Oath of the Class of 2015 As I put on my white coat for the first time, I wholeheartedly devote myself to the medical profession. I pledge to serve with both compassion and creativity, keeping in mind that true healing can only come through care of the whole person, cura personalis. I will care for my patients with integrity and empathy. With a humble heart and an open mind, I vow not only to educate my patients, but also to learn from them in return. Never forgetting that trust must be earned, I will treat all people with dignity. 


My stethoscope connects my ears to my patients' hearts. In order to heal, I will listen to the needs of my patients, adapting to their unique cultural values. I will tirelessly advocate for my patients, with the understanding that the health of the individual is reflected in the wellbeing of the community. I shall strive to build bridges through communication and sensitivity. 


Soon, the pockets of my coat will overflow with the instruments of healing. So too, will I gather the knowledge and experience required to deliver the highest level of care. I will seek out the wisdom of my colleagues and be an active voice through collaboration and innovation. As my coat becomes worn, I will forever remain a passionate student of medicine. 


As a member of the Albert Einstein College of Medicine Class of 2015, I pledge to live this oath.



(출처 : http://www.einstein.yu.edu/features/stories/711/the-sworn-identity-einsteins-first-years-create-their-own-oath/)




정체성은 고정된 스키마가 아니다. '무슨 행동을 하는가'가 곧 정체성이다. 

정체성은 끊임없는 상호작용을 통해서 나타난다. 


정체성은 우리가 다른 사람에게 우리의 이야기를 전할 때에도 드러난다.


어렵더라도 적절한 관계-중심적 교육이 필요하다. 

다른 사람들과의 상호작용 과정에서 linguistic ritual을 학습하게 된다.


우리 모두는 나름의 이야기를 가지고 있다. 

이 이야기를 이해하고, 발전시키는 것은 전문직업적 정체성을 성공적으로 발전시키는 핵심 요소이다. 

교육학적 공간(pedagogical space)를 제공하여 학생들이 스스로와 동료의 이야기를 통해서 의사로서의 정체성을 개발할 수 있게 해주는 것이 필요하다. 


"어느 조직이 하고 있는 것이 무엇이든, 그것은 구성원의 정체성을 만든다."


따라서 의과대학 학생들의 정체성확립 과정에서 중요하게 이해해야 할 것은, 

그 기관에서 학생들이 마주치게 될 '어떻게 일들이 이뤄지는가'의 모습이다. 


즉 의과대학학생을 전문직의 합당한 일원으로 받아주지 않는 것("너는 .... 할 때 까지는 진짜 의사라고 할 수 없어")은 심각한 결과를 가져올 수 있다.





INTERACTIONAL RELATIONSHIPS

앞에서 강조된바와 같이, 정체성은 고정된 스키마가 아니다. '무슨 행동을 하는가'가 곧 정체성이다. 정체성은 끊임없는 상호작용을 통해서 나타난다. 우리는 어떠한 행동을 함과 동시에 다른 사람에게 어떻게 보여질지를 생각한다. 스스로 표방하는 정체성이 있으면서 다른사람이 생각하는 나의 정체성을 관리하고자 하는 것이다. 이같은 행동적 측면은 의식적일수도 있고 무의식적일 수도 있다. 
As highlighted above, identities are not fixed cognitive schemas; rather, identities are what we doIdentities are asserted and claimed through continual interactions; we seek to be and be seen to be as we attempt to manage others’ impressions of ourselves and the identities we claim.18 This performative and routine aspect of daily life is ever present and can be conscious or unconscious. 

지속적인 역할 연습을 통해서 학습된 생각과 행동(habitus)에 의해 영향을 받아 스스로를 드러내며, 이러한 관점은 언어의 자아 표현적 측면(performative aspect of the self)에서도 드러난다. 
Indeed, through continual role rehearsal, the presentation of the self is influenced by habitus (acquired patterns of thought and behaviour) and is unconscious.32 Therefore, this perspective places the focus on language as a performative aspect of the self, rather than on language as the externalisation of underlying mental processes or psychological states (e.g. motivations, traits, dispositions, attitudes etc.).

정체성은 우리가 다른 사람에게 우리의 이야기를 전할 때에도 드러난다. narrative identity라는 개념이 새로운 것은 아니지만, 어떻게 일단 형성된 정체성이 의미를 가질 수 있도록 다듬어지는지에 대한 이해를 도와준다.
Performative aspects of identity are also present in the stories we tell to others (and ourselves):  The concept of a narrative identity is not new, but it is a powerful way to understand how identities are shaped and re-shaped to make meaning,

정체성은 의학적 상호작용을 하고, 일상생활을 하는 과정에서 스스로와 다른 사람에 의해서 구성된다. 중요한 것은 정체성은 활동을 통한 관계적 측면에서 형성되고, 관계는 정체성확립의 행심적 요소라는 점이다. 또한 의과대학 학생들 각자가 지닌 개성과, 감성과 문화적 스토리가 스스로의 전문직업적 정체성에 영향을 준다는 것이 중요하다.
Thus, identities are constructed and co-constructed within medical interactional settings as we go about our daily work,7,9,10,37,38 and as we recount events of our experiences to ourselves and others.1,3,39,40 That the process of identification is situated in and through talk has wide-ranging implications within medical education. The main messages I wish to convey here are that, firstly, identities are developed within relational settings through activities, and relationships are central components of identification. And, secondly, medical students (and doctors) are people, individuals with their own personal, emotional and cultural stories which influence their professional identities.

이 두 가지 요소가 시사하는 점은, 무엇보다 어렵더라도 적절한 관계-중심적 교육이 필요하다는 것이다. 다른 사람들과의 상호작용 과정에서 linguistic ritual을 학습하게 된다. 이러한 교육은 의학을 바라보는 관점을 보여주고, 의사답게 생각하고 말하고 행동하도록 한다. 또한 이러한 교육이 '의사가 된다는 것은 무엇인가'에 대한 문화적 기대, 소위 hidden curriculum에 영향을 줄 수도 있다.
These two factors require much more attention that can be afforded here, but I will briefly mention implications for research and practice. Firstly, fostering appropriate relationship-centred educational practices is necessary, albeit a major challenge.41 Within interactional settings, linguistic rituals are learned. Linguistic rituals include particular language choices and the adopting of specific stances towards others. These rituals reflect a medical worldview that facilitates thinking, speaking and acting like a doctor. This process might inadvertently reinforce unwanted traditional cultural expectations of what it is to be a doctor (the so-called hidden curriculum) and run counter to developing new ways of doing things.

교육과정이 어떻게 미래 의사의 발전에 영향을 주는지를 보고 싶다면 다양한 상호작용 환경하에서 정체성이 어떻게 구성되고 확립되고, 적용되는지를 면밀히 살펴보아야 한다. 다양한 상호작용 환경에는 PBL이나 의사소통기술 훈련, 회진, 교육세미나, 그리고 비공식적 환경 같은 것들이 모두 포함될 수 있다.
If we want to know how our curricula impact on the development of tomorrow’s doctors we must develop a sensitivity to the ways in which identities are constructed, enacted, invoked or exploited in a variety of interactional settings.43 These settings include problem-based learning sessions, communication skills training, ward rounds, teaching seminars and student participation in surgical settings, and even interactional exchanges in informal settings.

두 번째로 우리 모두는 나름의 이야기를 가지고 있다. 이 이야기를 이해하고, 발전시키는 것은 전문직업적 정체성을 성공적으로 발전시키는 핵심 요소이다. 교육학적 공간(pedagogical space)를 제공하여 학생들이 스스로와 동료의 이야기를 통해서 의사로서의 정체성을 개발할 수 있게 해주는 것이 필요하다. 이것은 많은 학생들이 훈련을 받는 과정에서 루틴하게 하는 반성적 과정과는 다르다. 좀 더 상호작용적인 측면이 필요하며, 다양한 의미를 발견해내고 학생들이 그들이 누구이고, 누구여야 하는지에 대한 이해를 할 수 있도록 촉진시켜줘야 한다.
Secondly, we all have our story. Understanding and developing this story is essential to the successful development of our professional identity. Providing the ‘pedagogical space’37 to facilitate students’ sense making processes through their narrative telling and re-telling of clinical experiences, thereby enabling them to understand their own developing identities as doctors, is essential in medical education. Indeed, this goes beyond the individual reflective practice that many students routinely undertake as part of their training. A more interactional context is required, within which multiple meanings are explored, facilitating students’ own understandings of who they are and who they might be.




As highlighted above, identities are not fixed cogni- tive schemas; rather, identities are what we do. Identities are asserted and claimed through continual interactions; we seek to be and be seen to be as we attempt to manage others’ impressions of ourselves and the identities we claim.18 This performative and routine aspect of daily life is ever present and can be conscious or unconscious. Indeed, through continual role rehearsal, the presentation of the self is influenced by habitus (acquired patterns of thought and behaviour) and is unconscious.32 Therefore, this perspective places the focus on language as a performative aspect of the self, rather than on language as the externalisation of underlying mental processes or psychological states (e.g. motivations, traits, dispositions, attitudes etc.).

 

Performative aspects of identity are also present in the stories we tell to others (and ourselves): as we try to make sense of events our identities emerge as we story our individual experiences, positioning our- selves to cultural and social expectations.33 The concept of a narrative identity is not new, but it is a powerful way to understand how identities are shaped and re-shaped to make meaning, to provide a sense of coherence to our lives34 and to guide our actions.35 Moreover, narratives that instantiate identities are not just found in the ‘big stories’ we tell of our lives, but can be seen in fleeting moments of ordinary conversational contexts.9,10,19,36

 

Thus, identities are constructed and co-constructed within medical interactional settings as we go about our daily work,7,9,10,37,38 and as we recount events of our experiences to ourselves and others.1,3,39,40 That the process of identification is situated in and through talk has wide-ranging implications within medical education. The main messages I wish to convey here are that, firstly, identities are developed within relational settings through activities, and rela- tionships are central components of identification. And, secondly, medical students (and doctors) are people, individuals with their own personal, emotional and cultural stories which influence their professional identities.

 

These two factors require much more attention that can be afforded here, but I will briefly mention implications for research and practice. Firstly, foster- ing appropriate relationship-centred educational practices is necessary, albeit a major challenge.41 Within interactional settings, linguistic rituals are learned. Linguistic rituals include particular language choices and the adopting of specific stances towards others. These rituals reflect a medical world- view that facilitates thinking, speaking and acting like a doctor. This process might inadvertently reinforce unwanted traditional cultural expectations of what it is to be a doctor (the so-called hidden curriculum) and run counter to developing new ways of doing things. For example, patient-centred care has been advo- cated to replace doctor-centred care as it facilitates more favourable outcomes. Despite successfully developing this stance in students during their pre- clinical years, Year 3 students have shown a progres- sive trend towards doctor-centred attitudes during their initial clinical year.42

 

If we want to know how our curricula impact on the development of tomorrow’s doctors we must develop a sensitivity to the ways in which identities are constructed, enacted, invoked or exploited in a variety of interactional settings.43 These settings include problem-based learning sessions, communi- cation skills training, ward rounds, teaching seminars and student participation in surgical settings, and even interactional exchanges in informal settings. As researchers we must be aware of the minutiae within interaction and must attend to aspects of talk that are embedded in the routine and rituals of everyday professional interactions.

 

Secondly, we all have our story. Understanding and developing this story is essential to the successful development of our professional identity. Providing the ‘pedagogical space’37 to facilitate students’ sense- making processes through their narrative telling and re-telling of clinical experiences, thereby enabling them to understand their own developing identities as doctors, is essential in medical education. Indeed, this goes beyond the individual reflective practice that many students routinely undertake as part of their training. A more interactional context is required, within which multiple meanings are explored, facilitating students’ own understandings of who they are and who they might be.





INSTITUTIONAL SETTINGS
"어느 조직이 하고 있는 것이 무엇이든, 그것은 구성원의 정체성을 만든다." '기관'은 정체성확립이 일어나는 가장 중요한 공간이다. 따라서 기관에 따라 구체적인 위계화된 세팅 안에서 특정 패턴의 행동이 정해지고, 어떻게 일이 되어야하는지가 정해진다. 
‘Whatever else organisations do, they do identification:’ 2 institutions are the most important places within which identification becomes consequential. Accordingly, institutions can be conceived as representing patterns of behaviour within specific hierarchical settings, signifying the way things are done: ‘Precisely because identities are constructed within, not outside, discourse, we need to understand them as produced in specific historical and institutional sites within specific discursive formations and practices, by specific enunciative strategies.’44 

따라서 의과대학 학생들의 정체성확립 과정에서 중요하게 이해해야 할 점은, 그 기관에서 학생들이 마주치게 될 '어떻게 일들이 이뤄지는가'의 모습이다. 의도하지 않아도 전달되게 되는 비공식적인 규칙, 암묵적 가치, 믿음, 태도 등이 여기에 포함된다.
Therefore, an important aspect of understanding the process of medical students’ identification is to pay particular attention to how things are accomplished within the specific institutional sites that they encounter. This includes paying attention to the unofficial rules and implicit values, beliefs and attitudes that may also be inadvertently conveyed.

한 기관에서 흔히 일어나는 것은 "일련의 의례"들이다. 한 정체성으로부터 다른 정체성으로 넘어가는 과정이 될 수 있으며, White Coat Ceremony가 그 중 하나이다.
Common phenomena within any institution are the ‘rites of passage’ which comprise part of the transition from one identity (imminent membership, legitimate peripheral participation) to another (authentic membership, full participation). For example, the White Coat ceremony,

그러나 좀 더 함축적인 의례들이 있는데, 비공식적인 ascription이다. 즉 의과대학학생을 전문직의 합당한 일원으로 받아주지 않는 것("너는 .... 할 때 까지는 진짜 의사라고 할 수 없어")은 심각한 결과를 가져올 수 있다.
However, there are other, more implicit rites of passage that medical students undergo (e.g. dissecting cadavers, working long hours) that are informal ascriptions to the profession. Indeed, the lack of informal ascriptions can indicate a rejection of professional identity for the medical student by legitimate members of the profession (a kind of ascriptive rejection: ‘You’re not a real doctor until you have...’) that can have serious consequences.

한 기관 안에서 전문직업적 정체성을 발전시키는 것은 그 기관의 문화에 영향을 줄 수도 있다. 우리는 임상 환경에서의 경험이 학생들의 학습에 얼마나 나쁜 영향을 줄 수 있는가가 연구된 바 있다. 하지만 그 반대도 있을 수 있다. 성공적으로 '어떻게 행동해야 하는지'를 학습한 학생은 후에 '실제로 일어나고 있는 일'이 그와 맞지 않았을 때 그것을 바꿔나갈 수도 있다.
Accordingly, the development of professional identities within institutional settings can impact on aspects such as cultural change. Indeed, we have seen how experiences within the clinical setting can have detrimental effects on students’ learning in the early years.42 However, the reverse may also be the case. Students who have successfully internalised aspects of the way things should be done within their medical school setting have the potential to later challenge the way things are done if those ways conflict.

정체성은 역사적인 관례를 보여주는 기관의 언어를 통해서 확립된다. 문화를 바꾸고자 한다면 역사적으로 병원의 진료가 어떻게 반복되어져왔고, 어떠한 작은 변화들이 있어왔으며 어떠한 도전을 받아왔고, 바뀌게 된다면 어떤 영향이 있을 것인가를 이해해야 한다.
Identities are constructed through language in institutional sites which have historical practices – the way things are. Medical educationists who wish to develop cultural change need to understand the intricate and nuanced ways in which historical practices are replicated, subtly changed and even challenged and the impact this might have for development.
As highlighted above, small acts of defiance have the potential to act as catalysts for cultural change. But do they? Can they change medical culture? We need to understand the ways in which new policies, as delivered through the medical curricula, are adopted and challenged.



Whatever else organisations do, they do identifica- tion:’2 institutions are the most important places within which identification becomes consequential. Accordingly, institutions can be conceived as repre- senting patterns of behaviour within specific hierarchi- cal settings, signifying the way things are done: ‘Precisely because identities are constructed within, not outside, discourse, we need to understand them as produced in specific historical and institutional sites within specific discursive formations and prac- tices, by specific enunciative strategies.’44 Therefore, an important aspect of understanding the process of medical students’ identification is to pay particular attention to how things are accomplished within the specific institutional sites that they encounter. This includes paying attention to the unofficial rules and implicit values, beliefs and attitudes that may also be inadvertently conveyed.

 

Common phenomena within any institution are the ‘rites of passage’ which comprise part of the transi- tion from one identity (imminent membership, legitimate peripheral participation) to another (authentic membership, full participation). For example, the White Coat ceremony, when performed for incoming medical students, explicitly signifies a transition into the medical profession through the conferring of this symbol of professional member- ship, albeit as a student member. This can be conceived as formal ascription to the medical pro- fession. However, there are other, more implicit rites of passage that medical students undergo (e.g. dissecting cadavers, working long hours) that are informal ascriptions to the profession. Indeed, the lack of informal ascriptions can indicate a rejection of professional identity for the medical student by legitimate members of the profession (a kind of ascriptive rejection: ‘You’re not a real doctor until you have...’) that can have serious consequences.

 

 

Accordingly, the development of professional identi- ties within institutional settings can impact on aspects such as cultural change. Indeed, we have seen how experiences within the clinical setting can have detrimental effects on students’ learning in the early years.42 However, the reverse may also be the case. Students who have successfully internalised aspects of the way things should be done within their medical school setting have the potential to later challenge the way things are done if those ways conflict. For example, small acts of resistance to the existing culture – so-called secondary adjustments – represent ways in which relatively powerless individuals protect their interests and identities.45

 

Within medical settings, as actors, students have the potential to act as role models for clinicians (e.g. students purposively washing their hands in front of clinicians who lack this rigor encourages clinicians to follow suit).





CONCEPTUALISING AND RESEARCHING IDENTITY IN MEDICAL EDUCATION

데이터 수집에 있어서 단 하나의 옳은 방법은 없다. 다른 모든 연구와 마찬가지로 가장 좋은 수집과 분석 방법을 활용해야 한다. 또한 모든 연구 질문이 먼저 떠오르지는 않으며, 어떤 질문은 데이터를 분석하는 중에 떠오를 수도 있다.
No single method of data collection or of analysis is ‘right’. As with any research, the most appropriate method of data collection and the best analytical tools can only be discerned from the specific research question itself. Furthermore, not all research questions are a priori; within qualitative research, sometimes new research questions emerge as we interrogate our data.

서로 다른 접근방법은 서로 다른 데이터 수집 방법에 따라서 서로 다른 의미를 가진다. 하지만 접근법들이 근본적 이념은 다를 수 있어도 언어적, 사회적 행동을 보고자 하는 측면에서는 동일하다.
Different approaches will necessarily have different implications on methods of data collection. However, although each of these approaches might differ in terms of its underlying ideologies (e.g. identity as an accomplishment of interaction, as (co)constructed in interaction, as shaped by societies’ dominant discourses, as historical processes, etc.), they converge insofar as they focus on language and social action.

우리는 데이터 수집과 해석을 더 창의적으로 해야 할 것이다.
One final point I wish to make in this section links with my assertion that we need to think more creatively about methods of data collection and interpretation. 



 2010 Jan;44(1):40-9. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2923.2009.03440.x.

Identityidentification and medical educationwhy should we care?

Source

Division of Medical Education, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK. monrouxelv@cardiff.ac.uk

Abstract

CONTEXT:

Medical education is as much about the development of a professional identity as it is about knowledge learning. Professional identities are contested and accepted through the synergistic internal-external process of identification that is constituted in and through language and artefacts within specific institutional sites. The ways in which medical students develop their professional identity and subsequently conceptualise their multiple identities has important implications for their own well-being, as well as for the relationships they form with fellow workers and patients.

OBJECTIVES:

This paper aims to provide an overview of some current thinking about identity and identification with the aim of highlighting some of the core underlying processes that have relevance for medical educationists and researchers. These processes include aspects that occur within embodied individuals (e.g. the development of multiple identities and how these are conceptualised), processes specifically to do with interactional aspects of identity (e.g. how identities are constructed and co-constructed through talk) and institutional processes of identity (e.g. the influence of patterns of behaviour within specific hierarchical settings).

IMPLICATIONS:

Developing a systematic understanding into the processes through which medical students develop their identities will facilitate the development of educational strategies, placing medical students' identification at the core of medical education.

CONCLUSIONS:

Understanding the process through which we develop our identities has profound implications for medical education and entails that we adopt and develop new methods of collecting and analysing data. Embracing this challenge will provide better insights into how we might develop students' learning experiences, facilitating their development of a doctor identity that is more in line with desired policy requirements.





(출처 : http://izquotes.com/quote/277180)




"정체성이란 그것을 가지고 있느냐 그렇지 않느냐의 문제가 아니라, 어떠한 행동을 하느냐의 문제이다" 

정체성확립은 스스로의 세계관을 형성해나가는 인지적, 사회적 과정이다. 또한 이것은 양방향 과정이다.

즉, 스스로 생각하는 자신의 모습과 다른 사람에 의해서 정의되는 자신의 모습을 합병해나가는 과정이다.

어릴 적에 외부에 의해 결정된 정체성은 더 영향력이 강하고 내적인 저항이 적기 때문에, 

후에 그것이 없어지거나 변화되는 경우가 적다







INTRODUCTION

정체성은 정체성확립이라는 역동적 과정을 꾸준히 밟아갈 때 생긴다. "정체성이란 그것을 가지고 있느냐 그렇지 않느냐의 문제가 아니라, 어떠한 행동을 하느냐의 문제이다" 살아가면서 우리의 정체성은 모습은 끊임없이 바뀐다.
Identities are realised through the ongoing dynamic process of identification: ‘it is not something that one can have or not; it is something that one does’.2 (p 5) As we go through life, our identities are constantly in the process of transformation.

윤리적인 측면과 현실적인(practical) 측면 모두에서 전문직으로서의 정체성을 갖는 것은 반드시 필요하다. 다른사람에게 신뢰를 주기 위해서는 전문직의 윤리를 내면화해야 하며, 자신감과 문직으로서의 태도를 가지고 진료를 할 수 있어야 한다. 따라서 의과대학 학생들이 지식과 술기를 모두 터득했다고 하더라도 전문직업적 정체성(professional identity)를 가지기 전에는 성공적으로 의사가 되었다고 할 수 없다.
It has been argued that it is necessary for professionals to successfully embrace a professional identity both ethically and practically. Internalising professional ethics through the process of identification facilitates the internal regulation of professionals.4 On a practical level, the development of a strong professional identity enables individuals to practise with confidence and with a ‘professional demeanour’, thereby giving others confidence in their abilities.5 So, even if medical students learn all the knowledge and skills required of them, they will find it hard to be successful as doctors until they have developed their professional identity.6

일상적인 사회 활동에 참여하고, 권력관계속에서 말고 행동을 해나가는 과정에서 정체성이 확립된다. '구성주의적' 접근에서는 정체성에서 '사회적 측면'이 가지는 중요성을 강조하는데, 이는 심리학, 사회학, 사회언어학, 심리사회적, 사회문화적 행동적,담화적 관점을 모두 포괄한다. 
Identities are constructed and co-constructed as we participate in day-to-day social activities and through the use of language and artefacts and within power relations. These ‘constructionist’ approaches highlight the importance of the social within identities and have led to a range of interconnected perspectives in psychology, sociology and sociolinguistics which highlight these aspects, including the psychosocial,12–14 sociocultural,15–17 performative18 and discursive19 perspectives.





Identity matters. Who we are, and who we are seen to be, underlies much of what we do in medical education. Identity is rooted in language and inter- action and, although we conceptualise identities, they are not fixed or static. Identities are realised through the ongoing dynamic process of identification: ‘it is not something that one can have or not; it is something that one does’.2 (p 5) As we go through life, our identities are constantly in the process of transformation.

 

It has been argued that it is necessary for profes- sionals to successfully embrace a professional identity both ethically and practically. Internalising profes- sional ethics through the process of identification facilitates the internal regulation of professionals.4 On a practical level, the development of a strong professional identity enables individuals to practise with confidence and with a ‘professional demeanour’, thereby giving others confidence in their abilities.5 So, even if medical students learn all the knowledge and skills required of them, they will find it hard to be successful as doctors until they have developed their professional identity.6

 

The issue of identity and identification has been a central concern within the social and human sciences for decades, yet it is rarely discussed openly within medical education

 

This is not to say that aspects of medical students’ identification have been ignored, but that when the subject has been researched and openly theorised, the process has been mainly situated within a broader health and social sciences arena.7–10

 

Over the decades, identity theorists have taken their ideas from a broad range of paradigms. For some, identity has been conceived as representing a unified internal ‘agency’ whereby identity is seen as ‘a personal, internal project of the self ’ and treated as if it is ‘something to be worked on’.11 However, although it is still present in everyday thinking of the self, this ‘internal’ view has been supplanted by the notion that identities are a product of intersubjective and external social processes. Identities are constructed and co-constructed as we participate in day-to-day social activities and through the use of language and artefacts and within power relations. These ‘con- structionist’ approaches highlight the importance of the social within identities and have led to a range of interconnected perspectives in psychology, sociol- ogy and sociolinguistics which highlight these aspects, including the psychosocial,12–14 sociocultural,15–17 performative18 and discursive19 perspectives. 






IDENTITY: A BRIEF OVERVIEW

정체성확립은 스스로의 세계관을 형성해나가는 인지적, 사회적 과정이다. 한 개인으로서, 그리고 집단의 구성원으로서 스스로에 대한 다차원적인 분류를 하는 것이기도 하다.
Identification comprises basic cognitive and social processes through which we make sense of and organise our human world. It includes things that go on in our minds as we create a complex multidimensional classification of our places in the world as individuals and members of collectives.20

따라서 이러한 정체성확립의 과정은 의학교육에서 핵심적이며, 의과대학생들은 학문적, 임상적 환경에서 의사가 되는 방법을 배워야 한다.
Thus this basic and essential process of identification is central to medical education: medical students are learning to become doctors in academic and clinical settings.



Identification comprises basic cognitive and social processes through which we make sense of and organise our human world. It includes things that go on in our minds as we create a complex multi- dimensional classification of our places in the world as individuals and members of collectives.20 This self- categorisation process occurs within a social world through interactional relationships and in the con- text of social institutions with established ways of doing things.2 Thus this basic and essential process of identification is central to medical education: medi- cal students are learning to become doctors in academic and clinical settings.






EMBODIED INDIVIDUALS

정체성확립에 대해서 가장 중요하게 가져야 할 개념은, 이것이 양방향 과정이라는 것이다. 즉, 말과 행동을 통해 스스로 생각하는 자신의 모습,  다른 사람에 의해서 정의되는 자신의 모습을 합병해나가는 과정이다. 이 과정을 통해서 스스로가 누군지를 깨달을 뿐만 아니라, '내가 아닌 것'에 대해서도 생각해 볼 수 있다. 정체성은 '나와 다른 것'에 대해 주의를 기울이는 과정을 통해 확립된다.
The most important concept to hold is that identification is a two-way process which occurs during the simultaneous amalgamation of self-definition (who I think I am: internal) and the definitions of oneself as presented by others (who I think you think I am: external) through language and artefacts.2,15–17 Through this self-categorisation process, we not only identify who we are, but we also say something about who we are not: identities are constructed through attending to difference.



The most important concept to hold is that identifi- cation is a two-way process which occurs during the simultaneous amalgamation of self-definition (who I think I am: internal) and the definitions of oneself as presented by others (who I think you think I am: external) through language and artefacts.2,15–17 Through this self-categorisation process, we not only identify who we are, but we also say something about who we are not: identities are constructed through attending to difference.




Primary identifications

정체성은 어린시절에 다른사람과 나를 분리하고 말을 할 수 있게 되면서 확립된다. 정체성확립이 내적-외적인 양방향 프로세스이지만 초기에는 주로 외적인 요소의 영향을 많이 받는다. 어릴 적에 외부에 의해 결정된 정체성은 더 영향력이 강하고 내적인 저항이 적기 때문에, 후에 그것이 없어지거나 변화되는 경우가 적다
Identity formation begins in early childhood through the recognition of the separation of self and significant others and the development of language. Although identification is a two-way internal–external process, early on it is dominated by external factors.2 These early prescripted identities are therefore more authoritative and develop through weak internal responses, so rejection or modification is low: they become more accepted as how things are and more resistant to change.2 

성별이 가장 대표적이며, 성별과 마찬가지로 인종이나 사회적 지위도 마찬가지로 고정된 것은 아니더라도 나중에 성인이 되어 생긴 정체성에 비해서 잘 변하지 않는다.
Along with gender, ethnicity and social class can be considered as primary, embodied identifications which, although not fixed, may be less malleable than identities developed later in life.

여기서 가장 중요한 결론은 초기에 형성된 정체성이 후에 형성될 정체성을 촉진하거나 억제할 수도 있다는 것이다. 또한 다양한 정체성을 어떻게 주관적으로 표현하느냐에 따라서 다른 사람과의 관계가 달라질 수 있다.
One important implication here is that our unique mix of primary identities may facilitate or constrain the development of existing and newly developing identities.6 Additionally, our subjective representations of these multiple identities, how (or indeed, whether) we synergise these identities, can have important implications. These implications include the way we relate to other people (so-called ‘in-group’ or ‘out-group’ relations).



Identity formation begins in early childhood through the recognition of the separation of self and signif- icant others and the development of language. Although identification is a two-way internal–external process, early on it is dominated by external factors.2 These early prescripted identities are there- fore more authoritative and develop through weak internal responses, so rejection or modification is low: they become more accepted as how things are and more resistant to change.2 For example, gender identity begins early, through artefacts (clothes, toys) our caregivers create a gendered identity which is responded to by others and which we embody.

 

Along with gender, ethnicity and social class can be considered as primary, embodied identifications which, although not fixed, may be less malleable than identities developed later in life. One important implication here is that our unique mix of primary identities may facilitate or constrain the development of existing and newly developing identities.6 These implications include the way we relate to other people (so-called ‘in-group’ or ‘out-group’ relations).





Identity dissonance

새로운 전문직업적 정체성을 개인적 정체성에 통합시키는 과정이 사람에 따라 쉬울 수도 있지만 트라우마가 될 수도 있고, 이럴 때 '정체성 충돌'이 일어났다고 한다.
identity dissonance: ‘integrating new professional identities into personal identities is an easy process for people whose personal identities are consonant with their new professional role, but traumatic for those whose personal identities are dissonant with it’6 (my emphasis)

Costello는 정체성 충돌을 겪는 학생들은 감정적인 혼란을 겪으면서 스스로의 가치, 꿈, 능력, 친밀감, 자아존중감에 대해 불확실한 마음을 가지면서 바람직하지 못한 대응 기전을 만들어간다는 것을 밝혔다.
Costello6 found that students with identity dissonance experienced powerful emotional disruptions that included uncertainty about their own ‘values, ambitions, abilities, affinities, and their very self-worth’ and developed haphazard coping mechanisms.
이러한 바람직하지 못한 대응 기전에는 다음의 것들이 있다.
These coping mechanisms included the outright rejection of the professional role (e.g. consciously dropping out of the programme), displaying aspects of identity that conflict with the professional role (e.g. inappropriatedress), and avoiding professional school-setting interactions whenever possible, and when not possible, ‘role playing’ in professional situations.

일부 연구들은 여학생들이 더 높은 수준의 불안감과, 낮은 수준의 자신감을 갖는다은 것도 보여주고 있으며, 스스로의 의과대학생으로서, 의사로서의 태도에 확신을 가지지 못하는 학생들 또한 정체성 혼란을 겪고는 한다.
Finally, some work has highlighted aspects such as female students reporting (and being independently scored for) higher anxiety and lower self-confidence than male counterparts during standardised patient interactions23 and students’ uncertainties about their own aptitude as medical students and future doctors, 24 which reflect aspects of Costello’s identity dissonance. 

일부 의과대학 학생들이 의사로서 발전해나가는데 어려움을 겪고 있다고 할 때, 의과대학 학생들의 정체성확립과 이것이 어떻게 스트레스나 낮은 수행능력과 관련이 되는가를 연구하는 것이 중요하다.
Given that we know some medical students struggle with their developing roles as doctors, research that considers medical students’ identification and how this relates to stress and underperformance is crucial for the development of our curricula and to facilitate students’ identity formation.







Costello found that women, members of lower socio-demographic classes and non-Whites under- perform at professional schools and that one of the reasons for this is that they suffer from identity dissonance: ‘integrating new professional identities into personal identities is an easy process for people whose personal identities are consonant with their new professional role, but traumatic for those whose personal identities are dissonant with it’6 (my emphasis).

 

Costello6 found that students with identity dissonance experienced powerful emotional disruptions that included uncertainty about their own ‘values, ambi- tions, abilities, affinities, and their very self-worth’ and developed haphazard coping mechanisms. These coping mechanisms included the outright rejection of the professional role (e.g. consciously dropping out of the programme), displaying aspects of identity that conflict with the professional role (e.g. inappro- priate dress), and avoiding professional school-setting interactions whenever possible, and when not possible, ‘role playing’ in professional situations.

 

There has been little research undertaken in medical education to directly investigate students’ emotional disruptions from the perspective of identity forma- tion. However, role-playing in professional situations has been reported to represent a coping mechanism for students’ ‘shaky’ professional identities.21 Although numerous studies have demonstrated medical students’ negative coping strategies for stress, including excessive alcohol usage,22 research looking at potential causes of stress have concentrated on factors such as high workloads and have predomi- nately used questionnaire methods of enquiry. Finally, some work has highlighted aspects such as female students reporting (and being independently scored for) higher anxiety and lower self-confidence than male counterparts during standardised patient interactions23 and students’ uncertainties about their own aptitude as medical students and future doc- tors,24 which reflect aspects of Costello’s identity dissonance.









Relationships between multiple identities

스스로의 다양한 정체성을 인지하는 방법에는 다음과 같은 것들이 있다.
It has been proposed that we structure our perception of our own multiple identities according to four different models: intersection, hierarchy, compartmentalisation, and merging. These models reflect different relationships between our multiple identities and have implications for interactions with ingroup and out-group members.13

예) Maria : Black, female and doctor. 
intersection single unique identity of a ‘Black female doctor'
- hierarchy of identities - identity as a doctor over that as a woman and over that of being Black.
dominant identity are considered in-groups. - However, because the representation is hierarchical, Maria will feel closer to other doctors who are female or Black.
compartmentalisation. - Identities are then activated within different contexts and situations. So, whilst at work Maria will identify with other doctors and will consider everyone else as out-group members.
The ability to hold a complex representation of identities will lead Maria to develop a merged in-group identity that is highly inclusive and divergent. 

'어떻게 스스로 다양한 정체성을 개념화하고 관리하는가'를 살펴보면, 의사를 어떻게 교육시켜야 하는가에 대해서 시사하는 점이 많다.
The ways in which we conceptualise and manage our multiple identities have profound implications for he education of doctors. 
정체성은 상호작용이 있는 환경에서 다르난다.
For example, identities are played out within interactional settings.One important factor that might differentiate intergroup communication from intragroup communication is individuals’ awareness of their group memberships.

다양한 정체성은 환자 진료에 있어서도 영향을 준다. 환자의 인종, 민족, 사회경제적 지위에 따라서 의사가 그 환자를 어떻게 인지하는지가 달라진다.
Furthermore, the ability to represent complexity within our multiple identities can have implications for patient care. It has been demonstrated that patients receive variable care according to factors such as race, ethnicity and socio-economic status26 and that this is associated strongly with doctors’ implicit perceptions of patients.27 

환자의 정체성 중 인종적인 면이나 민족적인 면만을 강조해서 바라보면, 문화적-사회경제적 고정관념이 강화된다는 연구결과가 있다. 또한 환자의 지적 능력에 대한 의사의 판단은 환자의 인종에 따라 달랐다는 연구결과도 있다.
Reducing patients’ identities to racial or ethnic labels in this way might facilitate cultural or socio-economic stereotyping.28 Indeed, it has been demonstrated that doctors’ perceptions of the intelligence of a patient vary according to factors such as the patient’s race.29

또한 이러한 요소들은 환자에 대한 의사의 연대감(affiliation)에도 영향을 주는 것으로 드러났다.
This factor also affects doctors’ feelings of affiliation towards patients, along with doctors’ beliefs about patients’ likelihood of adherence with medical advice, physical activity preferences and risk-taking behaviour.29,30

tolerance for ambiguity (TfA)는 SP에 대한 의과대학 학생들의 문진 태도, 환자의사 관계, 환자 만족과 연관이 있었다.
tolerance for ambiguity (TfA). Indeed, research has demonstrated that TfA, moderated by empathy, contributes to the prediction of medical students’ performance with standardised patients on history taking, doctor–patient interaction, and patient satisfaction over time: the higher the students’ TfA, the better they performed.31




It has been proposed that we structure our percep- tion of our own multiple identities according to four different models: intersection, hierarchy, compart- mentalisation, and merging. These models reflect different relationships between our multiple identi- ties and have implications for interactions with in- group and out-group members.13

 

The ways in which we conceptualise and manage our multiple identities have profound implications for the education of doctors. For example, identities are played out within interactional settings. Communi- cation in intergroup contexts, such as multi-profes- sional team-working, also involves intragroup communication (e.g. among nursing, medical and social workers). One important factor that might differentiate intergroup communication from intra- group communication is individuals’ awareness of their group memberships. Individuals who construct their identities as complex might demonstrate dif- ferent communicative patterns within interprofes- sional team-working, such as communicating in a manner that manifests less social distance and demonstrates greater acceptance and trust.13

 

Furthermore, the ability to represent complexity within our multiple identities can have implications for patient care. It has been demonstrated that patients receive variable care according to factors such as race, ethnicity and socio-economic status26 and that this is associated strongly with doctors’ implicit perceptions of patients.27 In some medical settings, patients’ race is routinely included at the beginning of case presentations. Although at times this may be useful to the diagnostic process, reducing patients’ identities to racial or ethnic labels in this way might facilitate cultural or socio-economic stereotyping.28 Indeed, it has been demonstrated that doctors’ perceptions of the intelligence of a patient vary according to factors such as the patient’s race.29 This factor also affects doctors’ feelings of affiliation towards patients, along with doctors’ beliefs about patients’ likelihood of adherence with medical advice, physical activity preferences and risk-taking behaviour.29,30 It is therefore easy to see how the way we conceptualise our identities can unconsciously affect the way we relate to others.14






 2010 Jan;44(1):40-9. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2923.2009.03440.x.

Identityidentification and medical educationwhy should we care?

Source

Division of Medical Education, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK. monrouxelv@cardiff.ac.uk

Abstract

CONTEXT:

Medical education is as much about the development of a professional identity as it is about knowledge learning. Professional identities are contested and accepted through the synergistic internal-external process of identification that is constituted in and through language and artefacts within specific institutional sites. The ways in which medical students develop their professional identity and subsequently conceptualise their multiple identities has important implications for their own well-being, as well as for the relationships they form with fellow workers and patients.

OBJECTIVES:

This paper aims to provide an overview of some current thinking about identity and identification with the aim of highlighting some of the core underlying processes that have relevance for medical educationists and researchers. These processes include aspects that occur within embodied individuals (e.g. the development of multiple identities and how these are conceptualised), processes specifically to do with interactional aspects of identity (e.g. how identities are constructed and co-constructed through talk) and institutional processes of identity (e.g. the influence of patterns of behaviour within specific hierarchical settings).

IMPLICATIONS:

Developing a systematic understanding into the processes through which medical students develop their identities will facilitate the development of educational strategies, placing medical students' identification at the core of medical education.

CONCLUSIONS:

Understanding the process through which we develop our identities has profound implications for medical education and entails that we adopt and develop new methods of collecting and analysing data. Embracing this challenge will provide better insights into how we might develop students' learning experiences, facilitating their development of a doctor identity that is more in line with desired policy requirements.


















(출처 : http://blogs.nature.com/naturejobs/2012/10/17/challenging-the-integrity-of-scientist)




의사들의 진실성(integrity) 교육을 위한 프로그램이 부족한 현실을 해결하기 위해서는 

광범위한 이해관계자들을 포괄하는 해결책이 나와야 할 것이다. 


이 사안는 환자와 사회가 의사집단에 주는 신뢰와 직결되기 때문에 

의사들의 프로페셔널리즘과 윤리에 대단히 중요한 문제이다. 


지불제도의 개혁은 진실성과 인센티브에 대한 지형(landscape)을 변화시킬 것이나, 

의사들의 바른 인식을 대체할 수는 없다. 


연방정부와 주정부도 중요한 이해관계자이지만, 

공공 및 개인의 의료, 환자, 그리고 의사 자신을 지켜내기 위해서는

의학교육, 면허기관, 전문의 인증 등의 분야의 리더들이 함께 힘을 합쳐서 

문제에 대한 인식을 충분히 공유할 수 있도록 노력해야 할 것이다. 






ABOUT 18% OF THE US GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT is consumed by health care—more than that of any other industrialized country—and that number is expected to increase to 20% by 2020


Program integrity—a term frequently used by payers for program losses due to inefficiencies, inappropriate payments, or exploitation—spans the spectrum of waste, abuse, and fraud, which divert health care dollars from the provision of patient care. Waste alone may account for 30% of overall health care costs.1


At the most basic level, documentation and billing are not performed well by many physicians and physician offices


The effects can be substantial. The Centers for Medicare &Medicaid Services (CMS) Comprehensive Error Rate Testing (CERT) process identified an overall Medicare fee-forservice error rate of 8.6% of payments for 2011, amounting to nearly $30 billion.3


While defensive medicine is frequently cited as a driver of overutilization, incentives in the fee-for-service payment structure are motivating factors as well.5

This relationship exists for physicians even within the same specialty


Incentive-driven behavior is not just limited to the performing of tests, but also extends to abuse and “gaming” of payment differentials


Numerous studies have documented upcoding of encounters to increase revenue, particularly in certain specialties.7


Factors leading incentive-driven behavior to cross a line into abuse and fraud are complex.


Currently, there are few opportunities for program integrity education. CMS does not mandate such education to participate in Medicare and Medicaid. To our knowledge, no state medical board requires program integrity education for licensure and no specialty board requires it for board certification.


Voluntary instruction is reaching some students and new physicians. According to a 2010 OIG survey of all 160 US medical schools and 660 institutions sponsoring GME programs, only 44% of schools and 68% of institutions offered any instruction in program integrity.9 More than 90% of respondents reported that they would like the government to provide educational materials. In response, OIG developed a booklet titled “A Roadmap for New Physicians: Avoiding Medicare and Medicaid Fraud and Abuse” and a presentation to support didactic learning.


Providing educational opportunities is just a first step in raising awareness


Residency and fellowship training are likely the best times for physicians to learn about program integrity given the practical nature of GME training and the immediacy of independent practice


States generally require physicians to certify that they have completed CME during licensure renewal. States could specify that a certain amount of CME be earned in program integrity.


Each specialty board requires physicians to demonstrate knowledge and competence in professionalism and  systems-based practice in order to claim diplomate status


Addressing shortcomings in program integrity education will require a comprehensive solution across numerous stakeholders. This issue is central to medical professionalism and ethics because it speaks directly to the trust placed in the medical profession by patients and society. Payment reformswill no doubt alter the program integrity landscape and shift incentives, but they will not supplant the need for physician awareness. While federal and state governments are vital participants, leaders in medical education, licensure, and specialty certification would ideally work together to ensure that all physicians have sufficient awareness to safeguard public and private health care programs, patients, and themselves.





 2013 Mar 20;309(11):1115-6. doi: 10.1001/jama.2013.1013.

Educating physicians about responsible management of finite resources.

Source

Center for Program Integrity, Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services, Baltimore, Maryland 21244, USA. shantanu.agrawal@cms.hhs.gov

PMID:
 
23512056
 
[PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]









실패를 두려워하면 시스템을 변화시키지 못한다.

(출처 : http://medicinex.stanford.edu/2011/12/01/a-patient-patient-sarah-kucharski-writes-about-life-with-fibromuscular-dysplasia/)




절대로 그 옛날 시절에 수련을 받던 레지던트보다 

지금의 레지던트가 의사라는 직업의 임무에 덜 충실하다고는 생각하지 않는다. 

하지만 '책임'이라는 것이 마치 빠른 속도로 회전하는 회전문과 같을 때, 

돌봄(caring)의 정의는 바람직하지 않은, 그리고 우리가 의도하지도 않은 방향으로 변질될 수 있다. 


만약 그러한 위험이 존재한다면, 우리는 이것에 대해 이야기 해볼 필요가 있다.


We are certain that today’s trainees are not a whit less dedicated to their professional mission than those of an earlier era were at their best,8 but we cannot help wonder whether the very definition of caring changes in undesirable and unintended ways when responsibility becomes a rapidly revolving door. If that risk exists, it warrants conversation.







1970년대에 레지던트를 하는 것은 비교적 간단한 일이었다. 치료의 방법이 단순했고, 정보는 면대면 대화나 전화를 통해서, 노트나 편지를 통해서 전달되었다. 의사는 팀으로 일했고 모든 팀원은 한 병동에 대해 공동의 책임을 졌다.

FOR PHYSICIANS WHO WERE RESIDENTS IN THE 1970S (like we were), it was a simpler era for care. 

- A relatively small number of medications were available for treatment and prevention of illness

- Information was exchanged by synchronous face-to-face and telephone communication or by written notes and letters.

- Physicians and surgeons worked in teams, whose members shared responsibility for the territory of specific patient wards


무엇보다 레지던트들은 한 환자가 입원을 하는 순간부터 퇴원을 할때까지 전 과정에 대한 책임이 있었다.

Residents showed their investment in the well-being of patients by taking responsibility for them during the full length of time those patients were hospitalized, starting with their admission.


그러나 2013년, 대학병원 입원환자에 대한 의료는 변화되었다. 여러가지가 있지만, 주치의가 빠르게 순환해서 종종 1주나 2주면 바뀌게 된다.

In 2013, inpatient medical care in teaching hospitals is different: far more complex, more intense, and, simply put, faster. The arsenal of diagnostic tests, medical therapies, interventional technologies, and health care professionals is much larger. Attending staff have shorter rotations, often 1 or 2 weeks.


For good reasons, resident work schedules have fewer total and consecutive hours.


Team schedules seem less synchronized, and turnover of members seems more frequent



처음에 입원을 담당한 의사가 그 환자의 최종 결과까지 책임지지는 않는다.

The length of time a single physician bears responsibility for a patient may be as short as a few hours. The inevitable result is an increase in the proportion of time a hospitalized patient is cared for by physicians who neither initiated a care plan nor will be responsible for (or perhaps even aware of ) the final outcome.


Communication patterns are now fundamentally different from those of the earlier era, due to technological progress in electronic and mobile communication


The electronic health record (EHR) has pulled both the resident and attending physicians’ focus toward the computer instead of the patient,2 and the contemporary EHR has become a series of often unrelated notes.3


속도의 변화, 복잡성의 변화, 반복되는 업무교대가 미치는 영향에 대해서 따져볼 필요가 있다.

It is worth asking what the effects of such speed, complexity, and continual handoffs may be on the perspectives of the physicians involved—both for trainees and attending physicians


이러한 해결책으로 팀을 구성하는 것도 한 가지 방법이나, 레지던트의 반복적인 교대가 개인에게 미치는 영향은 팀에게도 동등하게 적용될 수 있다.

One remedy is an effective clinical team, which can and does help mitigate the risks of rapid turnover and diffused responsibility. However, the same dynamics that can erode an individual’s mastery of patient histories can also impair teamwork. Changing team members every 2 weeks, or even more often, can confound the best intentions of the workforce.


지난 날을 미화시키려고 하는 것은 아니다.하지만 '책임' 과 '돌봄'의 의미가 무엇인지 고민해볼 필요는 있을 것이다.

These observations should not be interpreted as advocating a return to the imaginary “good old days” of everyother- night on call and brutally long working shifts; these conditions bred hazards and wrong lessons of their own. Nor should anyone ignore the importance of improving handoffs in patient care, which have now become crucial to excellence. 1 But perhaps, in this relay-race era of rapid turnover, it would be worthwhile for teachers and trainees together to examine explicitly what the profession means by the notions of “responsibility” and “caring”when a trainee’s touch time with a single patient may be bounded in minutes or hours (not weeks or months), and when an attending physician may come and go from the hospital ward faster than the patient.


만약 시니어, 주니어, 레지던트가 최선의 노력을 다하고 있음에도 제대로 된 caring이 이뤄지고 않다고 느낀다면, 시험적으로 몇몇 변화를 시도해 볼 수 있다.

If senior physicians, younger attendings, and current residents are concerned about coming up short on caring despite their best efforts, some changes may be worth testing systematically.4


more studies could be undertaken to determine whether rotations for residents and attending physicians should be lengthened or better synchronized.5 Methods of reducing stress that leads to burnout could be developed that might enable rotations to be lengthened, including reducing the need for onerous, duplicative, and usually useless  documentation by both attendings and residents.6


other solutions will be needed to increase the sense of longer-range responsibility. For example, both attendings and trainees could systematically receive follow-up on patients about whom they had made decisions.


We are certain that today’s trainees are not a whit less dedicated to their professional mission than those of an earlier era were at their best,8 but we cannot help wonder whether the very definition of caring changes in undesirable and  unintended ways when responsibility becomes a rapidly revolving door. If that risk exists, it warrants conversation.




 2013 Mar 13;309(10):987-8. doi: 10.1001/jama.2013.620.

Teaching physicians to care amid chaos.

Source

Institute for Health Policy, Management and Evaluation and Department of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada. adetsky@mtsinai.on.ca

PMID:

 

23483169

 

[PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]














새로운 방식의 의과대학 실습과정이 환자-의사 사이의 의사소통을 향상시킬 수 있을까?

Can a novel med school curriculum improve doctor-patient communication?

병원에서 일해본 경험, 혹은 환자로 입원해본 경험이 있는 사람이라면 대학병원에서 실습을 하는 3학년 학생의 모습을 떠올려볼 수 있을 것이다. 교수가 지나가고, 시끌벅적한 학생들이 따라간다. 교수는 환자에 대해 몇 마디를 던지고, 학생들은 고개를 끄덕이거나 노트를 적고, 교수는 나가고 수행단이 뒤따른다. 그리고 다음 과 실습이 시작되면, 그 환자는 영영 다시 보지 않는다.

Anyone who has worked – or been a patient — in a large teaching hospital knows what a traditional third-year medical student clerkship can look like: Specialist sweeps in, accompanied by a gaggle of students; specialist has a few words with the patient; students nod and occasionally take notes; specialist leaves, accompanied by retinue.  Students move on to next rotation and never see patient again.


비교적 새로운 모델인 Longitudinal Integrated Clerkship (종적통합임상실습, LIC)는 이것을 완전히 바꿔놓았다. 백년이나 된 기존의 낡은 '블록식' 모델을 개선해보자는 것에 대한 한 가지 대안이다.

A relatively new model, the longitudinal integrated clerkship (LIC), wants to change all that.  It answers decades of increasing calls from the medical education community to revise the prevailing century-old current “block” model of clinical learning, which can present fragmented views of disease and allow only snips of caregiving in the current outpatient care-based healthcare system.


LIC에서 학생은 핵심과의 멘토와 함께 임상실습을 하는 기간동안 한 케이스의 시작부터 끝까지를 함께한다. 프로그램 중심이라기보다는 환자 중심이다. 현재는 미국, 호주, 캐나다, 남아프리카의 15개 학교에서 주로 만들어 시행하고 있지만, 100개 이상의 학교가 국제컨소시움에 합류, 논의중에 있다.

Within an LIC, students work with mentors in core specialties on their principal clinical year and follow cases from beginning to end — be that an hour, a day or a year — in a process that is patient- rather than program-oriented. It is designed to give students a broader and more empathetic view of healing, and lasting lessons in doctor-patient relationships and communication. Some 15 schools in the U.S., Australia, Canada and South Africa have large and established programs, but more than a 100 schools have joined an international consortium to discuss and explore the option.


"학생은 팀의 구성원으로서 환자에 대해 많은 것을 배워간다. 질병의 진화과정을 보고, 환자를 따라다니며 회복은 하는지, 대단원의 마지막을 보고, 임상적 의사결정의 결과를 본다." David Hirsh.

“Students are there as things unfold for the patient. They are part of the team. They see the evolution of the disease. They follow patients long enough to see them recover, to see the denouement and the outcome of their decisions,” says David Hirsh, MD, director and co-founder of the Harvard Medical School-Cambridge Integrated Clerkship at Cambridge Health Alliance, assistant professor of Medicine at Harvard Medical School, and lead author of the most comprehensive study of program results to date.


지난 3월 Academic Medicine에 발표된 이 연구에서 LIC 학생들은 동료들과 비교할 때 지식 측면에서 동등하며, 환자중심적 진료에 더 잘 준비되었다고 느낀다는 것이 보고되었다. 

In that study, published last March in Academic Medicine, LIC students performed at least as well as their peers on measures of content knowledge, and reported feeling much more prepared in patient-centered aspects of care, including handling ethical dilemmas, involving patients in decision-making, and relating well to a diverse population.


Patient Care With Context


학생들의 만족감이 더 높았고, 당연히 환자들도 이러한 식의 구성을 더 선호했다.

Students also reported a higher level of satisfaction with their med school education. Not surprisingly, patients seem to like the arrangement, too.


"저를 담당하는 의대생이 있는 것이네요"  "학생은 어디갔어요? 그 학생이 있으면 회진돌 때 마음이 조금 더 편안해지거든요" 환자들은 이렇게 말한다.

“ ‘I have my own personal medical student,’ ” they’ll say. And to me, they’ll say, ‘Where’s your student today? Because you’re a much better doctor when your student is around.’ ” Hirsh says.


학생 역시 환자의 가치나 사회적 맥락을 더 잘 이해하고, 의사소통의 방해물이 되는 요소가 무엇인지 더 잘 짚어낸다.

Students in an LIC are also ideally better able to understand a patient’s values and social context and to spot communications roadblocks. As one student wrote in a reflective narrative on the LIC experience:


"제가 아니었으면 가족의 지원은 충분히 받지만 문맹에다가 영어도 잘 못하는 이 환자는 분명히 망가졌을거에요. 예정된 일정이나 의사소통, 의사소통의 양, 그리고 의사소통이 잘못 이루어지는 경우가 너무 흔해서 과정이 길어지고 환자를 잃게 되었을걸요"

“Without me I can confidently say this illiterate, non-English-speaking patient, even with his very supportive and involved family, would have fallen through the cracks. The number of appointments and communications and miscommunications would have been so numerous, and it would have taken so long, that he probably would have just stopped showing up.”


"학생은 단순히 과제를 하는 것도 아니고, 사례 학습 목적으로 환자를 보는 것도 아니에요. '6번 방의 간환자'가 아니라는 거죠. 환자는 몇 달 동안 내가 알아온, 그것도 매우 잘 아는 OOO씨인 것이죠"

“It’s not the student just accomplishing some task. Nor are they seeing the patient as  a case study. It’s not ‘the liver in room six’ – it’s ‘Mrs. So-and-So whom I have known many months, whom I know well,’ ” Hirsh says.


환자 결과가 어떤지는 연구된바가 없지만, LIC에서 분명히 더 나을 것이라 생각한다.

Though patient outcomes haven’t yet been studied, Hirsh believes an LIC, in which students navigate our complex healthcare system in tandem with their patients, can also give them a better vantage point from which to treat chronic disease.

“For example, say a diabetic patient has low blood sugar. You’re there for that, and you’re there for the treatment. Commitments are fostered. You might try harder to help with education and secondary prevention. There comes a stronger desire to learn, ‘Who is that person? Who is that patient?’ “ he says.  As another student wrote,

“Each time we see Ms. O, attempting to understand her evolving health adds another piece to our medical repertoire. Each time we grow to understand a bit more about the toll that hospitalizations and chronically deteriorating health can have on a patient and her family.”



A Lasting Humanism


무엇보다도, LIC를 하고 졸업한 학생은 의사가 되 이후에 휴머니즘을 더 갖추고 있을 것이다.

Perhaps most significantly, graduating from an LIC can give a future doctor a better grounding in the humanism necessary to her or his profession, Hirsh says.


연구에 따르면 의과대학 학년이 올라갈수록 의대생들은 더 시니컬해지고, 환자 중심적인 면모도 더 잃어간다.

Research suggests that as students progress through medical school, med students become more cynical, with a resulting decline in patient centeredness.


"도덕적 성장이 안 되는 것이죠. 공감능력이 점차 낮아져요. 의학이 추구하는 목표와는 정반대인 것이죠. 우리는 우리 학생들이 스스로 최고의 모습을 갖출 수 있도록 지속적으로 노력하고 가꾸어기를 바랍니다."

“Their moral development is shattered, their empathy is declining – how can that be? That’s the opposite of medicine’s goals. We want to sustain and nourish our students to be their best selves. Who they will be when they’re doing their life’s work?” Hirsh says.


반대로 Hirsh의 연구결과는 LIC를 하는 동안 환자중심적인 태도가 더 향상된다는 것을 보여준다.

In contrast, Hirsh’s research shows that students show an increase in patient-centeredness as they go through their training as compared to those doing a traditional clerkship.


From a student:

“I’ve heard traditional third- year students describe their horror at the sight and smell of the necrotic feet seen in vascular clinic. It had never occurred to me to be disgusted by F. When we noticed the first signs of an ulcer on her toe and when erythema gave way to necrosis, then osteomyelitis, I remember feeling concern, but not disgust. And when we finally had to serially amputate her forefoot, I remember thinking only that I wanted to do right by her—to find vital tissue. “


"윤리는 학생이 얼마나 의미있는 역할을 하고 있느냐와 관련이 있습니다. 학생은 환자를 더 중요하게 생각할 필요가 있고, 환자 역시 학생을 더 중요하게 생각할 필요가 있습니다."

Hirsh says, “Ethics has to do with the students having meaningful roles. The student needs to matter to the patient, and the patient needs to matter to the student.


"우리 학생들이 과학을 더 공부하고 싶어하는 이유는 바로 환자를 돕고싶고 싶은 마음 때문입니다"

“Our students want to know the science because they want to help their patient.”




(출처 : http://blog.tedmed.com/?p=2736)





(출처 : http://bioethics.stanford.edu/arts/)







어느 날 밤, 심근경색이 있는 한 여자환자를 볼 일이 있었다. 

그녀는 술에 취해 있었고, 들것 위에서 숨을 헐떡거리며 몸부림을 치고 있었다. 

파라메딕은 "죄송하게 되었네요"라면서 환자를 인계해주었다.


내가 물었다. 

"아주머니, 가슴 통증이 있으신가요?"



그녀는 대답은 하지 않고 IV를 하려던 간호사에게 소리를 지르기 시작했다. 

"야 이 XXX아, 저리 꺼져. 놔두라고 이 XXX아"


간신히 환자의 주머니를 뒤져 신분을 파악하는 도중, 

꼬깃꼬깃한 종이 한장을 발견했다. Plavix 처방전이었다.


상황이 이해가 되었다. 

얼마 전에 퇴원한 이 환자는 Plavix를 복용하지 않고 있었고, 

그래서 혈전이 생긴 것이었다.


내가 물었다. 

"왜 플라빅스를 복용하지 않으셨어요?"


환자가 대답했다. 

"돈이 없다고!"


내가 다시 말했다.

"그 약은 무료에요"


환자가 다시 대답했다. 



"버스 탈 돈이 없다고!"






종종 의학교육에 인문학을 꼭 넣어야 하는지에 대하여 의구심을 품는 사람들이 있다. 그리고 그 이유는 매우 간단하게 요약될 수 있다. "그게 꼭 들어가야 하는 이유가 뭔데?" 


"배워야 할 내용이 이렇게 많은데, 그 소중한 시간을 실용적이지도 않고, 주관적이고 잘 가늠되지도 않는 것을 배우는데 쓸 수는 없지. 게다가 뭐? 예술적? 무언가에 대한 의문을 가질 때는 실용적인 목적이 있고, 질문에 대한 답을 찾는 것이 가능한 것에 대해서 해야하는거야."

Doctors are often suspicious of including the humanities in medical education. The resistance can be summed up succinctly: What’s the point? When there is so much to learn, why spend precious time in medical school or residency considering the impractical, the subjective, the indeterminate, and the artful? If we’re going to ask questions, we might as well pick ones that have practical use and are possible to answer.


나 또한 이런 주장이 한편으로는 이해가 간다는 것을 고백할 수 밖에 없다. 하지만 의사가 매일매일 진료를 하면서 마주하는 문제 중에서 과연 몇 퍼센트나 진정으로 "과학"적인 문제라고 할 수 있을까? 좀 더 넓게 보자면, 우리의 보건의료 시스템에 '과학'은 도대체 얼만큼이나 영향을 미치는가?

This is an understandable and, I must confess, often appealing view. Yet how many of the problems that clinicians face in daily practice are scientific, in any meaningful sense of the term? On a larger scale, how much does science even influence our health care system? 


보건의료 시스템은 다른 어떤 것들 보다도 인간의 아주 근원적인 특질을 반영한다. 젊음과 건강에 대한 갈망, 질병과 죽음에 대한 공포, 다양한 형태로 나타나는 탐욕, 집단과 개인의 충돌, 그리고 무엇보다 사회경제적인 위계 등등..

It is a system that reflects primal cultural traits as much as anything else: thirst for youth and health, fear of illness and death, greed in all its forms, conflicting notions of both collective and personal responsibility, and socioeconomic hierarchies above all.


내 환자는 의대생들의 소그룹 토의 사례가 되진 않았지만, 사례로 활용하기에 좋은 케이스이다. 하지만 어디서부터 시작해야 할 것인가의 문제는 그리 간단치 않다.

My patient never became a case study in a small-group discussion for medical students, but she easily could have. Where to start? It’s hard to know.


어떤 질문으로 시작을 하든지, 문제의 특성상 객관적인 답이 정해져있지 않다. 그리고 케이스로 다룬다고 하더라도 이런 문제들은 다 넘어가버리고 스텐트가 막힌 문제라든가 혈전생성에 있어서 혈소판의 역할을 다루는 파트로 넘어가고 싶은 강한 충동이 들 것이다.

By their nature these are questions without objective answers, and the temptation to throw one’s hands up and go back to PowerPoint presentations on stent reocclusion and the role of platelets in thrombogenesis is strong


마치 어떤 규칙이 있는 것처럼, 우리는 논쟁과 설득이 오가야만 하는 현실적인 답안이 없는 문제에 대해서 토론하기를 꺼린다. 마치 정서적으로 개입해야만 하는 것이 요구되는 상황을 회피하듯 말이다.

As a rule, we absolve ourselves from participating in debates that resist empirical solutions that require argument and persuasion— just as we tend to shy away from issues that ask for, and at times require, emotional engagement.


하지만 회피하더라도 여전히 문제는 남아 있다. 그리고 사실 우리는 그 문제에 대해 어떻게든 답을 하게 되어 있다.

Yet the questions remain, and we do in fact answer them.


이와 같은 주관적인 문제들에 대한 답이 미치는 영향력은, 객관적인 문제에 대해서와 마찬가지로, 그 영향력이 클 뿐만 아니라 어떤 식으로든 보여지게 되어 있다.

Put another way, answers to subjective questions have consequences that are just as profound, and just as tangible, as answers to objective ones.


따라서 의학에 있어 인문학을 가르친다는 것의 의의는 무엇이고, 시간이 제한되어 있음에도 그렇게 해야만 하는 이유는 무엇일까? 한 가지 이유는, 인문학도 과학과 같은 하나의 '도구'라는 점이다. 또한 '인문학'을 정의하기는 쉽지 않지만, '과학'과는 결정적으로 다른 점이 있다. 인문학은 우리가 비이성적인 존재라는 것을 인정한다. 늘상 그런 것은 아니더라도, 대부분의 경우에서 그러할 수 있음을 인정한다. 

So what is the point of studying the humanities in medicine, and why is doing so worth at least some of our time? One answer is that the humanities, like science, are a tool. The humanities, broadly and imperfectly defined as they may be, nonetheless concede what the sciences resist—that we are irrational creatures much, if not all, of the time. 


우리의 집단적인 가치와 신념은 반대되는 근거에 의해서 약간 침식당할 수는 있겠지만, 완전히 전복되지는 않는다. 이것이 순수한 경험주의의 한계이다. 순수한 경험주의는 우리가 보는 관점과 던지는 질문의 한계를 제한한다. 

Our collective values and beliefs may be eroded by evidence, but they are rarely overturned by it. Pure empiricism, in other words, gets us only so far, in part because it so dramatically limits both the scope and the relevance of the questions we can ask. 


또한 경험주의만으로는 감정이 가진 힘을 깨워낼 수 없다. 그러나 대중들은 아이와 같아서 논리만으로 그들을 움직이는 것은 거의 불가능하다. 좋든 싫든, 트위터와 구글, 끝없는 정보의 시대에, 그리고 상반되는 뉴스 속보가 넘쳐나는 시대에, 진실과 거짓을 구분하는 것, 국소적인 안건과 광범위한 의제를 구분하는 것은 점점 더 어려워지고 있다.

Empiricism lacks the ability to generate emotional power, and crowds are like children: Logic hardly sways them. Like it or not, in an era of Twitter and Google and bottomless seas of information, in an era of news that is always breaking and of endless dueling facts, the ability to distinguish truth from falsehood, to

discern narrow agendas from collective ones, has never been harder.


하지만 인문학은 사람을 움직이게 하는 힘이 있다. 잘만 활용하면 개인적 경험의 공명을 이끌어낼 수 있다. 어떠한 선택과 그 선택에 달려있는 것을 동등하게 볼 수 있게 해주고, 숫자를 살아 움직이게 하여 논리적인 것과 그렇지 않은 것, 품위있는 것과 그렇지 않으 것을 구분할 수 있게 해준다. 

But the humanities have the power to move us. At their best, they can approach the resonance of personal experience. They have the ability to illuminate stakes and choices alike, to make numbers come alive, to help distinguish both the reasonable from the absurd and the decent from the indecent. 


인문학은 도덕의 권위를 환기시키고, 동정과 분노의 감정을 불러일으키며, 더 나쁜 것을 피해, 더 나은 것을 향해 나아갈 수 있게 해준다.

The humanities have the power to invoke moral authority, to invoke feelings of outrage as well as feelings of compassion, to inspire us to be better, and to caution us against being worse.


어쩌면 인문학에 대해 공부함으로서 환자에 대한 공감능력을 높일 수 있을지도 모른다. 인문학을 가르칠 것을 지지하는 사람들 중 종종 이러한 주장을 하는 사람도 있다. 이들의 주장이 틀린 것은 아니지만, 핵심을 놓치고 있다.

Perhaps studying the humanities can also help us empathize with our patients. Advocates of the humanities in medicine often make this argument, and it may even be true, but I think it misses much of the point.


의사가 되는 것은 단순히 공감을 할 줄 아는 것 그 이상이다. 사실 아무런 공감이 느껴지지 않는 경우가 대부분이다. 내가 본 환자는 입이 거칠었고, 폭력적이었고, 비협조적이었으며, 어떤 면을 보아도 좋아할 수 없는 사람이었다. 하지만 우리는 그 환자에 대해 공감하기 위해 거기 있었던 것이 아니다. 우리는 그녀를 살려내기 위해 거기에 있었다.

Being a physician is about more than empathy—It is as much about doing your job when you feel no empathy whatsoever. My patient was foulmouthed, abusive, uncooperative, and unlikeable in virtually every way. But we weren’t there to empathize with her—We were there to save her if we could.


다른 말로 하자면, 의학에서 인문학을 가르친다는 것은 감정적인 것에 취하자는 것이 아니다. 도저히 달성할 수 없을 것 같은 상황에서조차 공감을 하라는 것도 아니고, 의사들은 친절하게 만들기 위한 것도 아니다. 

In other words, studying the humanities in medicine is not about indulging in sentimentality, in earnest appeals for empathy that is often impossible to achieve. It’s not about making doctors nicer, although few will complain if that happens.


그보다, 인문학은 의사와 의학을 공부하는 학생들이 보건의료가 나아가야 할 방향에 대해서 좀 더 생각하고, 통찰력을 가지고, 성찰을 하고, 궁극적으로는 그것에 영향을 줄 수 있는 사람이 되도록 돕는 것이다. 집단적인 침묵은 더 이상 의사에게 도움이 되지 않기에 재능과, 의지와, 능력을 갖추어 더 넓은 영역의 공적인 토론의 장으로 들어갈 수 있도록 하는 것이다. 

Instead, studying the humanities in medicine is about helping doctors and medical students become more aware, more insightful, more reflective, and— ultimately—more influential in shaping the trajectory of health care. It’s about encouraging the facility, willingness, and ability to enter into the larger public debate in these cacophonous times, when collective silence will not serve the medical profession well. 


그리고 마지막으로 인문학은 정서적 교감과 자기성찰을 중요시하지 않는, 바깥 세상보다는 내부만 들여다보는, 개개인이 부담하는 비용 뿐만 아니라 개개인에 대한 보상조차 무시하는 문화에 대한 어떤 배출구를 만들어주는 것이다.

And, finally, it is about providing an outlet for both emotional engagement and self-reflection in a culture that typically denies both, looks outward rather than inward, and too often ignores not only the personal costs but also the personal rewards of medical work.


돌이켜 생각해보면, 같이 일을 하는 동료의사와 간호사, 내가 좋아했던 것들과 싫어했던 것들, 저지른 실수에 대한 불편한 감정과 옳은 선택을 한 것에 대한 영광, 환자에 대한 탄식과 안도, 총명함과 어리석음, 교묘함과 솔직함, 이들이 뒤섞인 공간 어딘가에 우리 모두는 중요한 일을 하고 있다는 의식이 자리잡고 있었다. 

Somewhere in the impossible mix is the sense that all of us in medicine are doing work, however imperfectly and at times despite ourselves, that counts. 


그 중대성을 인식하고 있기에, 여기에 중요한 것이 걸려있다는 것을 알기에, 하고 있는 일의 더 큰 의미를 알기에 의료계 문화의 고됨과 원칙이, 체력적 고갈이, 밤중에 걸려오는 끊임없는 전화가, 그 무수한 기록들이, 그 많은 강의들이 유지될 수 있었던 것이다. 

It is precisely this sense of significance, of stakes that actually matter, of work with larger meaning, that drives the rigor and discipline of medical culture, the physical exhaustion, the endless phone calls in the middle of the night, all those pages both read and written, and all those lectures both given and received.


의학의 많은 부분들은 사실 아무도 알아주지 않고, 감사해하지도 않고, 기여한 사람도 불분명하고, 불확실하지만, 결국 중요한 것은 "그럼에도 불구하고"이다. 그렇기 때문에 우리는 한번 더 생각해볼 수 있다. 그리고 그래야만이 더 좋은 의사가 될 것이며, 그리고 우리가 타인에 대해 무관심한 상황에서도 선(善)을 행할 수 있을 것이다.

So much of medicine is like that— anonymous, thankless, faceless, and uncertain—but necessary nonetheless. This necessity bears reminding, in part because it affirms our better natures, the good we sometimes do despite our indifferences.







 2013 Jul;88(7):918-20. doi: 10.1097/ACM.0b013e3182959e16.

The woman in the mirrorhumanities in medicine.

Source

Dr. Huyler is associate professor, Emergency Medicine, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, New Mexico.

Abstract

While the role of the sciences in medicine and medical training is unquestioned and should remain so, the traditional resistance of medical culture to the humanities and humanistic argument does not serve the medical profession well, nor does it do justice either to the challenges or rewards of clinical practice.






















© DAVID TEPLICA, M.D., M.F.A. / COURTESY OF THE ARTIST

"Refusion" 
Selenium-toned gelatin silver print, 16 inches by 20 inches 
By David Teplica, M.D.

Dr. David Teplica, a 1985 DMS graduate, is a noted plastic surgeon in Chicago and a photographic artist whose work has been shown all around the world—including in a 1999 solo exhibition at the Wellcome Trust in London. He often trains his lens on twins, as in the image above—which was one of the works in the Wellcome Trust show. It depicts a set of twins who asked Teplica to photograph them intertwined as they would have been when they were in the womb, a position they'd never had cause to recreate. Twins make ideal models because "they are very comfortable with each other," Teplica told BBC in 1999.


(출처 : http://dartmed.dartmouth.edu/winter05/html/art_of_medicine.php)




인문학을 교과과정에 포함시켰을 때 좋은 점들.

The advantages that the humanities offer are multifactorial: 


사망과 임종, 임종을 앞든 환자에 대한 토의의 공간을 열어준다.

They offer a space for discussion about topics such as death and dying-and coping with dying patients-such that students can feel safe and objective in sharing thoughts; 


자기가 경험한 환자를 기억하게 해준다.

they remind students of the patient experience; 


탁해진 감정을 정제시켜준다.

they eloquently distill muddy feelings into nuanced words; 


"hidden currilucum"중 하나인 병동에서 경험하게 되는 경멸적 자세를 반성하는 계기로 삼을 수 있다.

and they serve as an anchoring point for a state of mind that nurtures reflection over the disdain encouraged by the "hidden curriculum" of the wards




In the version of grief we imagine, the model will be “healing.” A certain forward movement will prevail. The worst days will be the earliest days. We imagine that the moment to most severely test us will be the funeral, after which this hypothetical healing will take place. When we anticipate the funeral we wonder about failing to “get through it,”[...] We anticipate needing to steel ourselves for the moment: will I be able to greet people, will I be able to leave the scene, will I be able even to get dressed that day? We have no way of knowing that this will not be the issue. We have no way of knowing that the funeral itself will be anodyne, a kind of narcotic regression in which we are wrapped in the care of others and the gravity and meaning of the occasion. Nor can we know ahead of the fact (and here lies the heart of the difference between grief as we imagine it and grief as it is) the unending absence that follows, the void, the very opposite of meaning, the relentless succession of moments during which we will confront the experience of meaninglessness itself.





 2013 Jul;88(7):921-3. doi: 10.1097/ACM.0b013e3182956017.

The synergy of medicine and art in the curriculum.

Source

Ms. Mullangi is a fourth-year medical student, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts.

Abstract

This is a commentary in which a fourth-year medical student argues for the relevance of the arts and humanities and the need to sustain medical students' exposure to these through the medical curriculum. She writes that the point of incorporating the visual arts, literature, music, and other arts into the curriculum is not necessarily to "teach" professionalism but, rather, to offer students a viable, lifelong tool to reorient themselves as they move along in their training. The advantages that the humanities offer are multifactorial: They offer a space for discussion about topics such as death and dying-and coping with dying patients-such that students can feel safe and objective in sharing thoughts; they remind students of the patient experience; they eloquently distill muddy feelings into nuanced words; and they serve as an anchoring point for a state of mind that nurtures reflection over the disdain encouraged by the "hidden curriculum" of the wards. The author closes the commentary with excerpts from literature.









(출처 : http://taolifestudio.com/2013/04/24/humility-thinking-of-yourself-less/)







겸손함 : 선(善)의 전제조건

Humility as a Prerequisite Virtue


의사도 종종, 그것도 무의식적으로 환자와 관련된 의사결정에 있어서 환자의 이익보다 자신의 이익을 후선하기도 한다는 것을 겸허히 인정할 필요가 있다. 동료, 환자, 제3자의 통찰력이나 지혜를 빌리지 않고 결정을 내리기도 한다는 것을 겸허히 인정해야 하며, 최선의 선택을 내릴 수 없을 때에는 선(善)한 결정을 위해서 거기에 맞는 환경구조를 갖추어야 한다는 것도 받아들어야 한다. 

It is humbling to think that physicians sometimes make (even unconsciously) patient care decisions that are more consistent with their own financial welfare than their patients’ medical needs. It is humbling to forego making a decision until we have time to ask colleagues, patients, or others to share their perceptions and wisdom, or to structure our lives to reduce the need to rely on virtue in specific situations when we may not be at our best.




겸손함 : 이 시대의 미덕 (Humility: A thoroughly modern virtue)


따라서 겸손함의 미덕을 갖추는 것은 이미 근대 의학이 시작했을 때부터 좋은 의료의 필수요소라는 사실은 전혀 놀라울 것이 없다. 1892년, 미네소타 대학의 의과대학 학생들에게 William Osler경은 이렇게 말했다. 


"의학이라는 길에 들어서는 그 순간부터 항상 겸손함을 놓지 마십시오. 그것은 이 길이 멀다는 것을, 극복해야 할 것들이 많다는 것을, 여러분들이 신뢰하는 교수님들조차 오류를 범할 수 있다는 사실을 받아들인다는 의미이기도 합니다


누구나 자신의 권리를 앞세우고, 서로의 경쟁이 심해지고, 누구나 자기의 이름값을 높이고자 하는 요즘, 겸손함의 필요성을 설교하는 것은 어쩌면 시대에 뒤떨어진 것처럼 보일 수도 있습니다. 하지만 그래도 이것은 중요한 것입니다. 겸손함은 진리를 존중할 때에, 그리고 그 진리를 추구하는 과정이 얼마나 고된 것인지 정확히 가늠해야만 깨달을 수 있습니다. 


품위 있는 겸손함 갖출 수 있다는 것은 값진 선물입니다."


It is thus not surprising that the virtue of humility has been appreciated as essential to good practice since the inception of the modern era of medicine. In 1892, during an address to medical students at the University of Minnesota, Sir William

Osler urged his audience, “at the outset of your journey take the reed of humility in your hands, in token that you appreciate the length of the way, the difficulties to overcome, and the fallibility of the faculties upon which you depend.”2(p38) In words that describe our current context surprisingly well, he adds: 


In these days of aggressive self-assertion, when the stress of competition is so keen and the desire to make the most of oneself so universal, it may seem a little old-fashioned to preach the necessity of virtue but I insist of its own sake … since with it comes not only reverence for truth, but also proper estimation of the difficulties encountered in our search for it…. This grace of humility is a precious gift.2(p38)





겸손함에 필요한 세 자질 (Three qualities required for humility)


Coulehan은 겸손함을 갖추는데 필요한 세 가지 요건들을 언급하였다.

A contemporary understanding of humility has been offered by Coulehan,41 who proposes that humility requires three qualities:


스스로의 한계를 인지하는데 위축되지 않는 것 : 자신의 강점 뿐만 아니라 약점도 마주할 수 있는 능력

• “Unflinching self-awareness”—an ability to know your own strengths as well as a willingness to confront your weaknesses.


다른 사람에 대한 공감 : 잘 듣는 기술과 다른 사람이 무엇을 필요로 하는지 알아채는 능력

• “Empathetic openness to others,” manifested by good listening skills and the ability to be present to the needs of others.


아픈 이를 돌보아줄 수 있는 권리에 대해 감사하는 마음

• “A keen appreciation of, and gratitude for, the privilege of caring for sick persons.”



첫 번째 두 개는 자기 고양적 편견을 줄이기 위한 습관이며, 우리가 의사결정을 하는 과정에서, 자기 성찰을 하는 과정에서 흔히 빠지는 편견을 인정하는 것이라 할 수 있다. 

The first two of these qualities clearly support the very habits we recommend as a remedy for the self-serving bias that has called the very possibility of virtue into question: acknowledging our tendency toward biased decision making, practicing reflection, and soliciting input from respected others precisely in order to ensure that we protect our commitment to serving patients before ourselves. 


세 번째 자질은 더 근본적인 것으로서, 바로 의학의 근본적 목표를 인지하는 것이다. 앞서 언급된 것처럼 Pellegrino와 Thomasma는 전문직이 갖춰야 하는 선(善)이란 그 직업의 목표를 달성할 수 있는 기질이라고 했다. 어떤 전략이나 습관도 의사의 기본적 임무를 저버리는 의사를 도울 수는 없다. 의학에 있어서 근본적인 목표는 예방, 치료, 완화에 초점을 두는 것이다.

The third quality suggests an even more fundamental habit: Recalling the fundamental goals of medicine. As noted above, according to Pellegrino and Thomasma3,4 the virtues of a profession are those traits of character that enable individuals to achieve the goals of the profession. No strategies or habits—such as taking time-outs or consulting with others—will serve to support virtue if a professional is not first committed to the primary goals of the profession. In medicine, the primary goal is patient care focused on prevention, healing, and palliation (with personal or corporate profit and prestige as merely secondary goals).42



한계점

Limitations to Our Solutions


전문직의 선(善)이 가져야 하는 핵심적 역할과 관련해서, Goodpaster는 teleopathy를 그 목표를 불균형적으로 추구하는 것이라고 했다. 사업을 예로 들면, 이는 '좋은 제품이 무엇인가'에 대한 고민 없이 이익만 창출해내고자 하는 자세라고 할 수 있다.

Engaging the central role of goals in professional virtue, Goodpaster43 defines teleopathy as the unbalanced pursuit of purpose or goals. In business, this may manifest as a pursuit of profits without proper consideration of means or other important purposes such as providing a good product. 


이 논문은 teleopathy를 가진 의사에게는 별로 도움이 되지 않을 것이다. 우리는 의사가 다양한 목적을 추구할 수 있다는 것은 인정한다. 하지만 우리는 이러한 여러 목적이 환자를 돌보는 것에 밀려서는 안 된다고 생각한다. 개인의 이익을 우선하는 의사는 위의 습관을 갖춘다고 해도 별로 도움이 되지 않을 것이다. 그러나 환자의 웰빙을 우선시하는 의사라면 이러한 습관들이 도움이 된다는 것을 알게 될 것이다.

This article has little to offer to physicians who suffer from teleopathy. We assume that physicians pursue many purposes through their activities— earning a living, developing medical knowledge, and training new physicians. But we also assume that these goals are secondary to patient care and that the means of achieving these goals matter. Physicians who pursue personal gain as a primary aim of the practice of medicine will not profit from the habits proposed in this article because those habits are all aimed at overcoming self-serving bias. However, physicians who are committed to prioritizing the well-being of their patients in their practice of medicine or their medical research may find that these habits increase the likelihood of acting virtuously. 


적절한 지원이 없는 상황에서 막연하게 스스로 잘 할 것이라고 믿으면서 의사결정을 내리는 것보다 의사로서의 도덕적 가치를 받아들여가면서 의술을 행할 때 더 일관될 수 있을 것이다.

We understand this to mean acting more consistently in accord with the moral values one embraces as a physician rather than out of the unenlightened self-interest that apparently drives much of our decision making when we naively trust ourselves to do the right thing without adequate supports in place. In this discussion, we have not provided an account of how virtues such as prudence originate (e.g., through modeling and character formation) but, rather, an account of how individuals may increase the likelihood of acting in virtuous ways even when the environment poses challenges to their trained character.





 2013 Jul;88(7):924-928.

Humble TaskRestoring Virtue in an Age of Conflicted Interests.

Source

Dr. DuBois is director and Hubert Maeder Professor, Bander Center for Medical Business Ethics, Saint Louis University, St. Louis, Missouri. Ms. Kraus is a seventh-year MD/PhD student and coordinator, Bander Center for Medical Business Ethics, Saint Louis University, St. Louis, Missouri. Dr. Mikulec is professor, Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri. Dr. Cruz-Flores is professor and interim chair, Department of Neurology and Psychiatry, and director, Souers Stroke Institute, Saint Louis University, St. Louis, Missouri. Dr. Bakanas is associate professor, Department of Internal Medicine, and associate director, Bander Center for Medical Business Ethics, Saint Louis University, St. Louis, Missouri.

Abstract

Virtues define how we behave when no one else is watching; accordingly, they serve as a bedrock for professional self-regulation, particularly at the level of the individual physician. From the time of William Osler through the end of the 20th century, physician virtue was viewed as an important safeguard for patients and research participants. However, the Institute of Medicine, Association of American Medical Colleges, and other policy groups-relying on social science data indicating that ethical decisions often result from unconscious and biased processes, particularly in the face of financial conflicts of interest-have increasingly rejected physician virtue as an important safeguard for patients.The authors argue that virtue is still needed in medicine-at least as a supplement to regulatory solutions (such as mandatory disclosures). For example, although rarely treated as a reportable conflict of interest, standard fee-for-service medicine can present motives to prioritize self-interest or institutional interests over patientinterests. Because conflicts of interest broadly construed are ubiquitous, physician self-regulation (or professional virtue) is still needed. Therefore, the authors explore three strategies that physicians can adopt to minimize the influence of self-serving biases when making medical business ethics decisions. They further argue that humility must serve as a crowning virtue-not a meek humility but, rather, a courageous willingness to recognize one's own limitations and one's need to use "compensating strategies," such as time-outs and consultation with more objective others, when making decisions in the face of conflicting interests.

PMID:

 

23702525

 

[PubMed - as supplied by publisher]













(출처 : http://thedestinywithin.blogspot.kr/2012/05/fridays-what-heck-habits.html)


나는 습관을 만들고, 습관은 나를 만든다.





일관성 있는 전문가다운 행동양식을 위한 세 가지 습관

Three Habits for Promoting Consistently Professional Behavior


앞에서 언급한 것처럼, 지금까지의 데이터는 선(善)을 의료윤리의 보호자로 활용하는데 있어 세 가지 문제가 있다. 

(1) 많은 윤리적 의사결정은 심사숙고의 과정을 거친다기보다는 자동적으로 이뤄진다.

(2) 자동제어장치(autopilot)이 작동할 때, 바로 자기 고양적 편견이 작동하며,

(3) 자기 고양적 편견은 자신의 '의지'를 넘어서 무의식적으로 작동한다.

As noted above, current data indicate three problems for the adoption of virtue as a safeguard: (1) many ethical decisions are the result of automatic rather than deliberative processes, (2) when running on autopilot, self-serving biases operate, and (3) self-serving biases operate unconsciously and, thus, beyond the realm of “willpower.” 


여러가지 불리한 근거에도 불구하고, 의사들은 자기 고양적 편견을 최소화시키고 의학의 본질적 목적에 합당하게 행동하기 위해 행동한다면 어떨까? 그 방법으로 다음의 세 가지 습관이 있다.

What would it look like if, in response to these troubling data, physicians attempted to engineer their own behavior to minimize the effects of self-serving bias and to maximize the likelihood of acting in accordance with the aims of medicine? Data suggest that the following three habits, or compensatory strategies, might facilitate acting in accordance with virtues in medicine.



자기 성찰 - 윤리적 타임아웃을 활용하기 (Reflecting—the use of ethics “time-outs”)


WHO와 다른 여러 그룹들은 "타임아웃"을 활용할 것을 권고하고 있다. 외과계열에서 타임아웃이란 잠깐의 '일시정지' 시간을 마련함으로서 체크리스트에 따라 필수적인 것을 확인하는 시간으로서 예방가능한 실수를 줄여주는 기능을 한다. 질문의 예는 아래와 같다.

The World Health Organization and other groups advocate the use of a “timeout” in surgery to reduce preventable errors.34 Time-outs are pauses taken to ask a series of questions, usually guided by a checklist. For example, the WHO time-out checklist involves asking questions about the identity of the patient, the surgical site, and the procedure, as well as less obvious questions such as


• What are the critical or unexpected steps, operative durations, anticipated blood loss?

• Are there any patient-specific concerns? 

• Has sterility (including indicator results) been confirmed?34 Similarly, in an attempt to avoid preventable lapses of professionalism, physicians might take an “ethics timeout” whenever entering into new financial relationships. For example, before agreeing to join a speaker’s bureau, accepting a particular form of insurance, or accepting payments to enroll patients in a clinical trial, physicians might ask questions such as

• Will this relationship benefit my patients?

• Would I be comfortable with my patients’ knowing details of this relationship?

• If this relationship poses any risk of compromising patient care, can these risks be identified and managed? Am I willing to establish and cooperate with appropriate oversight?

• Do I need to recuse myself from any roles or decisions?

• Do I invite critical feedback from colleagues and subordinates such that problems might be identified and addressed early?


사회학습심리학, 발달심리학을 연구하는 사람들은 이런 것(타임아웃)이 가능하고, 실제로도 할 수 있다고 말한다. 이러한 성찰 과정을 정기적으로 시행함으로서 의사결정과정을 발전시킬 수 있다. 그러나 수술장에서의 타임아웃처럼 일상적으로 반복적으로 활용되어야만 효과가 있다.

Social learning and developmental psychologists indicate that people can and do, in fact, engage in such reflection with some regularity and that it can lead to improved decision making.29,35,36 But, just as with surgical time-outs, such practices are most likely to be effective when they are used routinely.



"객관적"인 타인의 조언 구하기 (Consulting with “objective” others)


긴 리뷰 논문에서, Mercier와 Sperber는 잠깐의 일시정지 시간을 가지고 (일상적으로는 간과하기 쉬운 단계인) 자기성찰과 논리적 사고를 하더라도 우리의 논리적 사고는 여전히 많은 편견(bolstering, confirmation)에 취약하다는 것을 보여줬다. 그래서 결국 이미 직관적으로 지지하고 있는, 혹은 지지할 동기가 충분한 결론에 도달한다는 것이다. 따라서 자기성찰과 논리적 사고만으로 모든 문제를 해결하는 것은 불가능하다.

In a lengthy review article, Mercier and Sperber6 examine data showing that even when we pause to reflect and reason—apparently bypassing the automatic processes responsible for many self-serving judgments—our reasoning is still subject to a series of biases (such as bolstering and confirmation bias) that increase the likelihood we will produce arguments in support of conclusions we already support intuitively or are motivated to support. Thus, reflection and reasoning are unlikely to solve all problems of bias. 


그렇지만, 어떤 주제에 대한 집단 토의를 통해서 더 만족스러운 결론에 도달할 수 있다는 근거가 많이 있다. 그 이유는...

첫째로, 사람들은 타당한 주장을 만들어내는 것보다, 이미 나온 주장에 대한 평가를 하는데 더 능숙하다. 

두번째로, 많은 사람들이 다른 사람의 주장은 우선 반박하고 보는 습성이 있어서, 이 과정에서 타당하지 않은 주장이 걸러질 수 있다.

또한 다른 사람의 조언을 구하는 과정에서 스스로 어떻게 평가받을지에 대한 생각을 하게 되므로, 자연스럽게 자신의 평판을 보호하려는 노력을 할 수밖에 없다.

Nevertheless, data indicate that group discussion of arguments often leads to the production of more satisfactory arguments—first, because people are better at evaluating argument than producing sound arguments, and, second, because people are more likely to reject the arguments of others, which serves to filter arguments.6 Moreover, consulting others provides us with a sense of how our actions will be perceived, and we naturally aim to protect our reputations.12


이러한 관점에서 윤리위원회나 IRB나, 윤리 상담원이 그러한 피드백을 주기에 적절한 사람들이다. 그들이 어떤 전문지식을 갖추었기 때문이라기보다는 "외부인(outsider)"의 입장에서 고려해야 할 가치나 중요한 것들을 강조해줄 수 있기 때문이다.

From this perspective, ethics committee members, institutional review boards, and ethics consultants may be in an ideal position to provide such feedback—not so much because they possess special expertise in ethics as that they are typically in a good position to provide an “outsider” perspective and to highlight the values and concerns others might have. 


비록 모든 결정마다 조언을 구하는 것은 현실적으로 불가능하겠지만, 나쁜 의사결정이 될 기미를 보여주는 일종의 "신호"가 나타났을 때는 자동적으로 다른 이의 조언을 얻어야만 하도록 만들어두는 것이 좋다. 예를 들어, 의구심이 들 때라든가, 다른 사람이 방식에 대한 문제를 제기할 때라든가, 스스로 생각하기에 그 결정이 논쟁이 될 것 같다는 생각이 들 때 등이 될 수 있다.

Although it might not be feasible to invite a consultation on every business decision, it should be automatic to consult 

with others whenever we encounter the sort of “flag” that often precedes bad decisions—for instance, if we have reservations, if others have expressed criticism of the arrangement, or if we believe the decision has the potential to be controversial.



Automating ethical choices


특정 미덕(virtue)에 헌신하는 사람들은, 단순히 의지에 맞기기보다는 그들의 환경을 그러한 미덕에 맞는 좋은 행동을 할 수 밖에 없는 구조로 만들어둔다. 예컨대 감자칩을 먹지 않기 위해서는 아예 집에 사두지 않는 것이 좋다.

Individuals who are committed to virtue have long structured their lives to facilitate good actions rather than relying on willpower. For example, it may be easier to avoid eating potato chips if they are not brought into the house. (Celibate monks and nuns frequently cloistered themselves for analogous reasons.) 


따라서 우리는 의사들이 이러한 자발적인 구조를 만들어둬야 한다고 생각한다. 자신의 가치에 따라서 "개인별 정책"을 두는 것은 기관이나 조직이 신경써야 하는 부분을 줄여줄 수 있다.

We therefore encourage physicians to voluntarily structure their own lives in ways that reduce the need to rely on reflection and willpower in individual situations. Developing “personal policies” based on one’s own reflected values may reduce the need for governments and institutions to regulate all dimensions of medical practice. 






 2013 Jul;88(7):924-928.

Humble TaskRestoring Virtue in an Age of Conflicted Interests.

Source

Dr. DuBois is director and Hubert Maeder Professor, Bander Center for Medical Business Ethics, Saint Louis University, St. Louis, Missouri. Ms. Kraus is a seventh-year MD/PhD student and coordinator, Bander Center for Medical Business Ethics, Saint Louis University, St. Louis, Missouri. Dr. Mikulec is professor, Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri. Dr. Cruz-Flores is professor and interim chair, Department of Neurology and Psychiatry, and director, Souers Stroke Institute, Saint Louis University, St. Louis, Missouri. Dr. Bakanas is associate professor, Department of Internal Medicine, and associate director, Bander Center for Medical Business Ethics, Saint Louis University, St. Louis, Missouri.

Abstract

Virtues define how we behave when no one else is watching; accordingly, they serve as a bedrock for professional self-regulation, particularly at the level of the individual physician. From the time of William Osler through the end of the 20th century, physician virtue was viewed as an important safeguard for patients and research participants. However, the Institute of Medicine, Association of American Medical Colleges, and other policy groups-relying on social science data indicating that ethical decisions often result from unconscious and biased processes, particularly in the face of financial conflicts of interest-have increasingly rejected physician virtue as an important safeguard for patients.The authors argue that virtue is still needed in medicine-at least as a supplement to regulatory solutions (such as mandatory disclosures). For example, although rarely treated as a reportable conflict of interest, standard fee-for-service medicine can present motives to prioritize self-interest or institutional interests over patientinterests. Because conflicts of interest broadly construed are ubiquitous, physician self-regulation (or professional virtue) is still needed. Therefore, the authors explore three strategies that physicians can adopt to minimize the influence of self-serving biases when making medical business ethics decisions. They further argue that humility must serve as a crowning virtue-not a meek humility but, rather, a courageous willingness to recognize one's own limitations and one's need to use "compensating strategies," such as time-outs and consultation with more objective others, when making decisions in the face of conflicting interests.

PMID:

 

23702525

 

[PubMed - as supplied by publisher]











(출처 : http://www.quotehd.com/quotes/words/Virtue)


모든 미덕은 올바른 행위를 통해 요약되어 나타난다.





우리에게 선(善)이 필요한 이유

The Persistent Need for Virtue



IOM과 AAMC 보고서의 그 어디에도 선(善, virtue) 이라는 단어는 등장하지 않는다. 의사가 반드시 갖춰야 할 것으로 '진실성(integrity)'이란 개념을 다루지도 않았다. 경재적 이해관계가 첨예한 이 시대에 전문성(professionalism)을 이런 접근방법으로 다루는 것의 문제는 선(善)이 절실하게 필요함에도 불구하고 무시된다는 것이다.

Nowhere in the IOM or AAMC reports does the word virtue appear, and the concept of integrity is never invoked as something physicians must possess. The problem with the current approach to addressing professionalism in the face of financial interests is that virtues are ignored as a safeguard even though they are still desperately needed. 




COI는 만연해 있다.(Conflicts of interest are ubiquitous)


적발 가능한 COI는 물론이고, 감시를 통해서 통제할 수 있는 COI 역시 극히 일부분이다. 의료계에서 벌어졌던 최악의 금융 범죄는 복잡하게 산업계와 얽혀서 일어난 것이 아니라 지극히 단순한 행위별수가제 내에서 일어난 것이다.

Only a small subset of financial conflicts of interest is readily identifiable and easily controlled through oversight. Many of the worst financial crimes in medicine have occurred through simple fee-for-service mechanisms rather than as entanglements with industry.19–21 


산업계 뿐만 아니라 환자보호단체, 병원, 보험업자, 주정부와 연방정부까지도 의사의 행동에 영향을 미치고자 한다. 의사의 객관성을 위협하거나, 의사의 판단에 보상을 한다.

And not only industry, but also patient advocacy groups, hospitals, insurers, and state and federal governments try to influence physician behavior (e.g., prescribing and referral patterns), threatening the objectivity and beneficence of physicians’ judgments.22,23


의사의 경제적 이해관계와 관련된 최근의 이야기는 다음과 같은 것들이 있다. 매주 의사의 상대가치점수를 매기면서 더 많은 검사를 하기를 권장하는 진료담당자, 자신이 운영하는 삼차병원에 부당하게 넓은 범위의 환자 입원 요청을 받도록 만드는 병원 CEO, 내과적 관리가 더 나음에도 비싼 침습적 외과적 절차를 권하는 의사 등이 있다.

A recent set of stories by physicians on financial relationships23 described the following: A practice manager who reported weekly on physicians’ relative value units while encouraging the physicians to order more tests; a hospital CEO who required physicians to take calls from an inappropriately broad catchment area to increase enrollment in his tertiary care center; and physicians in a practice who continued to perform expensive invasive cardiac procedures when medical management was better supported by the evidence. 


위에서 각각의 경우는 의사 개인의 이익이 마치 자신의 사업 동료(business partner)를 만족시키면서 직업의 안정성을 높이는 행위로 비쳐질 수 있다. 즉, 산업계와의 관계 못지 않은 자기합리화가 작동하는 것이다. 하지만 현재로서는 이 중 어떤 상황도 이러한 COI를 신고한다거나 외부의 관리를 필요로 하지 않는다. 더우기 의사가 행위별수가제 하에서 일한다는 사실과, 병원에 고용된 의사라는 사실을 고려하면 이러한 사실을 신고한다는 것이 불필요함은 자명하다.

In each case, physicians’ own self-interest might be viewed as satisfying their business partners to increase earnings and maintain job security— That is, in principle, the dynamic of self-serving bias might be activated in these situations every bit as much as in a situation involving a relationship with industry. Yet none of these scenarios requires disclosure or management under current conflict-of-interest policies, nor is it clear that disclosures are necessary, as it seems well known by patients that physicians bill for services and work for hospitals.



정책을 통한 해결에는 한계가 있다.(Current policy solutions have limitations)


정책을 기반으로 한 감독 시스템은 결정적인 한계가 있다. 빠져나갈 구멍이 반드시 있다는 것이다. 이 빠져나갈 구멍을 찾는 것은 시간이 걸리고, 그 구멍을 막으려면 추가적인 행정적인 부담이 든다. 

Policy-based oversight systems have significant limitations: Loopholes are inevitably found. Identifying these loopholes takes time (enabling abuses to occur), and closing them requires new layers of administrative burden.24,25 


현재의 COI 정책은 개개인의 보고에 의존하고 있어서, 의사마다 규칙에 대한 해석이 달라지고, 일관된 적용이 불가능하며 잘 따르지 않는다. 또한 COI에 대한 행정적인 해결책은 비효율적이다. 

Current conflict-of-interest policies rely on self-reporting, yet physicians often interpret the rules differently, enforcement is inconsistent, and compliance is spotty.26–28 Further, administrative solutions to conflicts of interest may be ineffective: 


이렇게 흔히 사용되는 '공개(disclosure)'를 통한 COI의 관리 방법이 오히려 문제를 더 악화시킨다는 근거도 있다. 규칙을 기반으로 한 접근방법은 의사들의 행동이 손쉽게 감시가능하고, 규칙을 강제하기도 쉬울 때에 효과적인데, 의료에서 일어나는 COI의 형태를 생각해보면, 이렇게 되기는 오토바이를 타는 사람에게 헬멧을 쓰도록 만드는 것보다도 어렵다.

Some evidence suggests that disclosure—the most commonly mandated management strategy for conflicts of interest—may exacerbate rather than reduce problems with conflicted judgment.29 Finally, rule-based approaches to changing behavior tend to work best when behaviors are readily observed and rules are readily enforced,30 yet this is extremely difficult to accomplish in regard to the many forms of conflicts of interest in medicine—much more difficult than, say, enforcing motorcycle helmet or traffic light laws.31,32


마지막으로, 의사에게 "우리는 당신이 환자를 볼 때 이기적으로 행동할 것이라고 가정할 것입니다"라는 메시지를 주는 것은 전혀 좋을 것이 없다. 시니컬한 태도는 그 자체만으로도 비윤리적 의사결정의 예측인자이다.

Finally, nothing good can come of the message to physicians that “we assume you will behave selfishly when dealing with patients.” Cynicism itself is a predictor of unethical decision making.9,33


IOM 보고서의 주된 결론 중 하나는 "만일 의료기관이 자발적으로 COI문제를 해결하지 않으면 외부 통제의 압박은 증가할 수 밖에 없다"라는 것이다."Pellegrino는 비슷하지만, 조금 다르게 개개인을 향해 말했다. "만일 연구와 진료에 있어 창의력을 발휘할 수 있는 자유가 남용될 경우, 모든 의사와 과학자들은 도덕적 신뢰를 잃을 것이며, 곧바로 사회적 개입이 있을 것이다."

One of the main conclusions of the IOM report was precisely that “if medical institutions do not act voluntarily to strengthen their conflict-of-interest policies and procedures, the pressure for external regulation is likely to increase.”14(p2) Pellegrino3 has argued similarly, however, appealing to individual rather than institutional virtue: “If the freedom to be creative about clinical healing as well as scientific research is abused, all physicians and scientists are morally diminished and society may justly intervene.”


그렇다면 선(善)의 존재를 가로막는 온갖 심리학적 데이터를 넘어서 선(善)에 도달하기 위한 - 나이브거나 감상적이지만은 않은 - 방법이 있을까?

So can anything be done to foster virtues in a manner that is not merely naïve and romantic, but responsive to the very psychological data that challenge the existence of virtues?




 2013 Jul;88(7):924-928.

Humble TaskRestoring Virtue in an Age of Conflicted Interests.

Source

Dr. DuBois is director and Hubert Maeder Professor, Bander Center for Medical Business Ethics, Saint Louis University, St. Louis, Missouri. Ms. Kraus is a seventh-year MD/PhD student and coordinator, Bander Center for Medical Business Ethics, Saint Louis University, St. Louis, Missouri. Dr. Mikulec is professor, Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri. Dr. Cruz-Flores is professor and interim chair, Department of Neurology and Psychiatry, and director, Souers Stroke Institute, Saint Louis University, St. Louis, Missouri. Dr. Bakanas is associate professor, Department of Internal Medicine, and associate director, Bander Center for Medical Business Ethics, Saint Louis University, St. Louis, Missouri.

Abstract

Virtues define how we behave when no one else is watching; accordingly, they serve as a bedrock for professional self-regulation, particularly at the level of the individual physician. From the time of William Osler through the end of the 20th century, physician virtue was viewed as an important safeguard for patients and research participants. However, the Institute of Medicine, Association of American Medical Colleges, and other policy groups-relying on social science data indicating that ethical decisions often result from unconscious and biased processes, particularly in the face of financial conflicts of interest-have increasingly rejected physician virtue as an important safeguard for patients.The authors argue that virtue is still needed in medicine-at least as a supplement to regulatory solutions (such as mandatory disclosures). For example, although rarely treated as a reportable conflict of interest, standard fee-for-service medicine can present motives to prioritize self-interest or institutional interests over patientinterests. Because conflicts of interest broadly construed are ubiquitous, physician self-regulation (or professional virtue) is still needed. Therefore, the authors explore three strategies that physicians can adopt to minimize the influence of self-serving biases when making medical business ethics decisions. They further argue that humility must serve as a crowning virtue-not a meek humility but, rather, a courageous willingness to recognize one's own limitations and one's need to use "compensating strategies," such as time-outs and consultation with more objective others, when making decisions in the face of conflicting interests.

PMID:

 

23702525

 

[PubMed - as supplied by publisher]












(출처 : http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=conflict-of-interest-disclosure)






1966년, 비윤리적인 의학 실험 논문 중에서 사람을 대상으로 한 일련의 논문들을 리뷰한 뒤, 하바드의 저명한 의사인 Henry Beecher는 연구에는 두 가지 윤리적 보호장치가 있다고 말했다. 

"하나는 '설명에 근거한 동의(informed consent)'이고 '더 신뢰성이 높은 다른 보호장치는 현명한, 양심이 있고, 공감할 줄 아는, 책임감 있는 연구자'이다."

In 1966, after reviewing a series of unethical medical experiments conducted with human subjects, the prominent Harvard physician Henry Beecher1 concluded that there are two primary protections in research: informed consent and “the more reliable safeguard provided by the presence of an intelligent, conscientious, compassionate, responsible investigator.”


선(善)한 의사-연구자만이 환자-피험자를 가장 잘 보호해줄 수 있다는 Beecher의 생각은 19세기 William Osler경 시절부터 있어 왔으며, 20세기에 아리스토텔레스적(Aristotelian)인 선에 대한 연구를 해온 Pellegrino와 Thomasma의 저술에서도 드러난다. 

Beecher’s view that a virtuous physician–investigator provides the best protection for patient–subjects could be observed from the late 19th century in the writings of Sir William Osler2 through the end of the 20th century in the writings of Pellegrino and Thomasma,3,4 who systematically adapted Aristotelian virtue theory to the field of medicine. 


이들에 따르면, 전문직의 선(善)이란 "목표를 달성할 수 있게 하는" 어떠한 특성으로, telos라고도 불린다. Pellegrino는 "잘 낫게 하는 능력과 같은 기질은 의학, 간호학, 치의학 분야의 선(善)이라고 할 수 있다"라고 하였다.

In their view, the virtues of a profession are those traits of character that enable individuals to achieve the goal, or telos, of the profession. Pellegrino states that “those dispositions that impart the capacity to heal well are the virtues of medicine, nursing, dentistry, and the like.”2 


이러한 기질에는 신뢰와 약속, 선행, 자신의 이익을 우선하지 않는 것, 공감과 돌봄, 지적 정직성, 정의, 신중함 등이 포함된다. 이는 '아무도 보고 있지 않을 때 어떻게 행동하는가'에 의해서 정의된다고도 볼 수 있고, 전문직의 자기통제력, 특히 개개 의사 수준에서의 자기통제력의 근간이라 할 수 있다.

Such dispositions include fidelity to trust and promise, beneficence, effacement of self-interest, compassion and caring, intellectual honesty, justice, and prudence. These dispositions (or traits, in the language of psychology) define how we behave when no one else is watching; accordingly, they serve as a bedrock for professional self-regulation, particularly at the level of the individual physician.5



의학의 선(善) : 과학도 포기한 소설같은 생각?

Virtues in Medicine: A Romantic Notion Dispelled by Science? 


최근 몇 년간, 일련의 보고서와 정책에 따라서 의학에서의 선(善)은 의문의 대상이 되어왔다. 이론적인 수준 뿐만 아니라 실제적인 수준에서도 그러한데, 선(善)이란 것이 가장 의심을 받는 기질이 되어버린 것이다.

In recent years, through a series of reports and policy decisions, the place of virtue in medicine has been questioned—not so much on theoretical grounds as on empirical grounds. It is the notion that virtues are “dispositions” that has fallen under the most suspicion. 


아리스토텔레스나 Pellegrino와 같은 선을 연구하는 사람들은 선(善)한 사람들이라고 해서 기계와 같은 것은 아니라고 말한다. 그들은 자발적으로 행동하고, 그들도 실수를 한다. 따라서 선(善)한 의사라고 해서 건강을 최고로 지켜줄 수 있는 것은 아니다.

Virtue theorists such as Aristotle and Pellegrino never thought that virtuous people are automatons: They act voluntarily and they are capable of error. Thus, virtuous physicians may not always behave in ways that maximally promote a healing relationship. 


그럼에도 불구하고, 어떤 의사가 선(善)하다면, 그는 환경이 다양하게 변화하더라도 항상 일정한 수준으로 선(善)하게 행동할 것이라는 기대를 갖게 한다. 반대로 일련의 사회과학 실험 연구결과를 보면, 사람은 보통 행동이 일관되지 않다. 윤리적 선택은 그 상황이 어떠냐에 따라서 달라지고, 누군가가 지켜보고 있는지 여부에 따라 달라지고, 심지어는 그 방의 공기에 향과 같이 매우 사소한 것에 의해서도 달라진다.

Nevertheless, if physicians have a virtuous disposition, one would expect them to act virtuously in a fairly consistent manner across a variety of environmental situations. In contrast, a series of social science experiments indicate that humans in general are not consistent in their behavior. Ethical decisions are affected by how things are framed,6 whether we are observed,7 and even by seemingly trivial environmental factors such as scents in the air.8 


그리고 더욱 우려되는 점은, 개개인이 일관되게 행동하는 것은 실제로 그 사람이 일관되기 때문이 아니라, 그 사람의 '자기 고양적 편견(self-serving bias) 때문에 그렇게 보이는 것이라는 점이다.

More worrisome is evidence that to the extent that individuals are consistent, they appear to be consistent in acting on a self-serving bias rather than on self-effacement. 9,10 


마지막으로, 데이터를 보면 사람들은 직관을 통해서 도덕적 판단을 내리기 때문에 비뚤림(bias)에 무척 취약하다. 논리적 사고는 직관적 결론을 합리화 시키기 위해서나 사용되는 경우가 흔하다. Dana와 Loewenstein이 사회과학 연구를 종합해 본 결과, 의사들도 이러한 것에서 자유롭지 못하다는 것이 밝혀졌다.

Finally, data indicate that individuals often arrive at their moral judgments through intuition, which is highly susceptible to the influence of bias; reasoning is frequently used only to justify judgments arrived at intuitively.11,12 A review of social science data by Dana and Loewenstein13 suggests that physicians are not immune from these dynamics. 


그러나 여러 데이터를 종합하여 보면 IOM이나 AAMC와 같은 기관은 연구에 참여할 대상자 선정에 있어서 의사 개개인의 선(善)을 안전장치로 사용하지 않고 있다. 특히 경제적 이득이 관여되는 갈등상황 (financial Conflict of Interest, 이하 COI)에서 더욱 그렇다.

In response to such data, many organizations— including the Institute of Medicine (IOM) and the Association of American Medical Colleges (AAMC)—appear to have rejected the notion of relying on physician virtue as a safeguard of participants and patients, particularly in the face of financial conflicts of interest.14,15 


IOM은 의학연구, 교육, 진료에서의 COI에 대한 보고서를 내놓으면서 "일부 연구결과에 따르면 매우 작은 선물조차도 의사결정과정에 무의식적인 비뚤림을 유발한다"라고 하였다. 이 보고서는 부록에 "의학에서 COI를 다룰 때 심리학적 연구결과를 어떻게 활용할 수 있을 것인가"라는 내용으로 자기 고양적 편견을 다루었다.

The IOM Report Conflict of Interest in Medical Research, Education, and Practice14(p4) observes that “some research suggests that small gifts can contribute to unconscious bias in decision making and advice giving.” The report included an appendix, “How psychological research can inform policies for dealing with conflicts of interest in medicine,” that focuses on the self-serving bias described in the following terms:



개개인이 어떤 특정 결과를 얻고자 할 때, 그들은 무의식적으로, 비의도적으로 그 결론을 지지하는 근거를 선호하는 경향이 있다. 더 나아가 여러 근거를 비교하는 과정이 자신도 의식하지 못하는 채로 이루어져서, 연구자는 자신은 진심으로 객관적이었다고 주장하게 된다.

… research shows that when individuals stand to gain by reaching a particular conclusion, they tend to unconsciously and unintentionally weigh evidence in a biased fashion that favors that conclusion. Furthermore, the process of weighing evidence can happen beneath the individual’s level of awareness, such that a biased individual will sincerely claim objectivity.14(pp358–359)


2008년 의학교육에 대한 산업계의 자금지원에 대해 연구한 AAMC의 테스크포스도 비슷한 결과을 내놨다. 여기서 내린 결론도 IOM의 보고서와 비슷하다.  "개인의 이해관계는 선의를 가진 사람들조차 무의식적인 수준에서 영향을 준다. 그들에게 "도덕적으로 움직일 수 있는 여지"를 줌으로써 안심하고 비윤리적 행동을 하게 만든다"

Similarly, when the AAMC’s Task Force on Industry Funding of Medical Education issued its report15 in 2008, it was preceded by a 43-page document, “The Scientific Basis of Influence and Reciprocity: A Symposium,”16(p2) which explored data from neuroscience, psychology, and behavioral economics on the influence of conflicts of interest on physicians. As with the IOM report, a prominent conclusion was that “self-interest unconsciously biases well-intended people, who give themselves bounded ‘moral wiggle room’ to engage in unethical behavior with an easy conscience.” 


이러한 자기 고양적 편견의 무의식적 특성은, 두 보고서에서 모두 드러나고 있으며, 왜 대부분의 의사들이 그들의 동료가 기업의 마케팅에 영향을 받는다고 생각하면서 자신은 그렇지 않다고 믿는지에 대해 설명해준다.

This unconscious nature of self-serving bias, noted in both reports, helps to explain why most physicians believe that their colleagues are influenced by industry marketing although they themselves are not.17



개인의 사리분별에서 공적인 정책으로 (The shift from prudence to public policy)


IOM과 AAMC 보고서는 모두 광범위한 정책에 대한 권고를 하고 있다. 이 권고안에 맞춰서 PPSPAAHC Act of 2009에서는 메디케어, 메디케이드, SCHIP를 받는 제약회사와 의료 기구 제조 회사는 의사에게 지불한 내역(자문료, 사례비, 선물, 식대, 유흥, 연구 및 교육 보조비)을 대해서 보고할 것을 의무화시켜서 의사 개인의 신고에 의존하던 것을 투명하게, 책임있게 만들었다. 

The IOM and the AAMC reports both offer broad-ranging policy recommendations in response to the potentially toxic combination of financial conflicts of interest and physician (really, human) self-serving bias. Consistent with some of these recommendations, the Physician Payments Sunshine Provisions of America’s Affordable Health Choices Act of 2009 (H.R. 3200) requires U.S. drug and device manufacturers covered under Medicare, Medicaid, or the State Children’s Health Insurance Plan to report annually a broad array of payments to physicians, including payments for consulting and service, honoraria, gifts, food, entertainment, and support for education and research, thus ushering in a new era of transparency and accountability that bypasses the need to rely on physician disclosures.



양보할 수 있는 것과 해결해야 할 것(Concessions and challenges)


여기서, 우리는 사람이 자기 고양적으로 행동한다는 근거를 제시하려는 것도 아니고, 의사의 경제적 이해관계를 통제할 수 있는 정책에 대해서 이야기하려는 것도 아니다. 여기서 다루려는 것은 다음과 같다.

In this article, we do not contest data indicating that humans frequently act in ways that are unconsciously self-serving. Nor do we contest the wisdom of having some policies to guide the financial relationships of physicians; Such policies were developed in response to real abuses of relationships.18 Rather, we argue the following:



자기통제가 가능한 선(善)한 의사가 필요하다 : 외부의 규제만으로는 만연한 COI를 통제할 수 없다.

• A persistent need for physician virtue and self-regulation exists; external regulations alone cannot adequately address conflicts of interest, which are ubiquitous.


일부 행동 양식을 바꿈으로서 의사가 선(善)하게 행동할 가능성을 높일 수 있다. 이는 의사의 경제적 이해관계를 높이는 것과의 갈등이 있을 때에도 의학의 근본적인 목적을 달성하는 것이라고 할 수 있다.

• Several habits can increase the likelihood that physicians will act in virtuous ways, that is, ways that promote the primary goals of medicine even when these goals conflict with maximizing physicians’ financial self-interest. 


의사는 겸손함의 미덕(virtue of humility)를 가져야 한다. 그럼으로써 자신에 대한 "보완 전략"을 사용하여 개인의 이익보다 의학의 근본적인 목적을 달성할 수 있다.

• Physicians require the virtue of humility (understood as self-knowledge and an openness to the perspective of others rather than as meekness) to support use of the habits, or “compensatory strategies,” that will enable physicians to prioritize the goals of medicine over their own self-interest.








 2013 Jul;88(7):924-928.

Humble TaskRestoring Virtue in an Age of Conflicted Interests.

Source

Dr. DuBois is director and Hubert Maeder Professor, Bander Center for Medical Business Ethics, Saint Louis University, St. Louis, Missouri. Ms. Kraus is a seventh-year MD/PhD student and coordinator, Bander Center for Medical Business Ethics, Saint Louis University, St. Louis, Missouri. Dr. Mikulec is professor, Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri. Dr. Cruz-Flores is professor and interim chair, Department of Neurology and Psychiatry, and director, Souers Stroke Institute, Saint Louis University, St. Louis, Missouri. Dr. Bakanas is associate professor, Department of Internal Medicine, and associate director, Bander Center for Medical Business Ethics, Saint Louis University, St. Louis, Missouri.

Abstract

Virtues define how we behave when no one else is watching; accordingly, they serve as a bedrock for professional self-regulation, particularly at the level of the individual physician. From the time of William Osler through the end of the 20th century, physician virtue was viewed as an important safeguard for patients and research participants. However, the Institute of Medicine, Association of American Medical Colleges, and other policy groups-relying on social science data indicating that ethical decisions often result from unconscious and biased processes, particularly in the face of financial conflicts of interest-have increasingly rejected physician virtue as an important safeguard for patients.The authors argue that virtue is still needed in medicine-at least as a supplement to regulatory solutions (such as mandatory disclosures). For example, although rarely treated as a reportable conflict of interest, standard fee-for-service medicine can present motives to prioritize self-interest or institutional interests over patientinterests. Because conflicts of interest broadly construed are ubiquitous, physician self-regulation (or professional virtue) is still needed. Therefore, the authors explore three strategies that physicians can adopt to minimize the influence of self-serving biases when making medical business ethics decisions. They further argue that humility must serve as a crowning virtue-not a meek humility but, rather, a courageous willingness to recognize one's own limitations and one's need to use "compensating strategies," such as time-outs and consultation with more objective others, when making decisions in the face of conflicting interests.

PMID:

 

23702525

 

[PubMed - as supplied by publisher]








(출처 : http://pavetech.olhblogspace.com/?p=1574)

'Team'이라는 단어에 'I'는 없다.







팀워크는 믿을 수 있고, 안전하고, 효과적인 의료를 위해서 반드시 필요하다.

Teamwork is essential for reliable, safe, and effective practice.


IOM(institute of medicine)의 대표적인 보고서, To Err Is Human에서는 주로 입원 환자에서 일어나는 환자안전 문제에 대해 다루고 있다.

Although one of these seminal IOM reports, To Err Is Human, focused mainly on inpatient events,13





이와 다르게 PCMH 운동은 외래 환자에 대한 진료의 기준을 세우고자 하는 것이다.

The patient-centered medical home (PCMH) movement seeks to improve care in the ambulatory setting by establishing standards of practice that organize care around individual patients (List 1).15


초기의 PCMH운동 모델로부터..

(1)위와 같은 기준을 달성하기 위하여 다양한 전문직이 효과적으로 팀을 이뤄야 한다는 것, 

(2)향상된 팀워크는 다른 어떤 것의 향상보다 환자 결과(patient outcome)에 가장 긍정적인 영향을 준다는 것이 알려졌다.

Early PCMH demonstration models suggest that achieving these standards requires an effective interprofessional team and that improved teamwork has a more positive influence on patient outcomes than other quality improvement strategies.16


PCMH에서는 환자를 돌보기 위한 여러 노력을 조화(coordinate)시켜야 하나, 대부분의 전문직은 그런 식으로 일하는 것에 대해 훈련받은 적이 없다.

who work in a PCMH must coordinate their efforts to care for a patient, most of these professionals have never trained together to do so.


이러한 훈련의 부족은, 각각의 전문직이 서로서로 고립된 상태로(siloed) 길러지는 보건 전문직의 교육과정상 특히 두드러진다. 또한 이들 중 대부분은 일차 진료를 경험하게 된다. 

This deficit is particularly heightened both in academic health centers where the curricula of health professions students are largely siloed (e.g., physicians-in-training rarely train with nurses- or pharmacists-intraining), and among large numbers of trainees who move in and out of primary care practices.17,18


팀훈련의 과학을 바탕으로 설계된 프로그램은 팀 구성원들의 의사소통기술, 팀행동(team behavior), 직업 수행 능력, 그리고 안전진료환경의 조성에 긍정적인 영향을 준다는 것이 밝혀졌다. 그럼에도 불구하고 대학병원의 일차진료(academic primary care practice)에서는 이런 것이 부족하다.

Evidence shows that programs built on the science of team training benefit through improved team member communication skills, improved team behavior and work performance, and a positive change in the practice safety climate11,19;  nonetheless, experience is lacking in academic primary care practices


Salas 등은 20년간의 효과적인 팀워크를 다룬 연구들을 분석하여 팀워크에 필수적인 "핵심 요소(core component)"를 정의했다. 그리고 이 역량들을 "Big Five"라고 명명하였다. Big Five는 다음과 같다.

(1) 팀 리더쉽 : Team leadership

(2) 상호 업무 감시 : Mutual performance monitoring

(3) 상호 지원 : Backup behavior

(4) 융통성 : Adaptability

(5) 팀 지향 : Team orientation


Salas and colleagues21 analyzed 20 years of teamwork effectiveness research and identified the “core components” of essential teamwork knowledge, skills, and attitudes. They labeled these components, or competencies, the “Big Five,” and these are team leadership, mutual performance monitoring, backup behavior, adaptability, and team orientation





Table 1에 제시된 사례를 바탕으로 성공적인 팀워크에 대한 사례를 제공하고, 팀워크가 잘 작동하는 경우는 어떠한 것인지, 그리고 PCMH standard와는 어떻게 대응될 수 있는가를 나열해두었다.

Further, in Table 1, we juxtapose teamwork failures in the case vignette with teamwork successes, providing potential examples of how high-functioning teams could respond within the framework of the PCMH standards.



팀 리더쉽 (Team Leadership)


팀 리더쉽은 다음과 같은 능력을 포함한다.

팀 구성원의 활동을 조화시키고, 

업무가 적절히 배분되도록 하며, 

수행 결과를 평가하고, 

피드백을 주고, 

팀 수준에서의 수행 능력을 향상시키며, 

고차원의 수행능력에 향한 동기를 부여하는 것.


Team leadership denotes the ability to coordinate team members’ activities, ensure that tasks are distributed appropriately, evaluate performance, provide feedback, enhance the team’s ability to perform, and inspire the drive for high-level performance.23,24


리더쉽이 환자 결과(patient outcome)에 미치는 영향을 측정하는 것은 어려운 일이지만, 기존의 여러 연구로부터 팀 리더쉽은 환자의 일일 목표 달성, 환자의 만족도 상승, 임상에서의 미시적인 수행 능력 향상, 부정적 사건의 감소와 연관이 있다는 것이 밝혀졌다.

Although the impact of leadership on patient outcomes is more difficult to assess, previous researchers have found that positive team leadership practices have been associated with increased patient ability to accomplish daily goals, increased patient satisfaction, improved clinical microsystem performance, and reduced adverse events.29–31


또한 팀 리더십은 마치 액체와 같아서, PCMH팀이나 업무, 문제상황에 따라서 리더의 역할은 변해야 한다. 어떤 상황에서 시스템의 오작동을 발견하고, 개선을 위한 노력을 조화시키는 역할을 하기에 가장 적합한 사람은 그러한 일을 할 수 있도록, 그에 합당한 위치를 부여받아야 한다.

Importantly, team leadership is fluid, and the role of leader varies by PCMH team, task, and problem. The person most appropriate to detect a system breakdown in a given situation and then coordinate improvement efforts should be in a position to do so.


다양한 진료 팀에서 가장 적합한 리더는 그 상황에 따라서 달라질 수 있다. 예컨대 간호사는 환자와의 지속성(continuity)을 유지할 수 있다는 측면에서 적합할 수 있다.

The most appropriate leader for each of the various care teams would depend on the unique staffing of the clinic; however, nurses may serve the role of team leaders effectively, as nurses could provide continuity for the patient in a setting that inherently has a fluctuating provider and student presence.



상호 업무 감시 (Mutual Performance Monitoring)


상호 업무 감시란 팀 구성원이 서로의 의도(intention)과 역할, 책임을 공유하고 이해함으로써, 팀의 성공을 위해 다른 사람의 업무 수행을 감시해줄 수 있는 능력을 말한다.

Mutual performance monitoring denotes the ability to develop a shared understanding among team members regarding one another’s intentions, roles, and responsibilities so that members can accurately monitor one another’s performance for the purpose of collective success.24 


이러한 역량은 "마음챙김(mindfulness)"과 몇 가지 특성을 공유하고 있다. Mindfulness는 고위험이 동반되는 산업에서 신뢰도와 안전을 높이기 위해 만들어졌으며 다음과 같은 것들을 포함한다.

실패를 염두에 두고, 그것에 대비하기.

전문가는 그의 지위나 등급에 무관하게 존중하기

예측하지 못했던 상황이 발생할 경우 적응하기

더 큰 그림을 염두에 둠과 동시에 구체적인 업무에 집중하기

위계구조를 상황에 맞게 바꾸거나, 심지어는 없애버릴 줄 알기

This competency shares several characteristics with “mindfulness,” a construct used to increase reliability and safety in other high-risk industries. Mindfulness includes 

remaining concerned about and guarding against the possibility of failure even in the most simple or heretofore successful of endeavors, 

deferring to expertise regardless of rank or status, 

being able to adapt when the unexpected occurs, 

concentrating on a specific task while having a sense of the bigger picture, 

and being willing to alter and flatten hierarchy as best fits the situation.32


환자 진료를 향상시키기 위한 첫 번째 단계는 진료와 관련한 광범위한 토론을 함으로써 팀워크의 의미를 찾고 공통된 진료 목표를 설정하는 것이다.

A first step to improving care for this patient and others at the clinic might be to hold a practice-wide discussion so as to explore the meaning of teamwork and create shared practice goals


팀의 모든 구성원은 매주 미팅을 통해서 반복적으로 일어나는 문제를 함께 다뤄야 하며, 여기서 어떠한 전략을 취해야 과정(process)가 최적화되고, 업무 능력이 향상될 수 있을가에 대한 토론이 이뤄져야 한다. 가끔은 팀 미팅에 환자 혹은 환자들을 초청할 필요가 있다.

All team members should assist with identifying recurring problems to address at the weekly practice-wide meetings during which they should together discuss what strategies will best streamline processes and improve performance. The team should consider inviting a patient or small patient panel to become partners in the team improvement efforts by attending all or some of these team meetings.


환자를 조언자로 삼아 진료와 관련된 서류, 정책, 프로그램의 발전을 꾀한 일부 health care system도 있다.

Several health care systems, such as PeaceHealth Oregon West Network, have worked with patient advisors to help develop or revise practice documents, policies, and programs.33



상호 지원 (Backup Behavior)


상호 지원이란 다른 팀 구성원의 도움을 요청할 때, 실시간으로 업무를 전환함으로써 변화하는 업무량과 압박이 증가하는 상황 속에서도 밸런스를 유지해내는 능력을 말한다. 

Backup behavior denotes the ability to anticipate the needs of other team members and shift tasks in real time to achieve and maintain balance during times of variable workload or increased pressure. 


팀 구성원은 하나의 업무 내에서 서로를 도울 수도 있고, 한 업무를 서로 독립적으로 나눠서 처리할 수도 있으며, 업무 능력 향상을 위한 조언을 서로 줄 수도 있다. 상호 지원은 단순히 필수적인 업무를 도와주는 것과 다르다. 상호 지원은 팀 구성원이 과도한 업무에 치이거나, 다른 스케쥴 등이 있을 때도 일어난다.

A team member can assist in performing a task, can complete a task separately, or can provide feedback to improve performance.34 Backup behavior is different from simply helping in the essential determination of need; backup behavior occurs only when a team member experiences overload or has a schedule- or logistical-based need.35,36


상호 지원이 성공적이 되려면, 팀 구성원들은 다른 구성원의 임무에 익숙해야 하며 필요에 따라서는 교차 훈련(cross-trained)을 받을 필요도 있다. 성공적인 상호 지원이 이뤄지기 위해서는 보건 전문직 피훈련자들이 기본적인 자세를 바꿔야 한다. 성공은 '독립성(in-dependence)'을 통해 달성되는 것이 아니라 진정한 의미의 '상호의존성(inter-dependence)'이 이뤄질 때 가능하다. 물리적 작업 공간을 공유하고 진료 시간을 공유하는 것은 상호작용 증진, 의사소통 증진을 통해서 상호 지원을 촉진시킨다.

For backup behavior to be successful, team members must be familiar with one another’s roles, and they must be cross-trained where appropriate. Successful backup behavior also requires a fundamental shift in the attitude of health professions trainees—from success defined as independence to success defined as interdependence. Sharing physical workspace and clinic time helps to facilitate both this attitude and backup behavior itself by providing more opportunities for interacting, communicating, and detecting team member cues and triggers.38 



융통성 (Adaptability)


융통성은 팀 구성원들이 근무 환경으로부터 오는 피드백에 맞춰서 전략을 수정해나가는 능력을 뜻한다.

Adaptability denotes the capability of team members to adjust their strategies for completing tasks on the basis of feedback from the work environment.39 


이러한 능력은 보상적 행위(compensatory behavior)를 필요로 하는데, 각각의 팀 구성원은 상호간에 합의된 목표를 달성하기 위해서 팀의 자원을 재분배할 수 있어야 하고, 환경이 바뀌면 행동의 순서를 바꿀 수도 있어야 한다. 융통성에 필요한 기술은 변화가 일어났음을 감지하는 것과, 진료의 질과 진료 결과에 미칠 수 있는 잠재적인 부정적 영향을 찾아낼 수 있는 것이다.

This capability requires compensatory behaviors; that is, each team member must be able to redistribute team resources or alter a course of action in response to changing conditions,40 allowing the team to meet mutually defined goals. Skills needed for adaptability include recognizing that a change has occurred (i.e., situational awareness) and identifying the potential negative impact it could present for care quality or outcomes.


개개인 입장에서, 팀 구성원은 진료의 공통된 모델에 대한 훈련을 받고, 개인의 목표와 책임보다 팀을 강조하는 교육을 받아야 한다. 역할극은 적응반응(adaptive response)를 배우는데 좋다.

Individually, each team member should receive training on a shared model of care, emphasizing team rather than individual goals and responsibilities. Role-play simulations can help each of them learn adaptive responses


팀의 입장에서는, 대부분의 구성원들이 환자에 대한 경험을 이야기 할 때, 모든 사람이 시스템의 문제를 찾아내고, 이로부터 결과를 향상시키기 위한 방법을 제안하는 것에 대해 불편함을 느끼지 말아야 한다.

At a team level, when the members discuss the experience of this patient at the weekly practice meeting, all should feel comfortable identifying system problems or suggesting processes or adaptations to improve outcomes.


팀 지향 (Team Orientation)


팀 지향이란 팀의 목표를 개인의 목표보다 우선하는 것, 다양한 관점과 시각을 추구하는 것, 자신의 노력을 상호의존성(interdependence)의 관점에서 인식함으로써 다른 팀 구성원을 존중하는 것을 뜻한다. 

Team or collective orientation denotes the tendency to prioritize team goals over individual goals, to encourage different viewpoints and perspectives, and to show respect and regard for each team member by evaluating and integrating his or her input in an interdependent manner.23,24,42 


팀 지향을 잘 따른다는 것은 (1)개개인의 직무를 다른 사람의 것과 맞추어가고, (2)다른 사람에게 도움을 요청하며, (3)팀의 성과에 기여하고, (4)팀 멤버십을 즐기는 것을 말한다. 몇몇 연구들은 팀 지향을 강조하는 팀에서 여러가지 것들이 더 우수함을 보여줬다.

collectively oriented individual works well with others, seeks others’ input, contributes to the team outcome, and enjoys team membership.43 Several studies provide evidence that teams scoring higher on collective orientation measures demonstrate faster, more accurate problem solving,44 higher productivity,45 improved cooperation,46,47 improved team performance,42,48 and improved supervisor ratings.49



역량의 상호의존성과 통합 (Competency Interdependence and Integration)


Salas 등은 팀워크의 구성요소를 지지하는 것들로서 공동의 mental model을 개발하고, 상호 신뢰를 쌓으며, closed-loop communication을 활용하는 것을 언급했다.

Salas and colleagues21 describe other supporting teamwork elements, including the development of a shared mental model (i.e., a common understanding of the relationship between the team’s tasks and goals and how team members interact), the achievement of mutual trust, and engagement in closed-loop communication, that all help coordinate the five competencies



행동으로 옮기기 (Call to Action)


의료 체계가 비용, 질, 접근성 등에서 광범위한 실패를 경험하면서, Academic Health Center에 전문직 직업군간 협력 훈련 모델을 도입하라는 압박이 거세지고 있다. 이와 같은 모델을 도입하여 훈련을 시킨다면, 팀워크 능력을 갖출 것이라는 기대 때문이다. 하지만 이러한 요구에도 불구하고 서로 독립된 상태로 고립된 교육과정이 바뀌는 것은 요원해 보인다.

Widespread health system failures of cost, quality, and access are pushing academic health centers to adopt and test models of interprofessional training with the expectation that trainees will graduate with the teamwork competencies described in this Perspective.54 However, despite calls encouraging interprofessional education,19 the entrenched silos

in training curricula have proven hard to overcome.


Core Competencies for Interprofessional Collaborative Practice: Report of an Expert Panel가 발간된 바 있고 Salas 등이 마하는 것과 유사한 역량을 강조하고 있다.

This six-member committee produced and disseminated a report, Core Competencies for Interprofessional Collaborative Practice: Report of an Expert Panel,18 which addresses many of the same competencies described by Salas and colleagues.


새로운 지급체계에서는 진료의 질적인 측면을 양적인 측면보다 강조하며, 환자가 얼마나 만족하는지부터 진료팀이 예방 가능한 재입원을 얼마나 잘 관리했는지까지 다양한 요소들이 포함된다

New payment models seek to reward value over volume of care, such that value is determined by various metrics ranging from how satisfied patients are to how well a care team avoids preventable rehospitalizations.56


결론, 미래 (Conclusion and Next Steps)


1974년, Wise 등은 이렇게 말했다. "매주 일요일 오후, 팀워크 실제로 중요해지는 단 두 시간을 위해서 매주 40시간을 팀워크 훈련에 투자하는 축구팀은 매우 이례적이다. 병원 조직에서의 구성원들은 매주 40시간 이상 팀으로 일해야 하는데도 불구하고, 일년에 단 두시간도 '팀으로서 일하는 것'에 투자하지 않기 때문이다."

In 1974, Wise and colleagues57 wrote: “It is ironic indeed to realize that a football team spends 40 hours each week practicing teamwork for the two hours on Sunday afternoon when their teamwork really counts. Teams in organizations seldom spend two hours per year practicing when their ability to function as team counts 40 hours each week.”57 


안타깝게도 Wise가 저 말을 한 이래로 별로 달라진 것은 없다. 보건 전문직 훈련의 모든 측면에 있어서 팀 지향이 개개인에 대한 것을 대체해야 한다. 교과과정, 정책, 교육, 평가 등의 모든 것이 '성공의 독립성(independence)'이 아니라 '성공의 상호의존성(interdependence)'을 다뤄야 한다.

Regrettably, not much has changed in many academic primary care practices since then. A team orientation must replace individualistic notions within all aspects of health professions training, and curricular content, policies, pedagogy, and assessment must align interdependence—not independence— with success.


Academic primary care practice의 문화를 바꾸는 것은 쉽지 않은 일이다. 많은 과제들이 놓여 있지만, 보건 전문직의 훈련 프로그램은 미래의 진료 팀의 구성원들은 다가올 고부가가치의 의료 환경에서 팀으로서 일하는 것을 대비해야 한다. 'Team' 이란 단어에 'I'는 없다. 

Changing the culture of academic primary care practice is hard work. Despite the many challenges ahead, health professions’ training programs must prepare future health care team members to work together to share in the emerging future of high-value health care delivery. There is no “I” in team.







 2013 May;88(5):585-92. doi: 10.1097/ACM.0b013e31828b0289.

There is no "i" in teamwork in the patient-centered medical home: defining teamwork competencies for academic practice.

Source

University of Nebraska Medical Center, College of Medicine, Omaha, Nebraska 68198-5158, USA. emily.leasure@unmc.edu

Abstract

Evidence suggests that teamwork is essential for safe, reliable practice. Creating health care teams able to function effectively in patient-centered medical homes (PCMHs), practices that organize care around the patient and demonstrate achievement of defined quality care standards, remains challenging. Preparing trainees for practice in interprofessional teams is particularly challenging in academic health centers where health professions curricula are largely siloed. Here, the authors review a well-delineated set of teamwork competencies that are important for high-functioning teams and suggest how these competencies might be useful for interprofessional team training and achievement of PCMH standards. The five competencies are (1) team leadership, the ability to coordinate team members' activities, ensure appropriate task distribution, evaluate effectiveness, and inspire high-level performance, (2) mutual performance monitoring, the ability to develop a shared understanding among team members regarding intentions, roles, and responsibilities so as to accurately monitor one another's performance for collective success, (3) backup behavior, the ability to anticipate the needs of other team members and shift responsibilities during times of variable workload, (4) adaptability, the capability of team members to adjust their strategy for completing tasks on the basis of feedback from the work environment, and (5) team orientation, the tendency to prioritize team goals over individual goals, encourage alternative perspectives, and show respect and regard for each team member. Relating each competency to a vignette from an academic primary care clinic, the authors describe potential strategies for improving teamwork learning and applying the teamwork competences to academic PCMH practices.

PMID:

 

23524923

 

[PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]



















(출처 : http://billhicksisdead.blogspot.kr/2012/06/well-of-course-obamacare-was-upheld.html)



의사라는 직업은 전통적으로 거의 무제한의 자원을 활용하여 넓은 범위의 감별진단을 하고 환자를 돌봄으로서 보상을 받아왔다. 이러한 환경에서 "좋은 진료"라는 것은 돈으로 환산될 수 없는 것이었다.

Our profession has traditionally rewarded the broadest differential diagnosis and a patient care approach that uses resources as though they were unlimited. Good care, we believe, cannot be codified in dollar signs.


그러나 "value-based purchasing"이나 "pay for performance"라는 개념이 의료에 들어오기 시작했다.

Terms like “value-based purchasing” and “pay for performance” have entered the language of the health care system


더 나아가, 의사집단에서도 이러한 담론에 참여하기 시작하여 최근에는 각 전문과별로 "비싸면서 효과는 없는 검사 Top 5"를 발표하기도 했다.

Moreover, physician organizations have joined the dialogue, most recently with the American Board of Internal Medicine Foundation’s Choosing Wisely campaign, shaped partly in response to Howard Brody’s call for “Top Five Lists” of expensive but nonbeneficial tests and treatments in each specialty.1,2 


그렇다면 의학교육에도 비용-효과성의 원칙이 들어갈 자리가 있을까?

Is there a place for principles of cost-effectiveness in medical education?


수십년간 많은 사람들은, 경제적 환경이 어떻든지간에 '비용'이 의사의 판단에 개입해서는 안된다고 생각했다.

Many who have been in practice for decades argue that at no point, no matter the economic environment, should cost factor into physicians’ decisions


Samuel은 의사가 사회의 필요와 개개인의 필요를 저울질하기 시작할 때, 의사는 의사의 본질을 잃게 된다고 했다. 그리고 의사가 개개의 환자에 대한 책무를 다하지 못할 때 "큰 문제에 빠지게 된다" 라고 했다.

Samuels cautions that when physicians start weighing society’s needs as well as those of individual patients, they begin to lose the essence of what it means to be a doctor. When we lose our personal responsibility to individual patients, he says, “We are in deep trouble.”


Robert Veatch는 "히포크라테스적 의사의 윤리는 경제학자들이 '선택적 비용(alternative cost)'라고 부르는 그것을 고려하지 않고 개개 환자의 이익에 근거해서 판단을 내리는 것이다. 만약 의사들이 사회에 대한 책무 때문에 그러한 판단을 내리지 못하게 된다면, 그것은 히포크라테스 선서에 어긋나는 것이다." 라고 했다.

Robert Veatch: “The ethics of the Hippocratic physician makes yes or no decisions on the basis of benefit to a single individual without taking into account what economists call alternative costs. . . . If physicians are asked to reject such care for their patients in order to serve society, they must abandon their Hippocratic commitment.”3

Art Caplan은 이러한 딜레마를 비용이 아니라 환자를 변호(advocacy)하는 집장에서 설명했다. 과연 의사는 사회의 '집사'로서 일하는 동시에 환자의 이익을 대변할 수 있는가?

Art Caplan, a bioethicist at New York University, frames the dilemma in terms of advocacy rather than costs: Can a physician remain a patient advocate while serving as a “steward” of society’s resources?


진짜 문제가 되고 있는 것은 physician advocacy이다. 두 개의 이해관계가 상충하지 않을 때 사람들은 예민해지는데, 왜냐하면 그들은 환자의 이익을 우선해야 한다는 원칙이 침해당한다고 생각하기 때문이다.

“What’s really at issue is the definition of ethical physician advocacy.” When interests don’t overlap, “people get nervous because they think it’s going to undermine the obligation and duty to put patients’ interests first.”


하지만 일부 의사들은 비용을 고려하는 것이 제한된 자원을 공정하게 분배하는 것에 있어 중요할 뿐만 아니라, 실제로 개개인 환자의 이익에 있어서도 중요하다고 주장한다. 미국에서 개인이 파산에 이르는 가장 흔한 원인 중 하나가 의료에 드는 비용이다.

Yet some physicians now believe that considering cost serves not only the equitable distribution of finite services, but also the real interests of individual patients. Medical bills, after all, are among the leading causes of personal bankruptcy in the United States.


점차 더 많은 사람들이 실제로 비용을 고려함으로서 진료의 질을 높일 수 있다고 생각한다. Chris Moriates는 내과 교과과정에 어떻게 그 두 가지를 동시에 할 수 있는가에 대한 내용을 넣었다.

Increasingly, others agree that thinking about cost can actually improve care. Chris Moriates, a resident at the University of California, San Francisco, has implemented a curriculum for internal medicine residents that teaches them how to do both. 


2010년에 Molly Cooke은 "비용에 대한 긴급한 문제를 다루는데 실패해버린 의학교육에 대해 어떻게 해야 할 것인가?"라는 질문을 던졌다.

In 2010, Molly Cooke made a compelling argument for the profession to change its ways, asking, “How should we deal with [the] forces that have resulted in a failure of medical education to address the urgent issue of costs?” 4


그리고 일부 교육자들은 "비용에 대한 고려와 자원의 관리"를 ACGME에서 관리하는 핵심 역량 중 하나로 넣어야 한다고 주장하고 있다.

And some educational leaders are pushing to make proficiency in “cost-consciousness and stewardship of resources” a core competency overseen by the Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education.5


물론, 우리 의사들은 본능적으로 진료 하나하나에 가격표가 붙는 것에 대한 거부감이 있다.

Admittedly, we, too, initially had a visceral aversion to the notion of putting price tags on our recommendations to patients.


예를들면 이런 질문과 같은 것이다. "인슐린을 맞을게요. 그런데 시린지는 언제 세일하죠?"

“I’ll take the insulin but wait for the syringes to go on sale”?


어느 선 까지는 전통적인 의학교육과 자원관리를 중시하는 교육 사이의 갈등이 의미론적인(semantic)문제일지 모른다. 진짜 목표는 "비용에 대한 고려"그 자체가 아니라, 근거중심의학과 베이지안 원칙을 더 잘 활용하는 것이다.

On some level, the conflict between a traditional medical education and one that teaches resource-savvy care may be a matter of semantics. The real goal is not “cost consciousness” per se, but better use of evidence-based medicine and Bayesian principles.


시간이 부족할 때면 "무언가를 놓쳤을지 모른다"라는 불안감 때문에, 혹은 단순히 무시함으로서 자원을 더 효율적으로 활용해야 한다는 생각이 더 많은 자원을 써야 한다는 생각에 압도당하고는 한다.

Whether it’s lack of time, fear of “missing something,” or simple ignorance, the incentives to do more often overwhelm our impulse to use resources wisely


단순한 비유를 하자면, 환자가 아파트 계단을 잘 오르내릴 수 있도록 돕는 것도, 그 환자가 그러한 아파트에 살 경제적 여력이 없으면 무의미하다는 것이다. 환자들을 경제적 파탄으로부터 보호하는 것이야말로 'do no harm'의 기본이다.

Put simply, helping a patient become well enough to climb the stairs to his apartment is meaningless if our care leaves him unable to afford that apartment. Protecting our patients from financial ruin is fundamental to doing no harm.





 2012 Jul 12;367(2):99-101. doi: 10.1056/NEJMp1205634.

Cents and sensitivity--teaching physicians to think about costs.

Rosenbaum L, Lamas D.













의료진간의 의사소통은 환자 케어의 질을 향상시키고 실수를 줄이는데 반드시 필요하다.

- Effective, easy communication between medical colleagues improves patient care and prevents errors.

Communication failure was a leading root cause of these events(= patient harm),1,2 responsible for 66% of reported sentinel events between 2011 and 2012.1

- Safe, effective intercollegial communication in health care requires a sophisticated skill set that encompasses relationship building, argument structuring, clinical synthesis, cultural competency, and professionalism.3


이러한 의사소통 향상을 위한 도구/기술로서 만들어진 것들이 있고, 연구도 많이 진행중이다.

The PACT (Patient assessment, Assertive communication, Continuum of care, Teamwork with trust) project demonstrates that standardization of the transition process improves nursing handovers.7

In the past few years, there has been an increasing amount of research seeking to enhance collaborative behavior and improve clinical communication skills amongst health care practitioners through the development of standardized communication tools.13–22 


최근 관심을 끄는 분야 중 하나가 '업무교대'이다.

- One area that has received specific attention recently is the “handoff”—the exchange that occurs when responsibility and authority over a patient’s care are transferred from one provider to another, for example, at shift change.9

- Many studies have examined paradigms for improving the safety of these care transitions by suggesting mnemonics and other models to decrease interprovider variability.17,20,21,23 One example is the “I-PASS” (Illness severity, Patient summary, Action list, Situation awareness and contingency planning, and Synthesis by receiver) model, which includes actions for both the provider who is leaving and the one arriving


그리고 타과의뢰(consultation)은 업무교대와 유사한 면이 있다.

mnemonics currently in use are too heterogeneous to allow for analysis of their efficacy.24

Consultations are similar to handoffs in that they are an exchange of patient data between two providers with a common goal of caring for a patient.



하지만 이렇게 서로 다른 점이 있다.

Consultation 

Handoffs 


- Traditionally, consultations occur when one provider seeks the formal recommendations of a specialist regarding the care of a patient.25 consultations call on different team members (sometimes newly recruited) to perform unique tasks, as in a baseball game 


- Their communications will inherently require more clarification and careful attention than do those between physicians in the same discipline.


- Consultations can occur at any timephysician may have limited time or other priorities, especially in highstakes environments such as emergency departments



- Handoffs are also more likely to occur at dedicated times, such as shift changes. 


- Doctors must quickly and effectively establish rapport, concisely convey patient data, and communicate a clear clinical question. 


- Communication is further complicated by the fact that many consultations take place over the phonewhich can present significant challenges in establishing rapport and ensuring that information is accurately heard and understood.26 







응급의학과로 온 환자 중 40%가 궁극적으로는 타과의뢰를 받게 되는데, 서로 다른 진료과 사이에는 업무 환경이나 훈련 과정, 사용하는 용어의 뉘앙스나 용어 자체의 차이가 있어서 어려움이 많다.

- Beaulieu et al,31 reports significant barriers to teaching family physicians and specialists to collaborate in the training environment due to the increasing distances between specialty and general medicine in the workplace and training arenas.


- Nearly 40% of patient encounters in the emergency department will ultimately result in consultation between an emergency physician and a physician colleague (e.g., cardiologist or surgeon).25,35


- A unique challenge of consultations is that they typically involve practitioners from different specialties, sometimes speaking different medical “languages” with nuanced differences in jargon, and coming from different medical cultural backgrounds. Moreover, differences in attitudes or actual management decisions





5C와 PIQUED model이 잘 정립된(evidence-based) 두 개의 모델이다.

- The key elements of “The Five Cs of Consultation” are Contact, Communication, Core question, Collaboration, and Closing the loop.27–29


- PIQUED model, which includes six items: Preparation before the encounter, Identification of involved parties (speaker, listener, and patient), Questions (clinical question; answering questions), Urgency of the request (e.g., emergent consultation versus arranging outpatient follow-up), Educational modifications (e.g., acknowledging the role of senior physicians in teaching junior ones), and Debriefing and discussions after the consultation request.


5C 모델은 주로 타과의뢰에 필요한 요소를 중심으로 서술하고 있으며, PIQUED 모델은 분명한 교육적 목적을 가지고 있어서 junior learner에게 교육하는 방법으로 사용하려는 목적으로 만들어졌다.

- The 5Cs model focuses on desired elements of a consultation, and the PIQUED model has an explicit educational focus and is intended to serve as a teaching method for improving junior learner consultations.

- The 5Cs model is currently the most evidence-based model for improving physician communication during emergency department consultations. A randomized, controlled trial with the consultation model as the educational intervention was performed to assess the effectiveness of the 5Cs model.28


- The PIQUED model expands on some of the elements present in the 5Cs model and allows specific focus on teaching and feedback. Therefore, the two models complement each other as a guide for learners performing consultations. 

- The 5Cs model has an emphasis on collegiality and the desired aspects of a consultation exchange, and the PIQUED model supplies more specific guidance and includes explicit room for educational engagement. 



하지만 앞으로 이러한 연구가 더 되어야 할 것이다.

1. Validate the 5Cs and PIQUED models in other health care settings

2. Integrate consultation models within educational curricula

Communication skills can clearly be improved with focused educational interventions

3. Explore the effects of clinical communication on patient outcomes

To date, there has also been a dearth of literature addressing patient outcomes as a result of improved communication between health care providers

4. Research the role of the consultant in effective consultations

Similarly, this is an opportunity or a call to action for further research concerning consultation and communication skills from the perspective of the receiving party—the consultant






 2013 Jun;88(6):753-8. doi: 10.1097/ACM.0b013e31828ff953.

I'm ClearYou're ClearWe're All ClearImproving Consultation Communication Skills in Undergraduate Medical Education.

Source

Dr. Kessler is deputy chief of staff, Durham VA Medical Center, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina. Dr. Chan is a resident, Division of Emergency Medicine, Department of Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada. Ms. Loeb is a medical student, College of Medicine, University of Illinois-Chicago, Chicago, Illinois. Dr. Malka is a resident, Department of Emergency Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, Indiana University, Indianapolis, Indiana.

Abstract

Requesting and providing consultations are daily occurrences in most teaching hospitals. With increased attention on transitions of care in light of the recent scrutiny of duty hours, consultations and other interphysician interactions, such as handoffs, are becoming increasingly important. As modern medicine increases in complexity, the skill of communicating with medical colleagues throughout the continuum of care becomes more challenging. Like many of the other skills acquired by medical students, consultation communication is often learned by casual observation and through trial and error. Without formal training, however, miscommunications will continue to occur, nearly ensuring that medical errors happen. Interphysiciancommunication skills, therefore, need to be emphasized in undergraduate and graduate medical education instead of being left to happenstance or hit-or-miss practice. In this article, the authors review two models for understanding and teaching the consultation process-5Cs and PIQUED-both of which were developed for specific subsets of learners. They then combine the two to create a consultation model that may be more widely applied.



(출처 : http://blogs.nature.com/naturejobs/2013/01/28/getting-an-internship-in-science-journalism)


  • Abstract
    • 인문의학을 학부 교육에 넣어야 한다는 의견은 많이 있었지만, patient care 도움이 된다는 근거가 부족하고, medical humanities culture 의학교육에 arts and humanities 넣어야 확고한 이론적 근거를 보여주지도 못했다.
    • Medical error 주요 원인은 커뮤니케이션의 실패이고, 커뮤니케이션 실패의 원인은 refusal of democracy within medical work (의료 업무 내에 민주주의의 부재) 있다.
    • 의학 분야에서 '커뮤니케이션의 과학' 대한 연구를 통해 얻은 교훈을 의학교육의 형태로 변환하여 가르치는데 arts and humanities 중요한 contextual media 역할을 것이다.
  • 인문의학에 대한 문제점
    • 무엇을 평가할 것인가
    • 다양한 confounding variable interaction 어떻게 통제할 것인가.
  • Mount Sinai School of Medicine 연구
    • 이과계열 졸업생과 문과계열 졸업생의 비교 : NBME에서 문과계열이 낫지는 않아도 비슷한 수준으로 하더라.
  • 의료분야의 커뮤니케이션에 대한 많은 연구가 있지만 환자안전의 outcome까지 비교한 것은 많지 않다.

  • Medical Error communication 관계
    • Medical error 암과 심장질환에 이어 번째 killer (255000/year)
    • 의사들의 소통 장애는 'clinical hypocompetence'라고 있다.
    • 개인의 특성이 아니라 cultural norm이다. Control style 문제와도 연관이 되어 있고 Status asymmetry 있어서 의사들은 종종 'teamwork 간호사가 복종하는 것이다' 라고 생각한다.
    • 메타분석 결과 의사들은 환자의 말을 듣지 않는다. '취조'이지 '경청' 아니다.
    • 마지막으로, 진단 오류는 malpractice 일으키는 번째 주요한 원인인데, 직접 측정할 방법은 없지만 간접적인 방법으로서 '25%에서 사망 전과 후의 진단이 다르다' 사실을 필요가 있다.

  • Empathy Cooperation 어떻게 가르칠 것인가?
    • 학생들은 팽배한 cynicism이나 unproductive autocracy 같은 medical culture 지닌 'hidden curriculum'으로 인해 처음 그들이 가지고 있던 이상적인 모습을 잃어간다.
    • Communication hypocompetence empathy 대한 여러 연구들의 결과를 종합해보면 현재 의학교육에서 의도하지 않은  결과가 나타나고 있는데, 의과대학 학생들이 work-based, professional social activity 대한 준비가 되어있지 않다. 'craft(기교) of communication'이라고도 부른다.

  • 의대 문화의 민주화 : 인문의학의 역할
    • 인문의학을 통해 얻고자 하는 주요한 outcome 하나는 empathy 대한 교육이다. Team-based communication intervention 통해 달성하고자 하는 주요한 역량 역시 empathy이다.
    • 간략하게 말하면, where training of communication skills is often limited to technical issues of face-to-face encounters, the broader issue of progressing this to establishing habits of democratic behaviour has not been articulated or pursued in medical education. 의학교육에서 민주적 행동(democratic behavior)습관을 키워주는 문제는 다뤄지지 않고 있음

  • 의과대학에서 인문의학의 성장
    • Medical humanities라는 단어는 1947 도입됨.
    • Crawshaw seminal paper ‘Humanism in medicine’ notes that the medical profession appears increasingly ‘more mechanical and less human’: ‘Our ears are bent, our minds filled, perhaps even our hearts weighed with the burgeoning catalogue of iatrogenic problems.’40
    • 1976 Moore published literature에서 처음으로 medical humanities라는 단어 사용.
    • 등등..
    • 그러나 널리 퍼진 용어에 대한 consensus 없었다.
    • Consensus 있어야 할까? 비록 표현에 있어 variety 존재했지만 patient care 향상시키겠다는 공통적 목적만은 잃지 않았다.
    • 인문의학을 통합시킴으로써 얻는 효과를 측정하는 alternative approach
      • Crawshaw’s concern ‘with the burgeoning catalogue of iatrogenic problems’ : 의인성문제를 본다.
      • Cook’s suggestion that the medical humanities offer the best medium for medical students to focus on the ‘ambiguities of the human condition’. '인간의 모호성'

  • 미래의 인문의학 역할
    • Medical work technical하면서 interpersonal하다.
      • "medicine not as a science, but a ‘science using’ practical activity whose heart is clinical judgment demanding high tolerance of uncertainty"
    • 인문의학의 연구를 종합한 개의 리뷰논문을 보면, 연구의 설계가 되어있지 않은 경우가 많다.
    • 의학교육은 측정불가능한 성과에 대해 투자해야 한다는 점에 있어 도전을 받을 것이다.
    • Humanity는 Empathy retention하는데 중요하다.
    • 의학은 임상, 과학적 연구를 환자 진료화 있는 'medium' 필요한데, 인문학이 바로 그러한 역할을 있다.
    • Pilpel et al.46 suggest that medical error may be reduced in the future not specifically by focusing upon teaching communication skills, but by teaching medical students about the cultural and institutional barriers to the acceptance of responsibility for medical error, primarily ‘institutional norms that encourage authoritarianism, intolerance of uncertainty and denial of error’.

 

  • 이론적 정당성
    • Humanity 의학계 내의 democracy 증진시키는 중요한 원동력이다
    • Social play : 다른 사람을 인내하고 자신의 약점을 인정하는데 중요함
    • 판단의 premature closure 경계(resist)함으로써 다른 사람을 존중하고 ambiguity 감내할 있게 해주는 potential space (어른의 'play') 필요하다.
    • 313명의 의대생을 10년간 조사한 결과에 따르면 ambiguity 대한 tolerance 약한 학생은 사는 사람이나 사회적 약자 계층에게 부정적인 태도를 보인다.
    • Empathy 저하, ambiguity 참는 (intolerance) 모두 'communication symptom 양면이다.

  • 결론
    • 현재 인문의학은 실험을 통한 근거를 쌓는데 고전하고 있으나, communication science patient safety study 통하여 영향에 대한 질문에 답할 있을 것이다




 2013 Feb;47(2):126-33. doi: 10.1111/medu.12056.

Can the science of communication inform the art of the medical humanities?

Source

Institute of Clinical Education, Peninsula Medical School, Peninsula College of Medicine and Dentistry, Universities of Exeter and Plymouth, Exeter, UK. alan.bleakley@pms.ac.uk

Abstract

CONTEXT:

There is increasing interest in establishing the medical humanities as core integrated provision in undergraduate medicine curricula, but sceptics point to the lack of evidence for their impact upon patient care. Further, the medical humanities culture has often failed to provide a convincing theoretical rationale for the inclusion of the arts and humanities in medical education.

DISCUSSION:

Poor communication with colleagues and patients is the main factor in creating the conditions for medical error; this is grounded in a historically determined refusal of democracy within medical work. The medical humanities may play a critical role in educating for democracy in medical culture generally, and in improving communication in medical students specifically, as both demand high levels of empathy. Studies in the science of communication can provide a valuable evidence base justifying the inclusion of the medical humanities in the core curriculum. A case is made for the potential of the medical humanities--as a form of 'adult play'--to educate for collaboration and tolerance of ambiguity or uncertainty, providing a key element of the longer-term democratising force necessary to change medical culture and promote safer practice.

CONCLUSION:

The arts and humanities can provide important contextual media through which the lessons learned from the science of communication in medicine can be translated and promoted as forms of medical education.

© Blackwell Publishing Ltd 2013.



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