동을 하는가'가 곧 정체성이다. 정체성은 끊임없는 상호작용을 통해서 나타난다. 우리는 어떠한 행동을 함과 동시에 다른 사람에게 어떻게 보여질지를 생각한다. 스스로 표방하는 정체성이 있으면서 다른사람이 생각하는 나의 정체성을 관리하고자 하는 것이다. 이같은 행동적 측면은 의식적일수도 있고 무의식적일 수도 있다. 
As highlighted above, identities are not fixed cognitive schemas; rather, identities are what we doIdentities are asserted and claimed through continual interactions; we seek to be and be seen to be as we attempt to manage others’ impressions of ourselves and the identities we claim.18 This performative and routine aspect of daily life is ever present and can be conscious or unconscious. 

지속적인 역할 연습을 통해서 학습된 생각과 행동(habitus)에 의해 영향을 받아 스스로를 드러내며, 이러한 관점은 언어의 자아 표현적 측면(performative aspect of the self)에서도 드러난다. 
Indeed, through continual role rehearsal, the presentation of the self is influenced by habitus (acquired patterns of thought and behaviour) and is unconscious.32 Therefore, this perspective places the focus on language as a performative aspect of the self, rather than on language as the externalisation of underlying mental processes or psychological states (e.g. motivations, traits, dispositions, attitudes etc.).

정체성은 우리가 다른 사람에게 우리의 이야기를 전할 때에도 드러난다. narrative identity라는 개념이 새로운 것은 아니지만, 어떻게 일단 형성된 정체성이 의미를 가질 수 있도록 다듬어지는지에 대한 이해를 도와준다.
Performative aspects of identity are also present in the stories we tell to others (and ourselves):  The concept of a narrative identity is not new, but it is a powerful way to understand how identities are shaped and re-shaped to make meaning,

정체성은 의학적 상호작용을 하고, 일상생활을 하는 과정에서 스스로와 다른 사람에 의해서 구성된다. 중요한 것은 정체성은 활동을 통한 관계적 측면에서 형성되고, 관계는 정체성확립의 행심적 요소라는 점이다. 또한 의과대학 학생들 각자가 지닌 개성과, 감성과 문화적 스토리가 스스로의 전문직업적 정체성에 영향을 준다는 것이 중요하다.
Thus, identities are constructed and co-constructed within medical interactional settings as we go about our daily work,7,9,10,37,38 and as we recount events of our experiences to ourselves and others.1,3,39,40 That the process of identification is situated in and through talk has wide-ranging implications within medical education. The main messages I wish to convey here are that, firstly, identities are developed within relational settings through activities, and relationships are central components of identification. And, secondly, medical students (and doctors) are people, individuals with their own personal, emotional and cultural stories which influence their professional identities.

이 두 가지 요소가 시사하는 점은, 무엇보다 어렵더라도 적절한 관계-중심적 교육이 필요하다는 것이다. 다른 사람들과의 상호작용 과정에서 linguistic ritual을 학습하게 된다. 이러한 교육은 의학을 바라보는 관점을 보여주고, 의사답게 생각하고 말하고 행동하도록 한다. 또한 이러한 교육이 '의사가 된다는 것은 무엇인가'에 대한 문화적 기대, 소위 hidden curriculum에 영향을 줄 수도 있다.
These two factors require much more attention that can be afforded here, but I will briefly mention implications for research and practice. Firstly, fostering appropriate relationship-centred educational practices is necessary, albeit a major challenge.41 Within interactional settings, linguistic rituals are learned. Linguistic rituals include particular language choices and the adopting of specific stances towards others. These rituals reflect a medical worldview that facilitates thinking, speaking and acting like a doctor. This process might inadvertently reinforce unwanted traditional cultural expectations of what it is to be a doctor (the so-called hidden curriculum) and run counter to developing new ways of doing things.

교육과정이 어떻게 미래 의사의 발전에 영향을 주는지를 보고 싶다면 다양한 상호작용 환경하에서 정체성이 어떻게 구성되고 확립되고, 적용되는지를 면밀히 살펴보아야 한다. 다양한 상호작용 환경에는 PBL이나 의사소통기술 훈련, 회진, 교육세미나, 그리고 비공식적 환경 같은 것들이 모두 포함될 수 있다.
If we want to know how our curricula impact on the development of tomorrow’s doctors we must develop a sensitivity to the ways in which identities are constructed, enacted, invoked or exploited in a variety of interactional settings.43 These settings include problem-based learning sessions, communication skills training, ward rounds, teaching seminars and student participation in surgical settings, and even interactional exchanges in informal settings.

두 번째로 우리 모두는 나름의 이야기를 가지고 있다. 이 이야기를 이해하고, 발전시키는 것은 전문직업적 정체성을 성공적으로 발전시키는 핵심 요소이다. 교육학적 공간(pedagogical space)를 제공하여 학생들이 스스로와 동료의 이야기를 통해서 의사로서의 정체성을 개발할 수 있게 해주는 것이 필요하다. 이것은 많은 학생들이 훈련을 받는 과정에서 루틴하게 하는 반성적 과정과는 다르다. 좀 더 상호작용적인 측면이 필요하며, 다양한 의미를 발견해내고 학생들이 그들이 누구이고, 누구여야 하는지에 대한 이해를 할 수 있도록 촉진시켜줘야 한다.
Secondly, we all have our story. Understanding and developing this story is essential to the successful development of our professional identity. Providing the ‘pedagogical space’37 to facilitate students’ sense making processes through their narrative telling and re-telling of clinical experiences, thereby enabling them to understand their own developing identities as doctors, is essential in medical education. Indeed, this goes beyond the individual reflective practice that many students routinely undertake as part of their training. A more interactional context is required, within which multiple meanings are explored, facilitating students’ own understandings of who they are and who they might be.




As highlighted above, identities are not fixed cogni- tive schemas; rather, identities are what we do. Identities are asserted and claimed through continual interactions; we seek to be and be seen to be as we attempt to manage others’ impressions of ourselves and the identities we claim.18 This performative and routine aspect of daily life is ever present and can be conscious or unconscious. Indeed, through continual role rehearsal, the presentation of the self is influenced by habitus (acquired patterns of thought and behaviour) and is unconscious.32 Therefore, this perspective places the focus on language as a performative aspect of the self, rather than on language as the externalisation of underlying mental processes or psychological states (e.g. motivations, traits, dispositions, attitudes etc.).

 

Performative aspects of identity are also present in the stories we tell to others (and ourselves): as we try to make sense of events our identities emerge as we story our individual experiences, positioning our- selves to cultural and social expectations.33 The concept of a narrative identity is not new, but it is a powerful way to understand how identities are shaped and re-shaped to make meaning, to provide a sense of coherence to our lives34 and to guide our actions.35 Moreover, narratives that instantiate identities are not just found in the ‘big stories’ we tell of our lives, but can be seen in fleeting moments of ordinary conversational contexts.9,10,19,36

 

Thus, identities are constructed and co-constructed within medical interactional settings as we go about our daily work,7,9,10,37,38 and as we recount events of our experiences to ourselves and others.1,3,39,40 That the process of identification is situated in and through talk has wide-ranging implications within medical education. The main messages I wish to convey here are that, firstly, identities are developed within relational settings through activities, and rela- tionships are central components of identification. And, secondly, medical students (and doctors) are people, individuals with their own personal, emotional and cultural stories which influence their professional identities.

 

These two factors require much more attention that can be afforded here, but I will briefly mention implications for research and practice. Firstly, foster- ing appropriate relationship-centred educational practices is necessary, albeit a major challenge.41 Within interactional settings, linguistic rituals are learned. Linguistic rituals include particular language choices and the adopting of specific stances towards others. These rituals reflect a medical world- view that facilitates thinking, speaking and acting like a doctor. This process might inadvertently reinforce unwanted traditional cultural expectations of what it is to be a doctor (the so-called hidden curriculum) and run counter to developing new ways of doing things. For example, patient-centred care has been advo- cated to replace doctor-centred care as it facilitates more favourable outcomes. Despite successfully developing this stance in students during their pre- clinical years, Year 3 students have shown a progres- sive trend towards doctor-centred attitudes during their initial clinical year.42

 

If we want to know how our curricula impact on the development of tomorrow’s doctors we must develop a sensitivity to the ways in which identities are constructed, enacted, invoked or exploited in a variety of interactional settings.43 These settings include problem-based learning sessions, communi- cation skills training, ward rounds, teaching seminars and student participation in surgical settings, and even interactional exchanges in informal settings. As researchers we must be aware of the minutiae within interaction and must attend to aspects of talk that are embedded in the routine and rituals of everyday professional interactions.

 

Secondly, we all have our story. Understanding and developing this story is essential to the successful development of our professional identity. Providing the ‘pedagogical space’37 to facilitate students’ sense- making processes through their narrative telling and re-telling of clinical experiences, thereby enabling them to understand their own developing identities as doctors, is essential in medical education. Indeed, this goes beyond the individual reflective practice that many students routinely undertake as part of their training. A more interactional context is required, within which multiple meanings are explored, facilitating students’ own understandings of who they are and who they might be.





INSTITUTIONAL SETTINGS
"어느 조직이 하고 있는 것이 무엇이든, 그것은 구성원의 정체성을 만든다." '기관'은 정체성확립이 일어나는 가장 중요한 공간이다. 따라서 기관에 따라 구체적인 위계화된 세팅 안에서 특정 패턴의 행동이 정해지고, 어떻게 일이 되어야하는지가 정해진다. 
‘Whatever else organisations do, they do identification:’ 2 institutions are the most important places within which identification becomes consequential. Accordingly, institutions can be conceived as representing patterns of behaviour within specific hierarchical settings, signifying the way things are done: ‘Precisely because identities are constructed within, not outside, discourse, we need to understand them as produced in specific historical and institutional sites within specific discursive formations and practices, by specific enunciative strategies.’44 

따라서 의과대학 학생들의 정체성확립 과정에서 중요하게 이해해야 할 점은, 그 기관에서 학생들이 마주치게 될 '어떻게 일들이 이뤄지는가'의 모습이다. 의도하지 않아도 전달되게 되는 비공식적인 규칙, 암묵적 가치, 믿음, 태도 등이 여기에 포함된다.
Therefore, an important aspect of understanding the process of medical students’ identification is to pay particular attention to how things are accomplished within the specific institutional sites that they encounter. This includes paying attention to the unofficial rules and implicit values, beliefs and attitudes that may also be inadvertently conveyed.

한 기관에서 흔히 일어나는 것은 "일련의 의례"들이다. 한 정체성으로부터 다른 정체성으로 넘어가는 과정이 될 수 있으며, White Coat Ceremony가 그 중 하나이다.
Common phenomena within any institution are the ‘rites of passage’ which comprise part of the transition from one identity (imminent membership, legitimate peripheral participation) to another (authentic membership, full participation). For example, the White Coat ceremony,

그러나 좀 더 함축적인 의례들이 있는데, 비공식적인 ascription이다. 즉 의과대학학생을 전문직의 합당한 일원으로 받아주지 않는 것("너는 .... 할 때 까지는 진짜 의사라고 할 수 없어")은 심각한 결과를 가져올 수 있다.
However, there are other, more implicit rites of passage that medical students undergo (e.g. dissecting cadavers, working long hours) that are informal ascriptions to the profession. Indeed, the lack of informal ascriptions can indicate a rejection of professional identity for the medical student by legitimate members of the profession (a kind of ascriptive rejection: ‘You’re not a real doctor until you have...’) that can have serious consequences.

한 기관 안에서 전문직업적 정체성을 발전시키는 것은 그 기관의 문화에 영향을 줄 수도 있다. 우리는 임상 환경에서의 경험이 학생들의 학습에 얼마나 나쁜 영향을 줄 수 있는가가 연구된 바 있다. 하지만 그 반대도 있을 수 있다. 성공적으로 '어떻게 행동해야 하는지'를 학습한 학생은 후에 '실제로 일어나고 있는 일'이 그와 맞지 않았을 때 그것을 바꿔나갈 수도 있다.
Accordingly, the development of professional identities within institutional settings can impact on aspects such as cultural change. Indeed, we have seen how experiences within the clinical setting can have detrimental effects on students’ learning in the early years.42 However, the reverse may also be the case. Students who have successfully internalised aspects of the way things should be done within their medical school setting have the potential to later challenge the way things are done if those ways conflict.

정체성은 역사적인 관례를 보여주는 기관의 언어를 통해서 확립된다. 문화를 바꾸고자 한다면 역사적으로 병원의 진료가 어떻게 반복되어져왔고, 어떠한 작은 변화들이 있어왔으며 어떠한 도전을 받아왔고, 바뀌게 된다면 어떤 영향이 있을 것인가를 이해해야 한다.
Identities are constructed through language in institutional sites which have historical practices – the way things are. Medical educationists who wish to develop cultural change need to understand the intricate and nuanced ways in which historical practices are replicated, subtly changed and even challenged and the impact this might have for development.
As highlighted above, small acts of defiance have the potential to act as catalysts for cultural change. But do they? Can they change medical culture? We need to understand the ways in which new policies, as delivered through the medical curricula, are adopted and challenged.



Whatever else organisations do, they do identifica- tion:’2 institutions are the most important places within which identification becomes consequential. Accordingly, institutions can be conceived as repre- senting patterns of behaviour within specific hierarchi- cal settings, signifying the way things are done: ‘Precisely because identities are constructed within, not outside, discourse, we need to understand them as produced in specific historical and institutional sites within specific discursive formations and prac- tices, by specific enunciative strategies.’44 Therefore, an important aspect of understanding the process of medical students’ identification is to pay particular attention to how things are accomplished within the specific institutional sites that they encounter. This includes paying attention to the unofficial rules and implicit values, beliefs and attitudes that may also be inadvertently conveyed.

 

Common phenomena within any institution are the ‘rites of passage’ which comprise part of the transi- tion from one identity (imminent membership, legitimate peripheral participation) to another (authentic membership, full participation). For example, the White Coat ceremony, when performed for incoming medical students, explicitly signifies a transition into the medical profession through the conferring of this symbol of professional member- ship, albeit as a student member. This can be conceived as formal ascription to the medical pro- fession. However, there are other, more implicit rites of passage that medical students undergo (e.g. dissecting cadavers, working long hours) that are informal ascriptions to the profession. Indeed, the lack of informal ascriptions can indicate a rejection of professional identity for the medical student by legitimate members of the profession (a kind of ascriptive rejection: ‘You’re not a real doctor until you have...’) that can have serious consequences.

 

 

Accordingly, the development of professional identi- ties within institutional settings can impact on aspects such as cultural change. Indeed, we have seen how experiences within the clinical setting can have detrimental effects on students’ learning in the early years.42 However, the reverse may also be the case. Students who have successfully internalised aspects of the way things should be done within their medical school setting have the potential to later challenge the way things are done if those ways conflict. For example, small acts of resistance to the existing culture – so-called secondary adjustments – represent ways in which relatively powerless individuals protect their interests and identities.45

 

Within medical settings, as actors, students have the potential to act as role models for clinicians (e.g. students purposively washing their hands in front of clinicians who lack this rigor encourages clinicians to follow suit).





CONCEPTUALISING AND RESEARCHING IDENTITY IN MEDICAL EDUCATION

데이터 수집에 있어서 단 하나의 옳은 방법은 없다. 다른 모든 연구와 마찬가지로 가장 좋은 수집과 분석 방법을 활용해야 한다. 또한 모든 연구 질문이 먼저 떠오르지는 않으며, 어떤 질문은 데이터를 분석하는 중에 떠오를 수도 있다.
No single method of data collection or of analysis is ‘right’. As with any research, the most appropriate method of data collection and the best analytical tools can only be discerned from the specific research question itself. Furthermore, not all research questions are a priori; within qualitative research, sometimes new research questions emerge as we interrogate our data.

서로 다른 접근방법은 서로 다른 데이터 수집 방법에 따라서 서로 다른 의미를 가진다. 하지만 접근법들이 근본적 이념은 다를 수 있어도 언어적, 사회적 행동을 보고자 하는 측면에서는 동일하다.
Different approaches will necessarily have different implications on methods of data collection. However, although each of these approaches might differ in terms of its underlying ideologies (e.g. identity as an accomplishment of interaction, as (co)constructed in interaction, as shaped by societies’ dominant discourses, as historical processes, etc.), they converge insofar as they focus on language and social action.

우리는 데이터 수집과 해석을 더 창의적으로 해야 할 것이다.
One final point I wish to make in this section links with my assertion that we need to think more creatively about methods of data collection and interpretation. 



 2010 Jan;44(1):40-9. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2923.2009.03440.x.

Identityidentification and medical educationwhy should we care?

Source

Division of Medical Education, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK. monrouxelv@cardiff.ac.uk

Abstract

CONTEXT:

Medical education is as much about the development of a professional identity as it is about knowledge learning. Professional identities are contested and accepted through the synergistic internal-external process of identification that is constituted in and through language and artefacts within specific institutional sites. The ways in which medical students develop their professional identity and subsequently conceptualise their multiple identities has important implications for their own well-being, as well as for the relationships they form with fellow workers and patients.

OBJECTIVES:

This paper aims to provide an overview of some current thinking about identity and identification with the aim of highlighting some of the core underlying processes that have relevance for medical educationists and researchers. These processes include aspects that occur within embodied individuals (e.g. the development of multiple identities and how these are conceptualised), processes specifically to do with interactional aspects of identity (e.g. how identities are constructed and co-constructed through talk) and institutional processes of identity (e.g. the influence of patterns of behaviour within specific hierarchical settings).

IMPLICATIONS:

Developing a systematic understanding into the processes through which medical students develop their identities will facilitate the development of educational strategies, placing medical students' identification at the core of medical education.

CONCLUSIONS:

Understanding the process through which we develop our identities has profound implications for medical education and entails that we adopt and develop new methods of collecting and analysing data. Embracing this challenge will provide better insights into how we might develop students' learning experiences, facilitating their development of a doctor identity that is more in line with desired policy requirements.





(출처 : http://izquotes.com/quote/277180)




"정체성이란 그것을 가지고 있느냐 그렇지 않느냐의 문제가 아니라, 어떠한 행동을 하느냐의 문제이다" 

정체성확립은 스스로의 세계관을 형성해나가는 인지적, 사회적 과정이다. 또한 이것은 양방향 과정이다.

즉, 스스로 생각하는 자신의 모습과 다른 사람에 의해서 정의되는 자신의 모습을 합병해나가는 과정이다.

어릴 적에 외부에 의해 결정된 정체성은 더 영향력이 강하고 내적인 저항이 적기 때문에, 

후에 그것이 없어지거나 변화되는 경우가 적다







INTRODUCTION

정체성은 정체성확립이라는 역동적 과정을 꾸준히 밟아갈 때 생긴다. "정체성이란 그것을 가지고 있느냐 그렇지 않느냐의 문제가 아니라, 어떠한 행동을 하느냐의 문제이다" 살아가면서 우리의 정체성은 모습은 끊임없이 바뀐다.
Identities are realised through the ongoing dynamic process of identification: ‘it is not something that one can have or not; it is something that one does’.2 (p 5) As we go through life, our identities are constantly in the process of transformation.

윤리적인 측면과 현실적인(practical) 측면 모두에서 전문직으로서의 정체성을 갖는 것은 반드시 필요하다. 다른사람에게 신뢰를 주기 위해서는 전문직의 윤리를 내면화해야 하며, 자신감과 문직으로서의 태도를 가지고 진료를 할 수 있어야 한다. 따라서 의과대학 학생들이 지식과 술기를 모두 터득했다고 하더라도 전문직업적 정체성(professional identity)를 가지기 전에는 성공적으로 의사가 되었다고 할 수 없다.
It has been argued that it is necessary for professionals to successfully embrace a professional identity both ethically and practically. Internalising professional ethics through the process of identification facilitates the internal regulation of professionals.4 On a practical level, the development of a strong professional identity enables individuals to practise with confidence and with a ‘professional demeanour’, thereby giving others confidence in their abilities.5 So, even if medical students learn all the knowledge and skills required of them, they will find it hard to be successful as doctors until they have developed their professional identity.6

일상적인 사회 활동에 참여하고, 권력관계속에서 말고 행동을 해나가는 과정에서 정체성이 확립된다. '구성주의적' 접근에서는 정체성에서 '사회적 측면'이 가지는 중요성을 강조하는데, 이는 심리학, 사회학, 사회언어학, 심리사회적, 사회문화적 행동적,담화적 관점을 모두 포괄한다. 
Identities are constructed and co-constructed as we participate in day-to-day social activities and through the use of language and artefacts and within power relations. These ‘constructionist’ approaches highlight the importance of the social within identities and have led to a range of interconnected perspectives in psychology, sociology and sociolinguistics which highlight these aspects, including the psychosocial,12–14 sociocultural,15–17 performative18 and discursive19 perspectives.





Identity matters. Who we are, and who we are seen to be, underlies much of what we do in medical education. Identity is rooted in language and inter- action and, although we conceptualise identities, they are not fixed or static. Identities are realised through the ongoing dynamic process of identification: ‘it is not something that one can have or not; it is something that one does’.2 (p 5) As we go through life, our identities are constantly in the process of transformation.

 

It has been argued that it is necessary for profes- sionals to successfully embrace a professional identity both ethically and practically. Internalising profes- sional ethics through the process of identification facilitates the internal regulation of professionals.4 On a practical level, the development of a strong professional identity enables individuals to practise with confidence and with a ‘professional demeanour’, thereby giving others confidence in their abilities.5 So, even if medical students learn all the knowledge and skills required of them, they will find it hard to be successful as doctors until they have developed their professional identity.6

 

The issue of identity and identification has been a central concern within the social and human sciences for decades, yet it is rarely discussed openly within medical education

 

This is not to say that aspects of medical students’ identification have been ignored, but that when the subject has been researched and openly theorised, the process has been mainly situated within a broader health and social sciences arena.7–10

 

Over the decades, identity theorists have taken their ideas from a broad range of paradigms. For some, identity has been conceived as representing a unified internal ‘agency’ whereby identity is seen as ‘a personal, internal project of the self ’ and treated as if it is ‘something to be worked on’.11 However, although it is still present in everyday thinking of the self, this ‘internal’ view has been supplanted by the notion that identities are a product of intersubjective and external social processes. Identities are constructed and co-constructed as we participate in day-to-day social activities and through the use of language and artefacts and within power relations. These ‘con- structionist’ approaches highlight the importance of the social within identities and have led to a range of interconnected perspectives in psychology, sociol- ogy and sociolinguistics which highlight these aspects, including the psychosocial,12–14 sociocultural,15–17 performative18 and discursive19 perspectives. 






IDENTITY: A BRIEF OVERVIEW

정체성확립은 스스로의 세계관을 형성해나가는 인지적, 사회적 과정이다. 한 개인으로서, 그리고 집단의 구성원으로서 스스로에 대한 다차원적인 분류를 하는 것이기도 하다.
Identification comprises basic cognitive and social processes through which we make sense of and organise our human world. It includes things that go on in our minds as we create a complex multidimensional classification of our places in the world as individuals and members of collectives.20

따라서 이러한 정체성확립의 과정은 의학교육에서 핵심적이며, 의과대학생들은 학문적, 임상적 환경에서 의사가 되는 방법을 배워야 한다.
Thus this basic and essential process of identification is central to medical education: medical students are learning to become doctors in academic and clinical settings.



Identification comprises basic cognitive and social processes through which we make sense of and organise our human world. It includes things that go on in our minds as we create a complex multi- dimensional classification of our places in the world as individuals and members of collectives.20 This self- categorisation process occurs within a social world through interactional relationships and in the con- text of social institutions with established ways of doing things.2 Thus this basic and essential process of identification is central to medical education: medi- cal students are learning to become doctors in academic and clinical settings.






EMBODIED INDIVIDUALS

정체성확립에 대해서 가장 중요하게 가져야 할 개념은, 이것이 양방향 과정이라는 것이다. 즉, 말과 행동을 통해 스스로 생각하는 자신의 모습,  다른 사람에 의해서 정의되는 자신의 모습을 합병해나가는 과정이다. 이 과정을 통해서 스스로가 누군지를 깨달을 뿐만 아니라, '내가 아닌 것'에 대해서도 생각해 볼 수 있다. 정체성은 '나와 다른 것'에 대해 주의를 기울이는 과정을 통해 확립된다.
The most important concept to hold is that identification is a two-way process which occurs during the simultaneous amalgamation of self-definition (who I think I am: internal) and the definitions of oneself as presented by others (who I think you think I am: external) through language and artefacts.2,15–17 Through this self-categorisation process, we not only identify who we are, but we also say something about who we are not: identities are constructed through attending to difference.



The most important concept to hold is that identifi- cation is a two-way process which occurs during the simultaneous amalgamation of self-definition (who I think I am: internal) and the definitions of oneself as presented by others (who I think you think I am: external) through language and artefacts.2,15–17 Through this self-categorisation process, we not only identify who we are, but we also say something about who we are not: identities are constructed through attending to difference.




Primary identifications

정체성은 어린시절에 다른사람과 나를 분리하고 말을 할 수 있게 되면서 확립된다. 정체성확립이 내적-외적인 양방향 프로세스이지만 초기에는 주로 외적인 요소의 영향을 많이 받는다. 어릴 적에 외부에 의해 결정된 정체성은 더 영향력이 강하고 내적인 저항이 적기 때문에, 후에 그것이 없어지거나 변화되는 경우가 적다
Identity formation begins in early childhood through the recognition of the separation of self and significant others and the development of language. Although identification is a two-way internal–external process, early on it is dominated by external factors.2 These early prescripted identities are therefore more authoritative and develop through weak internal responses, so rejection or modification is low: they become more accepted as how things are and more resistant to change.2 

성별이 가장 대표적이며, 성별과 마찬가지로 인종이나 사회적 지위도 마찬가지로 고정된 것은 아니더라도 나중에 성인이 되어 생긴 정체성에 비해서 잘 변하지 않는다.
Along with gender, ethnicity and social class can be considered as primary, embodied identifications which, although not fixed, may be less malleable than identities developed later in life.

여기서 가장 중요한 결론은 초기에 형성된 정체성이 후에 형성될 정체성을 촉진하거나 억제할 수도 있다는 것이다. 또한 다양한 정체성을 어떻게 주관적으로 표현하느냐에 따라서 다른 사람과의 관계가 달라질 수 있다.
One important implication here is that our unique mix of primary identities may facilitate or constrain the development of existing and newly developing identities.6 Additionally, our subjective representations of these multiple identities, how (or indeed, whether) we synergise these identities, can have important implications. These implications include the way we relate to other people (so-called ‘in-group’ or ‘out-group’ relations).



Identity formation begins in early childhood through the recognition of the separation of self and signif- icant others and the development of language. Although identification is a two-way internal–external process, early on it is dominated by external factors.2 These early prescripted identities are there- fore more authoritative and develop through weak internal responses, so rejection or modification is low: they become more accepted as how things are and more resistant to change.2 For example, gender identity begins early, through artefacts (clothes, toys) our caregivers create a gendered identity which is responded to by others and which we embody.

 

Along with gender, ethnicity and social class can be considered as primary, embodied identifications which, although not fixed, may be less malleable than identities developed later in life. One important implication here is that our unique mix of primary identities may facilitate or constrain the development of existing and newly developing identities.6 These implications include the way we relate to other people (so-called ‘in-group’ or ‘out-group’ relations).





Identity dissonance

새로운 전문직업적 정체성을 개인적 정체성에 통합시키는 과정이 사람에 따라 쉬울 수도 있지만 트라우마가 될 수도 있고, 이럴 때 '정체성 충돌'이 일어났다고 한다.
identity dissonance: ‘integrating new professional identities into personal identities is an easy process for people whose personal identities are consonant with their new professional role, but traumatic for those whose personal identities are dissonant with it’6 (my emphasis)

Costello는 정체성 충돌을 겪는 학생들은 감정적인 혼란을 겪으면서 스스로의 가치, 꿈, 능력, 친밀감, 자아존중감에 대해 불확실한 마음을 가지면서 바람직하지 못한 대응 기전을 만들어간다는 것을 밝혔다.
Costello6 found that students with identity dissonance experienced powerful emotional disruptions that included uncertainty about their own ‘values, ambitions, abilities, affinities, and their very self-worth’ and developed haphazard coping mechanisms.
이러한 바람직하지 못한 대응 기전에는 다음의 것들이 있다.
These coping mechanisms included the outright rejection of the professional role (e.g. consciously dropping out of the programme), displaying aspects of identity that conflict with the professional role (e.g. inappropriatedress), and avoiding professional school-setting interactions whenever possible, and when not possible, ‘role playing’ in professional situations.

일부 연구들은 여학생들이 더 높은 수준의 불안감과, 낮은 수준의 자신감을 갖는다은 것도 보여주고 있으며, 스스로의 의과대학생으로서, 의사로서의 태도에 확신을 가지지 못하는 학생들 또한 정체성 혼란을 겪고는 한다.
Finally, some work has highlighted aspects such as female students reporting (and being independently scored for) higher anxiety and lower self-confidence than male counterparts during standardised patient interactions23 and students’ uncertainties about their own aptitude as medical students and future doctors, 24 which reflect aspects of Costello’s identity dissonance. 

일부 의과대학 학생들이 의사로서 발전해나가는데 어려움을 겪고 있다고 할 때, 의과대학 학생들의 정체성확립과 이것이 어떻게 스트레스나 낮은 수행능력과 관련이 되는가를 연구하는 것이 중요하다.
Given that we know some medical students struggle with their developing roles as doctors, research that considers medical students’ identification and how this relates to stress and underperformance is crucial for the development of our curricula and to facilitate students’ identity formation.







Costello found that women, members of lower socio-demographic classes and non-Whites under- perform at professional schools and that one of the reasons for this is that they suffer from identity dissonance: ‘integrating new professional identities into personal identities is an easy process for people whose personal identities are consonant with their new professional role, but traumatic for those whose personal identities are dissonant with it’6 (my emphasis).

 

Costello6 found that students with identity dissonance experienced powerful emotional disruptions that included uncertainty about their own ‘values, ambi- tions, abilities, affinities, and their very self-worth’ and developed haphazard coping mechanisms. These coping mechanisms included the outright rejection of the professional role (e.g. consciously dropping out of the programme), displaying aspects of identity that conflict with the professional role (e.g. inappro- priate dress), and avoiding professional school-setting interactions whenever possible, and when not possible, ‘role playing’ in professional situations.

 

There has been little research undertaken in medical education to directly investigate students’ emotional disruptions from the perspective of identity forma- tion. However, role-playing in professional situations has been reported to represent a coping mechanism for students’ ‘shaky’ professional identities.21 Although numerous studies have demonstrated medical students’ negative coping strategies for stress, including excessive alcohol usage,22 research looking at potential causes of stress have concentrated on factors such as high workloads and have predomi- nately used questionnaire methods of enquiry. Finally, some work has highlighted aspects such as female students reporting (and being independently scored for) higher anxiety and lower self-confidence than male counterparts during standardised patient interactions23 and students’ uncertainties about their own aptitude as medical students and future doc- tors,24 which reflect aspects of Costello’s identity dissonance.









Relationships between multiple identities

스스로의 다양한 정체성을 인지하는 방법에는 다음과 같은 것들이 있다.
It has been proposed that we structure our perception of our own multiple identities according to four different models: intersection, hierarchy, compartmentalisation, and merging. These models reflect different relationships between our multiple identities and have implications for interactions with ingroup and out-group members.13

예) Maria : Black, female and doctor. 
intersection single unique identity of a ‘Black female doctor'
- hierarchy of identities - identity as a doctor over that as a woman and over that of being Black.
dominant identity are considered in-groups. - However, because the representation is hierarchical, Maria will feel closer to other doctors who are female or Black.
compartmentalisation. - Identities are then activated within different contexts and situations. So, whilst at work Maria will identify with other doctors and will consider everyone else as out-group members.
The ability to hold a complex representation of identities will lead Maria to develop a merged in-group identity that is highly inclusive and divergent. 

'어떻게 스스로 다양한 정체성을 개념화하고 관리하는가'를 살펴보면, 의사를 어떻게 교육시켜야 하는가에 대해서 시사하는 점이 많다.
The ways in which we conceptualise and manage our multiple identities have profound implications for he education of doctors. 
정체성은 상호작용이 있는 환경에서 다르난다.
For example, identities are played out within interactional settings.One important factor that might differentiate intergroup communication from intragroup communication is individuals’ awareness of their group memberships.

다양한 정체성은 환자 진료에 있어서도 영향을 준다. 환자의 인종, 민족, 사회경제적 지위에 따라서 의사가 그 환자를 어떻게 인지하는지가 달라진다.
Furthermore, the ability to represent complexity within our multiple identities can have implications for patient care. It has been demonstrated that patients receive variable care according to factors such as race, ethnicity and socio-economic status26 and that this is associated strongly with doctors’ implicit perceptions of patients.27 

환자의 정체성 중 인종적인 면이나 민족적인 면만을 강조해서 바라보면, 문화적-사회경제적 고정관념이 강화된다는 연구결과가 있다. 또한 환자의 지적 능력에 대한 의사의 판단은 환자의 인종에 따라 달랐다는 연구결과도 있다.
Reducing patients’ identities to racial or ethnic labels in this way might facilitate cultural or socio-economic stereotyping.28 Indeed, it has been demonstrated that doctors’ perceptions of the intelligence of a patient vary according to factors such as the patient’s race.29

또한 이러한 요소들은 환자에 대한 의사의 연대감(affiliation)에도 영향을 주는 것으로 드러났다.
This factor also affects doctors’ feelings of affiliation towards patients, along with doctors’ beliefs about patients’ likelihood of adherence with medical advice, physical activity preferences and risk-taking behaviour.29,30

tolerance for ambiguity (TfA)는 SP에 대한 의과대학 학생들의 문진 태도, 환자의사 관계, 환자 만족과 연관이 있었다.
tolerance for ambiguity (TfA). Indeed, research has demonstrated that TfA, moderated by empathy, contributes to the prediction of medical students’ performance with standardised patients on history taking, doctor–patient interaction, and patient satisfaction over time: the higher the students’ TfA, the better they performed.31




It has been proposed that we structure our percep- tion of our own multiple identities according to four different models: intersection, hierarchy, compart- mentalisation, and merging. These models reflect different relationships between our multiple identi- ties and have implications for interactions with in- group and out-group members.13

 

The ways in which we conceptualise and manage our multiple identities have profound implications for the education of doctors. For example, identities are played out within interactional settings. Communi- cation in intergroup contexts, such as multi-profes- sional team-working, also involves intragroup communication (e.g. among nursing, medical and social workers). One important factor that might differentiate intergroup communication from intra- group communication is individuals’ awareness of their group memberships. Individuals who construct their identities as complex might demonstrate dif- ferent communicative patterns within interprofes- sional team-working, such as communicating in a manner that manifests less social distance and demonstrates greater acceptance and trust.13

 

Furthermore, the ability to represent complexity within our multiple identities can have implications for patient care. It has been demonstrated that patients receive variable care according to factors such as race, ethnicity and socio-economic status26 and that this is associated strongly with doctors’ implicit perceptions of patients.27 In some medical settings, patients’ race is routinely included at the beginning of case presentations. Although at times this may be useful to the diagnostic process, reducing patients’ identities to racial or ethnic labels in this way might facilitate cultural or socio-economic stereotyping.28 Indeed, it has been demonstrated that doctors’ perceptions of the intelligence of a patient vary according to factors such as the patient’s race.29 This factor also affects doctors’ feelings of affiliation towards patients, along with doctors’ beliefs about patients’ likelihood of adherence with medical advice, physical activity preferences and risk-taking behaviour.29,30 It is therefore easy to see how the way we conceptualise our identities can unconsciously affect the way we relate to others.14






 2010 Jan;44(1):40-9. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2923.2009.03440.x.

Identityidentification and medical educationwhy should we care?

Source

Division of Medical Education, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK. monrouxelv@cardiff.ac.uk

Abstract

CONTEXT:

Medical education is as much about the development of a professional identity as it is about knowledge learning. Professional identities are contested and accepted through the synergistic internal-external process of identification that is constituted in and through language and artefacts within specific institutional sites. The ways in which medical students develop their professional identity and subsequently conceptualise their multiple identities has important implications for their own well-being, as well as for the relationships they form with fellow workers and patients.

OBJECTIVES:

This paper aims to provide an overview of some current thinking about identity and identification with the aim of highlighting some of the core underlying processes that have relevance for medical educationists and researchers. These processes include aspects that occur within embodied individuals (e.g. the development of multiple identities and how these are conceptualised), processes specifically to do with interactional aspects of identity (e.g. how identities are constructed and co-constructed through talk) and institutional processes of identity (e.g. the influence of patterns of behaviour within specific hierarchical settings).

IMPLICATIONS:

Developing a systematic understanding into the processes through which medical students develop their identities will facilitate the development of educational strategies, placing medical students' identification at the core of medical education.

CONCLUSIONS:

Understanding the process through which we develop our identities has profound implications for medical education and entails that we adopt and develop new methods of collecting and analysing data. Embracing this challenge will provide better insights into how we might develop students' learning experiences, facilitating their development of a doctor identity that is more in line with desired policy requirements.


















(출처 : http://blog.affiliatetip.com/archives/affiliate-marketing-is-not-rocket-science/)



우리가 지금 가지고 있는 이론이 일반적으로 '참'일수는 있지만, 특정한 상황에 대해 일반화시킬 만큼 실용적인 가치를 가지지는 못한다. 비록 그것이 참이라고 하더라도 구체적인 교육현장에서, 교육과정 개발을 위해서 무엇을 해야 하는지에 대해서는 확실한 도움이 되지 않는다는 것이다.


따라서 우리의 과학적 논의(논문 등)의 가치는 일반적인 해답을 찾는 것이 아니라 각자가 가진 문제에 대해서 더 나은 사고를 하는데 도움이 되어야 한다. 마찬가지로 논문을 읽는 것은 나와있는 해답을 맹목적으로 가져다 쓰기 위한 것이 아니라, 다른 사람이 문제를 해결한 방식을 나의 문제에 어떻게 적용할 것이며, 그러기 위해서는 무엇이 필요하며, 왜 그렇게 해야 하는지를 생각할 수 있는 과정이어야 한다.


Richard Shillington의 데이터 분석에 대한 묘사를 빌리자면, 교육에 대한 논문은 '생각을 도와주는 것'이지 '생각을 대체하는 것'이어서는 안된다.







이 문제에 대한 또 다른 관점을 하나 더 언급하고자 한다. 인지심리학에서 다루는 '약한'문제해결법와 '강한'문제해결법에 대한 것이다. 인지심리학에서의 정의에 따르면 '약한'문제해결법은 다양한 상황에 광범위하게 일반화가 가능한 대신, 특정 상황에 대한 적용가치는 떨어진다.

In order to provide another perspective on these issues, I would like to invoke a construct from cognitive psychology: the distinction between ‘weak’ and ‘strong’ problem-solving routines.25 As defined in cognitive psychology, weak problem-solving routines are those processes that are broadly generalisable to many situations, but are of limited applicable value in any particular situation.


이런 종류의 문제해결법은 많은 문제상황에 일반화시켜 적용할 수 있을지 몰라도, 특정 상황에서 무얼 해야하는지에 대해서는 크게 도움이 되지 않는다. 반대로 '강한'문제해결법은 매우 구체적인 상황과 맥락에 특정되어있다.

Although it is true that this problem-solving routine is generalisable to pretty much every problem-solving situation we might encounter, from the perspective of application, it is of no practical value in helping us decide what to do next in a particular situation. By contrast, strong problem-solving routines are routines that have become highly specialised to a very specific type of problem in a very specific context


강한 문제해결법은 비록 경험에 의존하여 편견이 있을 수 있어 이로 인해 사고의 폭을 제한하며, 전문가들의 '한정된 해결방법 세트'라든가, 한 문제를 다른 문제에 대해 유사하게 적용하지 못한다 라는 이유 등으로 폄하되기도 하지만, 최근 들어서는 전문가의 특징으로서 인정받고 있다. 

These strong problem-solving routines are now recognised and celebrated as a hallmark of expertise, 25 although they are also identified and denigrated as ‘limits’ to human thinking in the form of ‘heuristics and biases’,26 the ‘restricted solution sets’ of experts,27 and ‘failures of analogical transfer’ from one problem to the next.28


우리가 지금 가지고 있는 이론이 일반적으로 '참'일수는 있지만, 구체적 상황에 대해 일반화시킬 만큼 실용적인 가치를 가지지는 못한다. 비록 그것이 참이라고 하더라도 일상 교육현장에서, 교육과정 개발을 위해서 무엇을 해야 하는지에 대해서는 확실한 도움이 되지 않는다는 것이다.

Our current theories may be generally ‘true’, but they are too generalisable to be of practical local value: even if we choose to acknowledge their ‘truth’, we still do not have a clear sense of what to do with this ‘truth’ in terms of improving the daily practice of teaching and curricular development.


또한 실용적이고 임상적으로 가치있는 결과를 내기 위한 연구를 해야 한다는 요구가 생기고 있다. 개개의 상황과 맥락마다 효과적으로 적용되어질 수 있는, 보여질 수 있는 가장 성공적인 개입방법이 가장 좋은 '강한'문제해결법일 수 있겠지만, 개개의 상황에 맞는 방법들은 잘 일반화되기가 쉽지 않다.

At the same time, relevant to the second set of debates regarding the call for research with practical, clinically valuable outcomes, it may be that the most demonstrably successful interventions can best be understood as strong problem-solving routines in that they are effectively adapted to local constraints and contexts, but, as a result, they are too deeply embedded in the local curricular context to be of much general value


이 두 가지 문제를 종합해보면, 일반화할 수 있는 교육 이론은 개개 상황에 대한 실용적인 가치를 가지기에는 너무 약하고, 너무 국소화된 문제해결법은 일반화하기가 어렵다고 할 때, 교육 문제에 대해 종합적으로 일반화된 해결법을 내놓는 것은 불가능하다는 결론에 다다르게 된다.

Combining these two constructions of the problem of education research has serious implications for the field. If generalisable education theories are too weakly generalisable to be of local practical value, and if localised solutions are too strongly embedded in the local context to be of general practical value, we must conclude that there may be no generalisable solutions to our collective education problems








Norcini는 상황이 가진 특수함은 '의학교육에 대한 한 가지 사실'이라고 말했다.

Norcini has been credited with suggesting that context specificity is ‘the one fact of medical education’. 8


그러나 아마 이제는 상황 특수성을 의학교육연구의 핵심적 사실로 생각해야 할 때가 된 것 같다. 만약 그렇다면 우리 분야에 맞는 '과학'을 정의하고 구성할 필요가 있다. 즉, 만약 구체적 상황이 '줄일 수 없는 공변량'이라면 '복제 가능한 교육 프로그램'은 도달할 수 없는 목표이다. 따라서 의미있는 수준에서 일반화할 수 있는 해결책이 없다면 과학, 그리고 과학적 논의의 목적과 가치는 무엇이 되어야 할까?

Perhaps the time has also come to consider the possibility that context specificity is also a core ‘fact’ of medical education research. If so, we as a research community must begin grappling with the definition and construction of ‘science’ for our field. That is, if local context is the ‘irreducible covariate’, if the search for ‘replicable educational programmes’ is an implausible goal, if there are no meaningfully generalisable solutions in health professional education, then what is the purpose and value of science and scientific discourse in the health professional education field?


이 문제에 대한 답을 하기 위해서는 교육의 과학이라는 것은 흔히 부딪치는 문제에 대한 일반화가능한 해결책을 찾는 것이 아니라, 문제를 바라보는 더 바람직한 방법을 공유하는 것이 되어야 한다고 생각한다.

As a start towards addressing this question, I would like to suggest that the science of education is not about creating and sharing better generalisable solutions to common problems, but about creating and sharing better ways of thinking about the problems we face.


따라서 우리의 과학적 논의(논문 등)의 가치는 일반적인 해답을 찾는 것이 아니라 각자가 가진 문제에 대해서 더 나은 사고를 하는데 도움이 되어야 한다. 마찬가지로 논문을 읽는 것은 나와있는 해답을 맹목적으로 가져다 쓰기 위한 것이 아니라, 다른 사람이 문제를 해결한 방식을 나의 문제에 어떻게 적용할 것이며, 그러기 위해서는 무엇이 필요하며, 왜 그렇게 해야 하는지를 생각할 수 있는 과정이어야 한다.

Thus, the value of our scientific discourse (our talks and papers) will arise not from our ability to create a general solution that will apply to everyone’s problems or even our ability to solve each other’s problems, but rather from our ability to help each other think better about our own versions of the problems. Likewise, the value of reading the literature will not depend on our finding a solution that we can blindly adopt, but, rather, on reflecting on how to incorporate others’ interpretations of a problem into our own context, on what needs to be adapted to make those interpretations relevant to our context, and on why that adaptation is necessary.


Richard Shillington의 데이터 분석에 대한 묘사를 빌리자면, 교육에 대한 논문은 '생각을 도와주는 것'이지 '생각을 대체하는 것'이어서는 안된다.

To borrow Richard Shillington’s description of data analysis, the education literature should be ‘an aid to thinking, not a replacement for’.30


따라서 논문이나 학회 발표 등은 어떤 방식을 맹목적으로 도입하기 위한 것이 아니어야 한다. 문제에 대한 새로운 이해방식을 드러내고, 기존의 이해방식의 한계를 밝힐 수 있어야 한다.

Thus, we should not construct our papers and talks around the idea that we have an answer to some problem that others can blindly adopt. Our scientific discourse should not focus on the answers at all. Rather, it should focus on expressing a new understanding of the problem or on the flaws in traditional understandings of the problem.





교육은 이론만 만들어가는 학문이 아니며, 교육은 실천의 학문이다. 

Of course, education is not only a theory-building discipline; it is also a field of practice and, by focusing this discussion on a movement towards understanding, I do not suggest that we ignore the goal of positively affecting education practice.


교육에 대한 연구는 로켓을 만드는, 공식을 잘 만들어서 대입하기만 하면 확실하게 정의된 결과가 나오는 구조화된, 선형의 시스템이 아니다. 교육에 대한 연구는 물리학과의 유사점을 찾는다면 양자역학이나 카오스이론에 더 가까운 것이라고 할 수 있다.

Education research is not rocket sciencewhich is built on a structured, linear system with a straightforward set of factors which we can stick into a well-articulated formula to predict a clearly defined outcome. Rather, if we must make analogies to the physical sciences, we might do better to look to quantum mechanics and chaos theory








 2010 Jan;44(1):31-9. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2923.2009.03418.x.

It's NOT rocket sciencerethinking our metaphors for research in health professions education.

Source

Centre for Health Education Scholarship, Faculty of Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. glenn.regehr@ubc.ca

Abstract

CONTEXT:

The health professional education community is struggling with a number of issues regarding the place and value of research in the field, including: the role of theory-building versus applied research; the relative value of generalisable versus contextually rich, localised solutions, and the relative value of local versus multi-institutional research. In part, these debates are limited by the fact that the health professional educationcommunity has become deeply entrenched in the notion of the physical sciences as presenting a model for 'ideal' research. The resulting emphasis on an 'imperative of proof' in our dominant research approaches has translated poorly to the domain of education, with a resulting denigration of the domain as 'soft' and 'unscientific' and a devaluing of knowledge acquired to date. Similarly, our adoption of the physical sciences''imperative of generalisable simplicity' has created difficulties for our ability to represent well the complexity of the social interactions that shape education and learning at a local level.

METHODS:

Using references to the scientific paradigms associated with the physical sciences, this paper will reconsider the place of our current goals for education research in the production and evolution of knowledge within our community, and will explore the implications for enhancing the value of research in health professional education.

CONCLUSIONS:

Reorienting education research from its alignment with the imperative of proof to one with an imperative of understanding, and from the imperative of simplicity to an imperative of representing complexity well may enable a shift in research focus away from a problematic search for proofs of simple generalisable solutions to our collective problems, towards the generation of rich understandings of the complex environments in which our collective problems are uniquely embedded.


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