교수개발 연구의 리프레이밍(Acad Med, 2011)

Reframing Research on Faculty Development 

Patricia S. O’Sullivan, EdD, and David M. Irby, PhD


 

 

 


 

의학교육에서 FD는 1950년대에 시작되었고, 이후 수십년간 AAMC의 Curriculum and Assessment 의 활동과 HRSA의 재정지원을 통해서 발전되어왔다. FD에 대한 연방 재정지원은 일차의료교육을 지원하였으며, 주로 일반내과와 가정의학 분야를 지원하였다.

Faculty development in medical education began in the 1950s and advanced in subsequent decades through the activities of the Association of American Medical Colleges’ Curriculum and Assessment unit (formerly the Division of Medical Education) and the funding of the Health Resources and Services Administration.2 Federal funding supported faculty development for teaching in primary care, particularly in general internal medicine and family medicine,


FDP는 여러 유형의 교사에 대하여 다양한 교육 니즈를 위해 진행된다.

Faculty development programs address a variety of instructional needs for four different types of teachers:

  • 학생, 레지던트, 펠로우 (1) students, residents, and fellows who are required to teach but have little expertise and/or are launching their medical education careers,
  • 교육에 약간만 참여하는 교수 (2) faculty members who teach at universities or community-based sites, but for whom teaching is a small component of their responsibilities,
  • 교육이 주 역할인 교수 (3) faculty members who have a major teaching role, and
  • 의학교육자와 교수개발자가 되고자 하는 교수 (4) faculty members who want to become medical education researchers and faculty developers. Programs vary depending on which groups are being targeted.


이러한 FDP에 참여하는 것은 교수들에게 교육에 대한 열정을 공유하는 유사한 마인드를 가진 새로운 지적, 사회적 커뮤니티에 들어오게 한다.

Participation in such faculty development programs should provide faculty members with entry into a new intellectual and social community of like- minded individuals who share a passion for teaching.


FDP의 다양한 기능을 고려하였을 때, 그리고 연구가 실천을 이끌 수 있다고 할 때, 어떻게 연구의 틀은 어떠해야 하는가?

Given these multiple functions of faculty development and the need for research that can guide practice, how should the research be framed?




교수개발 프레임워크와 관련 연구 접근법

Faculty Development Frameworks and Associated Research Approaches


이 그림에서 연구 모델은 선형적이다. 프로그램이 교수에게, 교수는 피훈련자에게, 피훈련자는 환자와 건강 성과에 영향을 준다.

In this figure, the research model is defined in a linear manner: The programinfluences the faculty member, who influences trainees, who in turn impact patient care and health outcomes.


 

의학교육에서 교수개발 프레임워크

Faculty development framework in medical education



Fig 1에 보여진 것처럼, 이 모델은 교육이 한 명의 교수가 학습자에게 하는 행동에 직접적인 영향을 미칠 것을 함의하고 있으며, 이것이 결국 환자 진료에 대한 변화로 이어질 것을 가정하고 있다. 그러나 이러한 선형적 인과관계와 점차 희석되는 일련의 사건의 효과를 기대하는 것은 비현실적일 수 있다.

As shown in Figure 1, this model implies a direct impact of the education of one faculty member on the behavior of learners, who then bring about change in patient care. It may be unrealistic to attribute linear cause and effect to such an attenuated chain of events.




교사 교육의 전문성개발 프레임워크

Professional development frameworks in teacher education


전통적인 의학교육의 교수개발 모델에서, Webster-Wright는 최근의 리뷰를 통해서 교수개발을 '전문성개발(professional development)'에서 '지속적인 전문성 학습(“continual professional learning.”)'의 개념으로 옮겨가야 한다고 강조했다.

In contrast to the traditional model of faculty development in medical education, Webster-Wright14 in a recent review emphasized a shift fromfaculty development, frequently called professional development, to “continual professional learning.”



이러한 관점은 근무지(workplace)에서 전문성개발에 대한 지원이 얼마나 중요한가를 강조한다. 근무지에서는 교육이 이루어지면서 다른 사람과의 연결(connection)이 생기고, 그러한 근무지 세팅에서 학습의 시간이 있기 때문이다. 따라서 FD연구는 어떻게 교사들이 학습하고, 일상적인 교육 행위적 맥락에서 어떻게 의미를 함께 만들어가는가(co-construct)에 초점을 둬야 한다.

This perspective highlights the importance of support for professional development in the workplace, connection with others in the settings in which teaching occurs, and time for learning within the work setting.15,16 Therefore, faculty development research, including medical education, should include a focus on how teachers learn and co-construct meaning in the context of everyday teaching practice.


고등교육에서 다른 사람들은 'communities of practice (COP)' 를 전문성학습을 강화하는 강력한 프레임워크라고 주장한다. Desimone의 모델을 활용하면, FD는 (교실과 진료실에서의) 교육행위에 들어가있어야(be embedded)있어야 하며, 연구를 통해 밝혀야 할 것은 다음과 같은 것들이다.

Others in higher education and professions education embrace the concept of “communities of practice” as a powerful framework for enhancing professional learning.17–20 Using Desimone’s21 model, faculty development should be embedded in teaching practice (classroomand/or clinical), and research should investigate

  • 어떻게 교사가 새로운 교육과 관련된 내용과 스킬을 개인/집단으로서 학습하는가
    how teachers learn new pedagogical content and skills individually and together,
  • 어떻게 교사가 스스로의 학습에 적극적으로 참여하는가
    how teachers can be actively engaged in their own learning, and
  • 어떻게 교사의 지식과 신념이 기대되는 변화와 연결될 수 있는가
    how teacher knowledge (about successful education methods) and beliefs (about how students and residents learn and the forces that influence and motivate learning) can be connected with expected changes.

FDP는 충분한 효과를 낼 수 있을 만큼 충분한 기간 만큼 진행되어야 하며, 학생의 배움을 향상시키려면 가능하기만 하다면 실제 교실의 교육환경에서 교육에 관여하는 다른 사람들도 참여하게끔 해야 한다(즉, FDP에 참여하는 사람 뿐 아니라 참여하지 않는 교사와 직원까지). 이러한 접근법은 교육의 맥락에서 동떨어져있던 FDP를 교육 환경과 변화 프로세스의 핵심적 요소로서의 FDP로 바꾸어줄 것이다.

Faculty development programs should be of sufficient duration to make a significant impact, and, wherever possible, facilitators should seek to engage others involved in the local classroom teaching environment (not just participants in faculty development programs but also nonparticipating teachers and support staff) in order to improve student learning. This approach reflects a shift away from faculty development removed from the context of teaching and toward faculty development as an integral component of the instructional environment and change process.


추가적으로, 연구의 초점이 개인에서 벗어나 개선을 위한 좀 더 협력적인, 관계-중심적  모델로 옮겨갈 필요가 있다. 더 포괄적인 이러한 모델은 어떻게 FDP가 근무지에 심어질(embed) 수 있는가를 밝힐 수 있을 것이다.

Additionally, there is a shift from the individual as the focus of investigation to a collaborative, relationship-centered model as a mechanism for improvement. This broader model, which allows for a breadth of research possibilities exploring how faculty development can be embedded in the workplace, should be applied to medical education research in faculty development.

 


질향상(QI) 프레임워크

Quality improvement framework


QI movement는 의료의 질을 향상시키기 위한 목적으로 상당히 개발된 모델이다. 이러한 접근법은 근거에 기반하여 최고의 의료행위로 알려진 것과 지금 조직에서 실천하고 있는 것 사이의 격차를 발견해냄으로부터 시작된다. 이 모델은 네 단계(plan, do, study, act)를 거친다.

The quality improvement movement has a well-developed model for enhancing health care, as described by Ogrinc and Headrick.22 Their approach begins by identifying the quality gap between what are known to be best practices based on best evidence and what is actually done in the organization. The model consists of four steps: plan, do, study,


FD는 QI 프레임워크로부터  배울 점이 많다. 예컨대 교사의 학습과 실천 사이의 gap은 종종 그것을 입증해줄 수 있는 평가 없이 스스로 발견해야 하는 것으로 생각되며, FDP를 통해서 배운 것을 적용하는 것의 효과에 대한 systematic한 연구는 별로 강조되고 있지 않다. 최고의 근거들이 FDP를 진행할 때나 참가자에게 교육할 때 활용되기도 하고 그렇지 않기도 한다. 이렇게 개개인의 참가자에만 배타적으로 초점을 두는 것은 근무환경은 물론 같은 교육환경에서 근무하는 다른 사람들의 중요성과 힘을 받아들이는데 실패하는 것이다. 참가자들은 FDP프로그램을 마칠 때 명확하게 정의된 향상목표를 가지고 나가야 하며, 그것을 평가하기 위한 측정 절차를 가지고 나가야 한다. 마지막으로 어떻게 새롭게 배운 전략을 가장 잘 적용할 수 있는지를 알기 위한 목적으로 교실이나 임상현장의 구조를 연구하여야 하는데 수행되지 않고 있다.

The quality improvement framework has much to offer faculty development. For example, the learning/performance gap of teachers is often assumed to be self- identified without any effort to substantiate that assessment, and little emphasis is placed on systematically studying the impact of implementing what was learned in the faculty development program. Best evidence may or may not guide faculty development programs and may or may not be shared with participants. The exclusive focus on individual faculty participants fails to appreciate the power and importance of the work environment and other people who work in that same educational setting. Rarely do participants leave a faculty development program with clearly defined improvement goals and measurement procedures for assessing them. Finally, faculty development programs tend not to examine the structure of work in classroom or clinical settings to determine how best to implement newly learned strategies.


 

CME 프레임워크

Continuing medical education framework



코크란 리뷰에 따르면, CME의 참가자들은 전문직업적 행위에 있어서 small-to-moderate 정도의 향상을 보이며, 환자진로 outcome에 있어서는 smaller 향상과 연결된다. 상호작용적인 것과 강의적 자료를 모두 사용하는 세션의 성과가 가장 좋으며, 상호작용(interactive session)만 하는 것이 가장 효과가 적다. 다른 CME에 대한 리뷰와 달리 코크란 리뷰에서는 교육미팅만 하는 것과 대비하여 multifaceted intervention(outreach services, reminders, feedback, support services, and educational materials)의 유의미한 효과는 찾아내지 못했다.  저자들은 CME프로그램에 참여하지 않는 사람들을 대상으로 할 것을 권고했는데, 왜냐하면 이런 것에 참여하는 사람들은 이미 잘 하고 있을 가능성이 높기 때문이다.

According to the most recent Cochrane review,4 participation in continuing medical education meetings makes a small-to-moderate improvement in professional practice with associated smaller improvement in patient care outcomes. Sessions that included both interactive and didactic material had the best outcomes; interactive sessions alone were the least effective. In a surprising contrast to other reviews of continuing medical education, this Cochrane review did not find any statistically significant effect of multifaceted interventions— such as outreach services, reminders, feedback, support services, and educational materials—compared with educational meetings alone. The authors of the report recommended targeting activities to those who do not choose to participate in continuing medical education programs, because those attending may already be performing well.


FD와 CME는 공통점이 많으며 의사들은 종종 두 개 프로그램에 모두 참여한다.

Faculty development and continuing medical education share much in common, and physicians often participate in both types of programs.





근무지 학습 프레임워크

Workplace learning framework


지난 10년간 많은 연구가 임상현장의 학습과 연관되어있다. 이러한 연구에서는 근무지 기반 학습에 참여하는, 그리고 그 결과로 학습과 실천을 가져오는 세 가지 요인을 강조한다. (과제, 관계, 업무연습)

A surge of research in the past decade on learning in the workplace23,24 is directly relevant to clinical learning in medicine and other health professions. This body of research suggests that three factors (tasks, relationships, and work practices) affect participation in the workplace and, consequently, learning and practice.


  • 학습자가 하도록 선택된 과제, 할당된 책임, 그러한 과제의 순서 등이 학습자가 직무에 얼마나 중심(또는 변두리)에 참여할 수 있게 되는가에 영향을 준다.
    The tasks that are selected for the learner, the responsibilities assigned, and the sequencing of those tasks all impact how centrally or peripherally a learner will be able to participate in the work.
  • 커뮤니티 내에서의 관계가 보다 inviting한 환경, 적절한 지도(guidance), 개인의 관심(engagement) 등을 만들거나 향상시켜서 참여를 강화한다.
    Relationships within the practice community can enhance participation by creating an inviting environment, providing guidance, and encouraging personal engagement.
  • 직무의 구조, 시간의 압박, 근무량, 직무 흐름 등
    The structure of the work, time pressures, workload, and work flow all influence participation.


FD 모델의 리프레이밍

Reframing the Model for Faculty Development in Medical Education



참가자

Participants


이 모델에서 참가자는 FDP에 관여되는 사람들을 모두 말하며 교실이든 진료실이든 FDP에 참여하는 사람과 같이 근무하는 교사, 의료전문직, 직원을 포함한다. 이 모델은 다른 개인들과의 사회적 커넥션의 중요성을 강조한다.

Participants in this model, while referring to those involved in the faculty development program, inevitably extend out to include other teachers, health professionals, and staff members who work with these participants in their classrooms or clinics. This model emphasizes the importance of the social connections among all of these individuals.


교사교육과 관련한 문헌에서의 권고를 보면, 다음을 장려함

Recommendations, particularly from the teacher education literature, encourage

  • 스스로의 교육행위와 타인의 교육행위에 대한 성찰
    participant reflection on their own teaching and that of others,
  • 프로그램에 참여한 다른 교육자들은 물론 실제 교육환경에서의 다른 사람과의 협력
    collaboration with other educators in the program and in their local setting,
  • 새로운 활동에 대한 지지 및 참여 지원
    supportive and guided participation in the new activities, and
  • 교육이 이뤄지는 커뮤니티 내에서의 지속적 학습과 개발
    ongoing learning and development embedded within the community of teaching practice.

프로그램

Program


프로그램이란 FD에서 제공하는 교육과정, 내용, 활동 등을 말한다. FDP는 최고의 근거(교육내용과 instructional design)와 요구 사정(performance gap, instructional problem)에 기반하여 유도(guide)되어야 한다.

“Program” refers to the curriculum, content, and activities of the faculty development offering. Drawing on the quality improvement literature, we recommend that faculty development programs should be guided by best evidence (to select curricular content and instructional designs) and by needs assessment (based on identified performance gaps or instructional problems/opportunities).


퍼실리테이터

Facilitators


Borko가 지적한 바와 같이 퍼실리테이터의 지식과 스킬은 프로그램의 성공에 필수적이나 전통적인 FD연구에서 빠져왔다. FDP프로그램을 이끄는 것 말고도 퍼실리테이터는 지속적인, 온라인 커뮤니티를 형성하고 (프로그램 내에서 형성되었더라도) 이것을 근무지 세팅까지 이어갈 수 있다. 어떤 사람들은 peer coaching을 통해 현장-멘토링을 하기도 한다.

Facilitators are another essential component of faculty development. As Borko26 points out, the facilitators’ pedagogical knowledge and skills are critical to the success of a program yet absent from traditional faculty development research. In addition to leading the faculty development program, facilitators can establish an ongoing, online community that is initiated in the program but can extend to the work setting. Others have established on-site mentoring through peer coaching.27



조직 맥락

Organizational context


마지막으로 조직 맥락이 FDP에 큰 영향을 주고, FDP에 이은 근무지에서의 성공 여부에도 큰 영향을 준다. Baker 등은 조직 프로세스와 맥락의 중요성을 설명하면서 다음을 언급했다.

Finally, the organizational context has a large influence on faculty development programs (held in the classroom, clinic, or at a national meeting) and on the participants’ subsequent success in the workplace (classroomor clinical setting). Baker and colleagues29 address the importance of organizational process and context, including

  • 근무 환경의 물리적, 사회적 특성
    examining the nature of the physical and social work environment (e.g., number of exam rooms in a clinic, conference roomspace, and number of teammembers for inpatient teamconferences),
  • 직무의 구조 그 자체
    the structure of the work itself, and
  • 교사와 학습자의 상반된 압박
    the competing pressures on the teachers and learners.

 

조직문화는 조직이 제정한 가치, 교육에 대한 인센티브-디스인센티브, 리더십의 지지-비지지 등을 통해 교육변화를 지지하기도, 억제하기도 한다. 프로그램은 행정적 지원과 동료들의 동의를 종종 간과한다.

The organizational culture either supports or inhibits educational change through the enacted values of the organization, the incentives and disincentives for teaching, and the supportive or unsupportive nature of leadership. Programs rarely recognize and address administrative support and peer buy-in.



교육 연구 프레임워크과 논쟁

Educational Research Frameworks and Debates


지금까지 FD연구에서 성공을 측정하기 위해 사용된 척도는 다음과 같다.

To date, the methods used in faculty development research, both quantitative and qualitative, have included the following measures to indicate program success: 


  • Participant satisfaction with the faculty development programs 
  • Participant self-report of use of knowledge and skills 
  • Analysis of participants’ curricula vitae 
  • Interviews with participants and sometimes with their learners 
  • Learner rating of participants’ teaching 
  • Observations of participants’ simulated and actual teaching 
  • Changes in participants’ learners’ performance on examinations 
  • Changes in participants’ learners’ impact on patient care outcomes


이 연구들은 퍼실리테이터, 프로그램, 맥락, 다른 사람과의 관계에 대한 통찰이 결여되어 있다.

These studies lack much of the insight needed about facilitators, programs, contexts, and relationships to help others craft successful faculty development programs.


연구자들은 지난 20년간 교육 연구의 특성과 퀄리티에 대한 많은 논쟁을 해왔다. NRC의 보고서에 따르면 전통적인 실험적, 유사-실험적 설계를 활용한 연구의 성과와 무작위배정을 포함한 교육 연구에서 엄격한 연구법의 성과를 리뷰하였다. 많은 교육커뮤니티에서는 NRC보고서에 관하여 우려를 표시하였는데, 왜냐하면 여기서는 전통적인 연구 설계와 성과에 초점을 맞추었기 때문이며, 교육의 프로세스와 맥락이라는 중요한 차원을 설명하지 못했기 때문이다. 유사한 논쟁이 IOM의 보고서에서도 따랐으며, 이 보고서는 책무성, 최선의 근거, 엄격한 교육연구 방법의 사용 등이 중심이었다.

Researchers have engaged in a vigorous debate over the nature and quality of educational research during the last two decades. The report fromthe National Research Council (NRC)30 reviewed outcome studies that employed traditional experimental and quasi-experimental designs and rigorous methods in educational research including randomization.31 Many in the education community voice concerns about the NRC report because of its focuses on outcomes and traditional research designs, which fail to address the important dimensions of educational process and context.32,33 A similar debate accompanies Institute of Medicine reports,34,35 which center on accountability, best evidence, and use of rigorous educational research methods.36


Albert는 의학교육연구의 논쟁을 정리하며, 인식론, 방법론, 목적, 퀄리티에 대한 것이라고 요약했다. 그는 의학교육연구는 두 종류의 연구자 사이에서 고군분투하고 있는데, 하나는 지식의 진보와 이론의 성립을 중요시하는 집단과, 실제로 교육을 하는 사람들이 필요로 하는 니즈에 따르는 집단이 있다.

Albert37 summarizes these debates in medical education research as being about epistemology, methodology, purpose, and quality. He depicts medical education research as a struggle between two groups of researchers: those who seek to advance knowledge and build theories versus those who are responsive to practitioners’ needs for guidance.


최근, 의학교육연구자는 생의학연구의 표준에서 벗어나길 요구하면서 이 분야 연구에 적합한 높은 퀄리티의 방법을 사용할 것을 강조한다. Howe와 같은 교육연구자들은 교육연구에서 과학적 정설(scientific orthodoxy)의 점차 강조되는 것에 우려를 표한다. 이는 scientific orthodoxy가 의학에서의 근거-기반 의학과 유사한 성격을 지니면서 무엇이 가장 효과적인가를 결정하는데 가치/선호/지역의 규범/정치와 같은 것을 모두 배제하기 때문이다. Bredo는 환원주의(전체를 이해하기 위해서 개개의 부분으로 나누고 고립시키는 것)와 전체론(개별적인 것으로 나눌 수 없는 전체를 연구하는 것, 왜냐하면 분절된 부분들은 전체로서의 의미를 상실하기 때문)의 긴장관계를 언급했다.

Recently, medical education researchers have called for a shift away fromthe standards used in biomedical research,38–40 emphasizing a need to employ high- quality methods appropriate for the study.39 Educational researchers, such as Howe,41 express concern about the growing scientific orthodoxy in educational research that parallels medicine’s evidence-based movement, which excludes important aspects such as values, preferences, local norms, and politics in deciding what works best. Bredo42 describes the tension between reductionism, which examines and isolates individual parts to understand the whole, and holism, which studies the indivisible whole because to study isolated parts is to lose the meaning of the whole.


Bredo는 모든 연구방법들은, 엄격하게 적용되기만 한다면, 모두 사용될 수 있으며, 굳이 엄격하게 환원주의 또는 전체론에 제약될 필요가 없다고 말한다. Bredo는 또한 다양한 관점을 순환적(cyclical)으로 사용하면서 단 하나의 접근법이 지배하거나 연구 노력을 제한하지 않게끔 해야 한다고 했다.

Bredo concludes that all research methods, when rigorously applied, should be employed, rather than being constrained by strict adherence to reductionistic or holistic paradigms. Importantly, Bredo suggests employing different perspectives in a cyclical manner to guide and constrain the exploration so that no single approach dominates and limits the research endeavor.


일반 교육연구 커뮤니티에서 실험주의자와 맥락주의자(experimentalist, contextualist) 사이의 논쟁은 일상의 의학교육에서도 나타난다.

The controversies within the general educational research community between experimentalists and contextualists are mirrored in the practitioner community of day-to-day medical teaching, where university-based educational research is often viewed as inconclusive, impractical, and irrelevant.43


두 가지 권고

We make two recommendations related to the nature of the research on faculty development and its use. 


  • 1. Promote high-quality, thematic, sustained, and cumulative research programs using various methods/models/paradigms in medical education. 
  • 2. Embrace the use of an incremental and cyclical approach to research, as advocated by Bredo,42 in order to develop a deeper understanding of how faculty development actually works.


새로운 FD 모델을 위한 연구 질문들

Educational Research Questions for a New Model of Faculty Development


우리는 holistic 관점과 reductionist 관점의 연구를 모두 권고한다. 각 요소들간 관계와 연결을 밝히는 것, 그리고 각 요소들이 어떻게 도달하고자 하는 프로세스와 성과를 이루는지 등을 모두 연구해야 한다.

We encourage research on the overall model (a holistic perspective) and on each separate component (a reductionist perspective), on the relationships or associations among the components, and on how each component leads to desired process and performance outcomes.


Steinert 등은 엄격한 연구방법을 활용하여 프로세스-지향 연구를 요구하였다.

Steinert and colleagues,11 in a systematic review of faculty development, called for process- oriented studies and the use of rigorous research methods.


이러한 프로세스-지향 연구는 프로그램 내에서의 관계와 근무지 내에서의 관계 모두에 대한 것이다. FD연구는 전통적으로 개인에 초점을 두어왔지만 이제는 근무현장에서의 팀과 communities of teaching의 역할을 연구해야 한다.

This process-oriented inquiry leads to research on relationships within the program and within the academic workplace. Faculty development research has traditionally centered on the individual but now must also examine the role of the teams and communities of teaching practice in the workplace.




For example,

  • does it make a difference if participants in faculty development programs come as members of an intact work team(e.g., a team-taught course leadership team, a residency program leadership team, or a curriculum committee)?
  • What are the relationships within the faculty development program and within the workplace?
  • How do these relationships impact the achievement of desired outcomes?
  • What happens if only one individual froma particular course or clinical education program participates in a faculty development program?
  • How do they engage their colleagues?

 

This line of research would put us a step closer to understanding how change in practice occurs within the teaching environment.




CME와 QI연구로부터, 교수개발은 변화를 평가하기 위한 다양한 척도를 개발할 필요가 있다.

Drawing on the continuing medical education and quality improvement literature, faculty development programs need to develop a wide set of measures to assess change. Examples might include

  • process measures related to program implementation,
  • participant networks established through the program and subsequent organizational support for education and change, and
  • the creation of a faculty development community or a teaching commons.9,10




참가자들에 대한 연구

While studying participants, we encourage researchers to test this expanded faculty development model as it applies to different career pathways, including the paths that students, residents, fellows, all teaching faculty, and those specializing in medical education may choose to take. Questions might focus on,

  • What is the community with which each type of participant interrelates?
  • What is the developmental trajectory of each individual or cohort of teachers?
  • What are the differences in skills needed based on the role of the participant in the faculty development program?



우리는 또한 조직과 맥락적 요인을 봐야 한다.

We also assert that organizational and contextual factors strongly shape the success of faculty development programs and should be studied. This is critical because the context often is quite complex, uniquely local, and embedded in patient care. Research questions might include,

  • How do teachers make changes in these contexts?
  • How would the new teaching approaches impact the teacher’s relationships with others in that environment?
  • How does the local workplace culture impact changes in teaching and learning?

 

Faculty development programs not only need to provide participants with optimal approaches and best teaching practices but also need to support participant interactions within their teaching context. If this were done, would it result in the desired learning outcomes?


퍼실리테이터

Finally, our model calls for illuminating the underexplored role of the facilitator. Whereas articles in the literature discuss the notion of mentor and coach, research on the facilitator is not as well developed in faculty development. Questions to be addressed might include,

  • Who serves in this facilitator role?
  • How can this role be operationalized and sustained?
  • How does this role impact the other programmatic components and result in change?


However, these questions provide the reader with a coherent narrative about research across these interesting and related arenas and lead to two additional recommendations.


  • 3. Test this expanded model of faculty development examining all the components and interrelationships with an emphasis on studying processes to better ascertain their impact on desired outcomes. 
  • 4. Test the application of the expanded faculty development model to various learners and career paths.


Educational Research and Financing



펀딩과 관련한 권고

Regarding research funding, we offer these further recommendations:


  • 5. Establish a National Institute or Center for Health Professions Education Research with associated training, career development, investigator-initiated research, and centers of excellence funding mechanisms. Such a center should be multidisciplinary and interprofessional. 
  • 6. Advocate state, local, and private funding to support educational research and faculty development.

 

 

 



 


 


38 Bligh J, Brice J. What is the value of good medical education research? Med Educ. 2008; 42:652–653. 


39 Eva KW. Broadening the debate about quality in medical education research. Med Educ. 2009;43:294–296. 


40 Monrouxe LV, Rees CE. Picking up the gauntlet: Constructing medical education as a social science. Med Educ. 2009;43:196–198.







 2011 Apr;86(4):421-8. doi: 10.1097/ACM.0b013e31820dc058.

Reframing research on faculty development.

Author information

  • 1Department of Medicine, and director of educational research and faculty development, Office of Medical Education, UCSF School of Medicine, San Francisco, California 94143-0410, USA. patricia.osullivan@ucsf.edu

Abstract

Research on faculty development has focused primarily on individual participants and has produced relatively little generalizable knowledge that can guide faculty development programs. In this article, the authors examine how current research on faculty development in medical education can be enriched by research in related fields such as teacher education, quality improvement, continuing medical education, and workplace learning. As a result of this analysis, the authors revise the old model for conceptualizing faculty development (preferably called professional development). This expanded model calls for research on educational process and outcomes focused on two communities of practice: the community created among participants in faculty development programs and the communities of teaching practice in the workplace (classroom or clinic) where teaching actually occurs. For the faculty development community, the key components are the participants, program, content, facilitator, and context in which the program occurs and in which the faculty teach. For the workplace community, associated components include relationships and networks of association in that environment, the organization and culture of the setting, the teaching tasks and activities, and the mentoring available to the members of that academic and/or clinical community of teaching practice. This expanded model of faculty development generates a new set ofresearch questions, which are described along with six recommendations for enhancing research, including establishment of a national center forresearch in health professions education.

© by the Association of American Medical Colleges.


교육스킬 교수개발: 집중 장기 모델(Acad Med, 2004)

Faculty Development in Teaching Skills: An Intensive Longitudinal Model

Karan A. Cole, ScD, L. Randol Barker, MD, ScM, Ken Kolodner, ScD, Penelope Williamson, ScD, Scott M. Wright, MD, and David E. Kern, MD, MPH






교육스킬(TS)을 가르치는 것은 임상가-교육자(clinician-educator)의 professional development에 중요한 단계이다. TS프로그램은 효과적인 것으로 보고되고 있으며, 지난 15년간 그 availability에 있어서 엄청난 발전을 이루어왔다. 그러나 최근의 국내 조사결과를 보면, 의대 교수들에 대한 TS에 관한 FD활동이 계속 진행중인 교육병원은 39%에 불과하며, 평균적으로 50% 이하의 교수만이 참여한다.

Training in teaching skills is a critical step in the professional development of clinician– educators. 1–5 Teaching skills programs have been shown to be effective,6–18 and considerable progress has been made in increasing their availability in the past 15 years. However, according to a recent national survey, only 39% of teaching hospitals have ongoing faculty development activities in teaching skills for their department of medicine faculty, and, on average, fewer than 50% of their faculty participate.19


TS프로그램에서 사용되는 교수법 중 흔한 것으로는 강의, 토론, 원격교육, 코칭, 스킬연습(실습)이 있으나 성찰을 사용한다고 보고한 결과는 적다.

Among teaching skills programs that include more common teaching approaches (lecture, discussion, distance learning, coaching, and skills practice),6–11,16,20 few report using reflection.6–8 


성찰이란 한 사람의 경험에 대해 생각/감정/신념/행동을 인식하고 의식적으로 해석을 위해 주의를 기울이는 것이다.

Reflection is defined as giving conscious attention to one’s interpretations of expe- rience through awareness of thoughts, feelings, beliefs, and behaviors.21


자신의 발전속도에 맞춰(자기주도학습) 스스로 니즈, 리소스, 성장, 발전을 깨달을 때, 그리고 다른 사람에게 지지(지원)를 받을 때 Experiential learning 혹은 Reflective learning에 더 참여할 가능성이 높다.

Individuals are more likely to engage in experiential or reflective learning if they identify their own needs, resources, and improvement, progress at their own pace (self-directed learning), and feel supported by others.24


도전의 기회를 주면서도 지지적인 학습환경이 변화의 가능성을 더 높이는데, 이는 새로운 기술을 연습하고, 스스로 평가하고 그 결과를 정직하게 밝히며, 다른 사람의 의견과 피드백을 구할 수 있게 도와주기 때문이다.

A learning environment that simultaneously provides opportunities for challenge and is supportive further enhances the potential for change because it helps individuals practice new skills, self-appraise and disclose honestly, and solicit others’ opin- ions and feedback.25


자아-발견과 학습의 위험을 감수할 정도의 신뢰관계를 형성하기 위해서는 시간이 필요하다. 그러나 대부분의 TS 프로그램은 짧은 워크숍 과정인 경우가 많고, 더 긴 프로그램의 경우에는 그 빈도나 길이가 다양하다(4주~2년)

Time is required to build the type of trusting relation- ships26 that support taking risks in self-discovery and learn- ing. However, most teaching skills programs are short work- shops or courses.19 Longer programs vary in frequency and duration (four weeks to two years).6–11,16,20


이 논문에서 우리는 성찰적 학습에 필수적인 프로세스(experi- ence, reflection, self-direction, learner-centeredness, and re- lationship development.)를 복합적으로 강조한 TS에 대한 집중(주당 3.5시간), 장기(9개월) FD프로그램을 다루고자 한다.

In this article, we describe an intensive (3.5 hours weekly), longitudinal (nine months) faculty development program in teaching skills that emphasizes a combination of processes that are essential for reflective learning, including: experi- ence, reflection, self-direction, learner-centeredness, and re- lationship development.


PROGRAM DESCRIPTION


임상가-교육자를 위한 존스홉킨스 FDP는 1987년 처음 만들어졌으며, 1997년 교육과정과 교육방법의 개선을 거쳐서 현재까지 지속되고 있다. TS와 교육과정개발(CD), 퍼실리테이터-훈련 프로그램, 의학교육 펠로우십, 상담 서비스 등을 운영한다.

The Johns Hopkins Faculty Development Program for Cli- nician–Educators was established in 1987, underwent curric- ular and methodologic revisions in 1997, and continues to be implemented at present. It includes programs in teaching skills (TS) and curriculum development (CD), a facilitator- training program, a medical education fellowship, and a consultation service.


TS는 임상가-교육자의 학생/환자/동료에 대한 태도/신념/행동에 대한 변화를 향상시키고자 설계되었다. 프로그램의 목표는 다음과 같다.

The TS portion is designed to promote change in clini- cian-educator attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors towards learn- ers, patients, and colleagues. Program goals are to enhance participants’ 

  • (1) teaching effectiveness, 
  • (2) professional ef- fectiveness beyond teaching, 
  • (3) teaching enjoyment, and 
  • (4) learning effectiveness.



프로그램 설계

Program Design


프로그램 구조: 다음에 대한 지속적 기회의 제공

The program structure assists learning by providing ongoing opportunities for 

    • (1) 관계 개발과 협력을 통한 참가자와 퍼실리테이터 간 신뢰 구축
      building trust among participants and facilitators through relationship development and collabora- tion, and for 
    • (2) 관찰-실습-수업 내 TS적용-성찰 의 사이클
      cycles of observing, practicing, and applying teaching skills in the classroom and in work settings, and reflecting upon these experiences. 


The program runs from Sep- tember to June each year, for 3.5 hours weekly. Participants spend the majority of this time in stable working groups that include one or two facilitators and four to eight participants.



종합적 목표

The program’s overall learning goals are for participants to experience, value, and improve skills in 

    • (1) 자기주도학습과 자아발견의 촉진
      facilitating self- directed learning and self-discovery, and 
    • (2) 협력적, 지지적, 그러나 도전을 불러일으키는 학습환경 만들기
      creating a col- laborative, supportive, yet challenging learning environ- ment.



내용 영역

Seven content areas are addressed in individual sessions, or modules, which are five to seven weeks in duration. Each module builds upon and incorporates skills learned previ- ously. For each, specific learning objectives are provided, to- gether with targeted readings.


Content areas include: 

    • 성인학습 개념 Adult learning concepts 
    • 시간 관리 Time management 
    • 피드백 제공과 피드백 끌어내기 Feedback provision and elicitation 
    • 소그룹 리더십과 참여 Small-group leadership and participation 
    • 환자-의사 소통 Physician–patient communication 
    • 임상상황에서 가르치기(precept) Precepting in clinical settings 
    • 강의 Lectures 
    • 팀 내에서 리더십과 운영 Leadership and management of work teams


기본적 교육 전략: 다음의 병렬적 프로세스

A fundamental educational strategy for the program is the implementation of a parallel process whereby 

    • 퍼실리테이터가 참가자들이 학습할 스킬을 정함(model)
      facilitators model the skills that are being learned by program partici- pants, 
    • 참가자와 퍼실리테이터의 신뢰 구축
      develop trust among themselves, and 
    • 스스로의 지식/태도/기술을 바탕으로, 경험, 자기평가, 피드백을 통한 협력적 작업
      use experience, self-appraisal, and feedback to work collaboratively on their own knowledge, attitudes, and skills.



교육 방법

Educational methods used across content areas include 

    • 정보제공 in- formation provision (readings, demonstration, presenta- tions), 
    • 성찰을 동반한 경험학습 experiential learning with reflection (role-play, sim- ulated learners, real-life applications, and videotaping, all of which are learner centered and self-directed, and involve self-appraisal, feedback, problem solving, and discussion), and 
    • 자기-인식 시간 personal awareness sessions (sharing of meaningful ex- periences with emotional content).




단일 모듈에 관한 설명

Description of One Module (skip)


The feedback module illustrates how structural components, learning goals, parallel processes, and specific educational methods are applied to a content area to support learning (see Figure 1). 

    • Prior to this module, participants have been introduced to the concepts of adult learning
    • The first of the five sessions in this module begins with videotaping each participant while he or she is providing feedback to a standardized learner. 
    • A demonstration follows, from which participants identify those behaviors that are more or less effective. 
    • Discussion then bridges to a didactic summary of core concepts and skills that incorporate adult learning concepts. A syllabus names expected participant outcomes and contains selected readings, a detailed skills glossary, and scenarios for skills practice. 
    • Participants then observe their videotapes, self-assess, get feedback from the facilitator and each other, and identify learning strengths, needs, and resources for improving their skills throughout the module.


The first hour of most subsequent small-group sessions is reserved for the participants to share meaningful aspects of their professional and personal lives. 

    • These personal awareness sessions utilize a process described by Novack and colleagues.27 
    • The emphasis of these unstructured sessions is to focus on feelings with the chance to observe and practice active listening and emotion-handling skills (not interrupting, validating and empathizing with feelings). 
    • The reflection and self-disclosure that occur often help participants to recognize and address attitudes, beliefs, and feelings that influence their capacity to use new skills and concepts. 
    • In addition, these sessions reduce the sense of isolation that so often accompanies the professional life of a clinician–educator.28


In the skills session that follows, participants describe recent or distant real-life experiences with feedback

    • Group members help their fellow participants identify accomplishments, learning needs, and ways to address them. 
    • Participants choose resources for their learning, such as discussion of readings, problem solving, solicitation of other members’ thinking and experience, skills practice (usually in role plays based upon self-selected situations), or observation of videotapes. 
    • They also direct their learning by asking for specific feedback about their performance
    • Personal reflection and learning may occur if they also explore related attitudes and feelings.


Participants identify their progress in providing effective feedback and new learning needs based upon their selfappraisal and others’ feedback. 

    • There is time for two or three participants to go through this process in a single session. 
    • Usually, more than one participant’s needs are met in learning activities that focus upon on the needs of one participant. 

A self-summary of significant learning completes each session and informs planning for the next week.


Among participants, providing “negative” feedback is universally identified as difficult

    • In addition to practicing skills, individuals are helped to recognize and explore their thoughts and feelings about providing negative feedback and to hear others’ perspectives. 
    • They also experience other members’ support and empathy. New insights and motivation for change occur.


Throughout the module, a parallel process is applied. 

    • Facilitators use effective feedback skills and support learnercentered participant discovery and learning while they lead the experiential and reflective activities. They keep the group focused on each individual’s stated needs, and help individuals build relationships and learn from each other. 
    • Participants observe these skills, and also have direct experience with the methods as learners. 
    • Following each session, co-facilitators of each small group use reflective learning by meeting to talk about their co-facilitation, their beliefs and feelings related to challenges encountered, and alternative ways to respond. They also plan for the next session.


The final feedback session includes 

    • videotaping each participant providing feedback to a standardized learner, 
    • reviewing these videotapes (as in the first session), 
    • summarizing participants’ learning, and 
    • planning for future applications. 


Group members explore their shared experience and the relative helpfulness of the learning and facilitation methods, and complete an evaluation instrument. 


At the end of the module, all facilitators meet as a team, share new insights, and use the verbal and written input from the participants to plan for upcoming modules. A module on small-group leadership, participation, and process follows that offers opportunities for continued practice and application of feedback skills.




METHOD


Study Population


131명의 TS프로그램 참가자와 131명의 비-참가자

All 131 TS program participants and 131 program nonpar- ticipants between 1988 and 1996 were recruited for the present study.


Design and Methodology


사전-사후 연구 설계. 일부 post-only 연구설계

A pre–post study design with comparison group measured changes in participants’ and nonparticipants’ self-assessments of perceptions and skills, and a post-only study design with- out a comparison group measured the participants’ assess- ments of programmatic components.



Outcome Variables, Instruments, and Measures


개인 수준 성과변인

Individual outcome variables.


    • 교육 효과성 Teaching effectiveness, measured as skill levels for deter- mining learner needs, actively involving learners, lectur- ing, small-group teaching, one-on-one teaching, teaching in the presence of the patient, giving feedback, evaluating learners, and global teaching 
    • 전문직으로서의 효과성 Professional effectiveness other than teaching, measured as skill levels for working in groups, time management, and administration 
    • 교육 즐김 Teaching enjoyment 
    • 학습 효과성 Learning effectiveness, measured as self-directed learning competence, a mean score of nine items assessing individ-ual self-perceptions as a nondependent learner, the ability to relate collaboratively with peers and teachers as helpers, an understanding of the assumptions of self-directed learn- ing, and the ability to utilize the various stages of the self-directed learning process.

프로그램 수준 성과변인

Program evaluation outcome variables.


    • 전반적인 프로그램 질 Overall program quality 
    • 교육법, 퍼실리테이션, 학습환경 Educational methods, facilitation, and learning environment 
    • 참여의 교육적, 전문가적 능력에 대한 효과 Impact of participation on teaching and professional abilities.


Data Analysis



RESULTS


Response Rate


Baseline Sample Characteristics


Outcome Variables at Baseline


Pre- and Postprogram Comparisons


Program Evaluation









프로그램 효과의 눈에 띄는 결과는 참가자의 교육스킬과 전문직스킬(professional skill)이 비참가자의 베이스라인 이상으로 올라갔다는 것이다. 

A noteworthy measure of this program’s effectiveness is that it brought participants’ appraisals of their teaching and professional skills up to the baseline level of nonparticipants’ self-appraisals of their teaching and professional skills; more of the nonparticipants had reported prior training in teach- ing skills.


또 다른 눈에 띄는 결과는 교육-즐김(teaching enjoyment)가 참가자 그룹 내에서 유지된 반면, 대조군에서는 감소한 것이며, 이는 프로그램이 임상가-교육자가 직면하는 문제에 대해서 완충 효과가 있을 수 있다는 것을 시사한다. Gerrity 등은 20개의 임상가-교육자의 커리어 만족도에 대한 연구에서 교육에서 오는 만족도를 상쇄시키는 2 개의 공통적 요인을 발견했는데, 하나는 교육과 진료 사이의 긴장(tension)이었고, 다른 하나는 교육스킬에 대한 의구심이었다.

Also remarkable is the finding that teaching enjoyment was maintained in the participant group while it declined in the comparison group, suggesting that the program may buffer some of the challenges faced by clinician–educators. In Gerrity and colleagues,31 review of 20 studies on clini- cian–educator career satisfaction, two commonly expressed factors that counterbalance the satisfaction derived from teaching were found to be the tension between teaching and patient care, and doubts about teaching skill.


참가자들이 성찰을 동반한 경험적 학습법을 정보-제공 방식보다 더 선호한다는 것이 고무되었다.

We were encouraged that participants rated experiential learning methods with reflection significantly higher than they rated information provision.


자기인식(personal awareness) 세션이 정보-제공에 비해서 낮게 나온 결과는 7명의 '전혀 유용하지 않음' 응답 결과를 제외하면 통계적으로 차이가 없다.

The lower rating of personal awareness sessions compared with information provision was no longer significant once seven participants who rated personal awareness sessions as “not at all useful” to their teaching were omitted from the analysis.


비록 상대적으로 낮은 평가에도 불구하고 자기인식(personal awareness)세션은 평균적으로 참가자들의 학습에 중간 이상 정도로 유용하다는 평가를 받았다. 우리는 이 세션이 참가자간 합력적, 지지적 관계를 형성하고 위험을 감수하게끔 해주는 데 중요하다고 생각한다. 또한 자기인식을 촉진시켜서 교육효과성을 향상시킬 수도 있을 것이다.

Notwithstanding their relatively lower rating, personal awareness sessions were rated, on average, as more than moderately useful to participants’ learning. We believe that they were important for promoting the collaborative and supportive relationships among our participants, enabling them to take risks,25 and to promote their personal aware- ness, which can enhance their teaching effectiveness.23


이 프로그램을 다른 장기-프로그램과 구분짓는 요소는 구조(매주, 3.5시간, 9달, 그룹 안정성)와 관계-협력-학습자중심-경험-성찰을 결합적으로 강조하는 것에 있다. 비록 다른 프로그램들이 이 요소들의 일부를 가지고 있었지만, 모두를 가진 것은 없었으며, 교육/전문직/학습효과와 관련된 영역을 모두 다룬 것도 없었다.

Key aspects that distinguish this program from other lon-gitudinal ones6–8,16 are its structure (weekly, 3.5-hour ses-sions for nine months in stable groups), and the combinedemphasis on relationship, collaboration, learner self-direc-tion, experience, and reflection. Although each of the otherprograms has some of these elements, none has all, nor doesany cover the breadth of content area related to teaching,professional, and learning effectiveness.


우리는 잦은 빈도로, 지속적으로, 집중적으로, 같은 참가자들에게 미팅을 하고, 또한 관계의 중요성을 강조한 것이 학습그룹 내에서 신뢰를 형성하는데 중요했다고 생각한다. 또한 각 세션의 길이는 스킬을 연습하고 다양한 수준의 성찰을 하기에 충분했으며, 이것들 각각만으로 가능한 효과보다 더 큰 효과를 얻을 수 있었다고 생각한다. 이러한 구조가 Schon이 reflective practice라고 말한 action과 reflection-on-action의 지속적 사이클을 가능하게 했으며, 프로그램 참가자들이 이러한 프로세스를 지속적으로 사용할 수 있게끔 해주었다.

We believe that frequent, ongoing, intensive meetings among the same individuals, with an emphasis on relationships are important to achieving trust in learning groups. In addition, the length of each session allows for time to engage in both skills practice and multiple levels of reflection, which may have more impact than any of these alone. This structure also facilitates suc- cessive cycles of action and reflection-on-action described by Schon33 as reflective practice, and could promote ongoing use of this process by program participants.



우리는 성찰학습의 성과가 있었는지는 알 수 없다(insights and reassessment of assumptions that, according to Mezirow,34 result in a shift in perspective, or transforma- tional learning 등). 그러나 참가자들이 프로그램을 마치고 나갈 때 관계의 중요성과 태도/신념/감정에 대한 성찰의 중요성, 그리고 학습자와의 연결성이 높아질 가능성, 학습자의 자기주도성에 대한 지지, 학습자들이 비판적 성찰이 가능해게 도와주는 것 등을 알게 되었을 것이다. 이것은 관점의 변화를 가져오며, 궁극적으로 구체적 스킬의 향상보다 더 중요하다.

We also do not know whether reflective learning outcomes (insights and reassessment of assumptions that, according to Mezirow,34 result in a shift in perspective, or transforma- tional learning) occurred. However, we speculate that par- ticipants leave our program with 

  • an increased valuing of relationships and of reflection on attitudes, beliefs, and feel- ings, and 
  • an increased likelihood of connecting with learners, of supporting their self-directedness, and of helping them be critically reflective. 

These anticipated shifts in perspective may ultimately be more important than enhancement of specific skills.











 2004 May;79(5):469-80.

Faculty development in teaching skills: an intensive longitudinal model.

Author information

  • 1Johns Hopkins Faculty Development Program in Teaching Skills, and Division of General Internal Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, School of Medicine, Bayview Medical Center, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA. kcole@jhmi.edu

Abstract

Although reflection contributes to the personal growth of clinician-educators and is important for effective teaching, few teaching skills programs report its use. The Johns Hopkins Faculty Development Program in Teaching Skills, first implemented in 1987 as a theoretically grounded,longitudinal model for faculty development of clinician-educators, comprises a set of conditions intended to promote reflective learning. This paper describes the program and reports evaluation results for 98 participants and a comparison group of 112 nonparticipants between 1988 and 1996. Participants met with facilitators weekly for nine months for 3.5 hours, in stable groups of four to six individuals. Educational methods used across seven content areas emphasized relationships and collaboration, and included information provision, experiential learning with reflection, and personal awareness sessions. A pre-post evaluation design with comparison group measured changes in self-assessed teaching and professionalskillsteaching enjoyment, and learning effectiveness. A post-only evaluation design appraised overall program quality, educational methods, facilitation, learning environment, and perceived impact of participation. Program participants had significantly greater pre-post-change scores than nonparticipants for all 14 outcomes (p <.05). Multiple regression modeling indicated that program participation was associated with pre-post improvement in all outcomes except administration skills, controlling for all participant and nonparticipant baseline characteristics (p <.05). All measured programmatic characteristics were highly rated by participants. Experiential methods with reflection were rated significantly higher than information-provision and personal awareness sessions (p <.001). Evaluation results demonstrate a positive impact of this alternative approach tofaculty development on clinician-educator perceptions of their attitudes and behaviors towards learners and colleagues.

PMID:
 
15107288
 
[PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]


최고의 FDP를 인정해 줄 시기 (Med Teach, 2015)

Is it time to recognize excellence in faculty development programs?

David M. Irby, Patricia S. O’sullivan & Yvonne Steinert





FP은 피할 수 없는 것이나 종종 그 가치가 절하되는 기관적 자원이다. 교수의 역량과 조직의 활력을 진전시키는 것이 필수적

Faculty development is an indispensable and often under- valued institutional resource. Yet, it is essential for the advancement of faculty competence and organizational vitality.


FD는 다음의 것을 뜻한다. FD의 목표는 교수들로 하여금 다양한 학문적 역할을 잘 할 수 있도록 하고, 활력과 수월성을 갖춘 조직을 만드는 것이다.

Faculty development refers to "all activities health professionals pursue to improve their knowledge, skills and behaviors as teachers and educators, leaders and managers, and researchers and scholars (Steinert 2014)". The goal of faculty development is to empower faculty members to excel in their varying academic roles, and to create organizations characterized by vitality and excellence (Wilkerson & Irby 1998; McLean et al. 2008).


최근, AMEE는 ASPIRE award를 만들어서 교육의 특정 영역에서 수월성을 인정해주며, 대학의 연구랭킹의 대안을 만들었다.

Recently, AMEE established the ASPIRE awards program to recognize excellence in selected areas of education and to create an alternative to research rankings of universities (http://www.aspire-to-excellence.org/).


국제적 전문가들이 수월성의 기준을 만들고, 각 영역에서의 수월성의 성취수준을 보여주는 지원서를 평가하였다. 

Panels of international experts have established criteria for excellence and have reviewed applications for demonstrated achievement of excellence in each area.


우수한 FD평가를 위한 작업은 2015년 Third Annual International Conference on Faculty Development in the Health Professions과 함께 열린 APMEC에서 시작되었으며, 23명의 교수개발자들이 참여하여 다음의 여섯 가지 만듬.

Work on the creation of criteria for excellence in faculty development began at the Asia Pacific Medical Education Conference, which was held in conjunction with the Third Annual International Conference on Faculty Development in the Health Professions, in Singapore in February 2015. Twenty-three faculty developers from aroundthe world participated in a small group process generating sixgeneral criteria for excellence in faculty development. 


(1) FDP는 인증받은 전문직 대학에서 시행되어야 하며, 조직의 미션과 목표와 합치되어야 하며, 그 미션을 달성하

는데 필요한 지원을 받아야 한다.

(2) FDP는 조직적, 체계적으로 설계되어야 하고, 근거에 기반해야 하고, 교육, 리더십, 학술역량의 향상에 초점을 두어야 한다.

(3) FDP는 넓고, 깊고, 다양한 접근법을 제공해야 하며, 학습기회의 장기적 진전이 되어야 한다.

(4) FDP는 FD에 전문성을 가진 교수가 진행해야 하며, FD를 제공할 수 있는 기술을 가진 개인의 수를 확장시킬 수 있는 능력이 있어야 한다.

(5) FDP는 지속적인 프로그램 평가를 수행해야 하며, 개인, 조직에 대한 영향력을 평가하고, 가능하다면 지역사회에 대한 영향도 평가해야 한다.

(6) FDP는 FD 및 교수-학습의 혁신, 그리고 관련 학술역량을 촉진해야 한다.

(1) The faculty development program takes place in an accredited professional school, is aligned with organiza- tional mission and goals, and receives the support needed to achieve its mission. 

(2) The faculty development program is systematically designed, evidence-based, and focused on improving educational practice, leadership and scholarship. 

(3) The faculty development program offers breadth, depth, diversity of approaches, and longitudinal progression of learning opportunities. 

(4) The faculty development programis conducted by faculty members with expertise in faculty development and builds capacity by expanding the number of individuals skilled in offering faculty development. 

(5) The faculty development program engages in ongoing program evaluation and examines impact on individuals, organization and where possible the community. 

(6) The faculty development program promotes innovation and scholarship in faculty development, and teaching and learning.










 2015 May 29:1-2. [Epub ahead of print]

Is it time to recognize excellence in faculty development programs?

Author information

  • 1University of California , USA .
PMID:
 
26023750
 
[PubMed - as supplied by publisher]


교수개발에서 프로젝트의 진정한 가치(Acad Med, 2010)

The Essential Value of Projects in Faculty Development

Maryellen E. Gusic, MD, Robert J. Milner, PhD, Elizabeth J. Tisdell, EdD, Edward W. Taylor, EdD, David A. Quillen, MD, and Luanne E. Thorndyke, MD







교수개발에는 좁은 개념과 넓은 개념이 있지만, 교수 개발에 대해서는 필요하며 긍정적이다라는 것에 대해서는 보통 동의한다. FD는 다음과 같이 정의된다 FD는 또한 교수에게 활력을 불어넣고 조직을 새롭게 하기 위한 전략이다.

There are both narrow and broad conceptions of faculty development in the literature and the academic medical community, but it is generally agreed that developing faculty is both positive and necessary. Faculty development has been defined as “any planned activity designed to improve an individual’s knowledge and skills in areas considered essential to the performance of a faculty member.”1 Faculty development is also a strategy to promote faculty vitality and institutional renewal.2

 


비록 Bland가 교수의 다양한 역할 책임(의사, 연구자, 행정가, 교사)에 대해서 블루프린트를 발전시켰지만 한 기관의 모든 미션을 아우르면서 교수의 니즈에 따라 운영한 종합적인 FDP의 구조와 성과에 대한 연구는 부족하다.

And although Bland9 advanced a blueprint to prepare faculty for their various role responsibilities (practitioner, researcher, administrator, teacher), there is little published information on the structure and outcomes of comprehensive faculty development programs that are responsive to the needs of faculty across all missions of an institution.10,11


기존의 FDP의 특징 중 하나는 공식적 프로젝트를  활용하는 것이다. 프로젝트란 구체적인 목표와 성과를 가지는 계획된 활동이며, 참가자의 학습과 개발을 향상시키기 위한 전략이다. 이들 프로그램 내에서 프로젝트는 학습내용 활용을 위한 연습부터 능동적 학습을 위한 기회, 더 나아가 과목 내에서 교육 제품(product)를 만들고 연구와 관련된 실험에 이르기까지 다양하다.

A feature of several existing faculty development programs is the use of formal projects—planned activities with specific goals and outcomes—as a strategy to enhance participant learning and development.3,7,8,11–13 Within these programs (Table 1), projects have ranged fromapplication exercises12 and opportunities for active learning and experimentation8,13 within courses to creation of educational products and scholarship.3,4


아홉개의 교육 펠로우십 프로그램을 검토한 결과 "모든 프로그램이 펠로우들로 하여금 학습한 원칙을 실제 세계의 문제에 적용하는 것을 가능케하는 프로젝트를 개발할 것"을 요구한다는 것을 알아내었다. 

A review of nine educational fellowship programs found that “all of the programs require that fellows develop a project that would enable themto apply the principles learned in the programto a real-world problem relevant to the fellow and to the school.”6


프로젝트의 가치는 최근의 교육 FD 가이드에서 다룬 바 있다.

The value of projects was cited in a recently published guide for educational faculty development:


프로젝트- 혹은 태스크- 지향적 교수개발은 성인학습의 원리에 따르는 것이며, 다양한 이점을 제공한다. 즉각적 적용과 측정가능한 성과를 쉽게 찾게 하는 것 등. 프로젝트는 교수개발 프로그램을 기관 차원의 요구와 일치시켜주는 역할을 한다. 

Project- or task-oriented faculty development (Simpson et al. 2006; Rust et al. 2006), which draws on adult learning principles (e.g., Knowles 1980), offers a number of benefits: immediacy of application and ease of identifying measurable outcomes....Projects or tasks may also facilitate the alignment of faculty development with institutional needs.4

 


FDP에서 프로젝트의 활용을 보면, 가장 좋은 활용방식을 찾는 것이 과제이다. 

Given the use of projects within faculty development programs, the challenge is to identify best practices for effective incorporation of project work into such programs.





펜스테이트 JFDP에서 프로젝트 평가

Evaluation of Projects in Penn State’s JFDP



참가자들은 프로그램 진행 중 개별 프로젝트를 정한다. 프로젝트를 고를 때는 교수의 학문적 관심을 반영하며, 기초 혹은 임상 연구를 포함하 수도 있고, 연구비 준비, 새로운 임상 서비스 라인 생성, 교육 프로그램 개발 등도 포함될 수 있다.

Participants identify an individual project to work on during the program. The selection of a project reflects the faculty member’s academic interests and may involve basic and clinical research studies, grant preparation, creation of new clinical service lines, or development of educational programs.


프로젝트는 참가자들에게 있어서는 새로운 도전이 되는데, 참가자가 소속한 교실의 장이 승인해야 한다. 프로젝트의 목표는 현실적이여야 하며, 실현가능해야 하고, 중요한 것이어야 한다.

The project is expected to be a new venture for the participant, and it must be approved by the participant’s departmental chair. The goals of the project must be realistic, feasible, and significant.


시니어 교수가 참가자들의 가이드로서 선정되어 프로젝트 작업을 지원한다. 'functional mentoring'의 원칙에 입각하여, 멘토링 관계는 프로젝트를 중심으로 형성되며, JFDP프로그램과 프로젝트의 기대성과와 타임라인에 따라 이뤄진다.

A senior faculty mentor is selected for each participant to guide and support project work. Using the principles of functional mentoring,18 the mentoring relationship is centered around the project and driven by the expected outcomes and timelines of the project and the JFDP program.


설문지와 CV상에서 학문적 성과물을 찾아서 Morzinski and Schubot의 프레임워크에 따라 분석했다. 반구조화 면접.

The academic products reported on the survey and on curricula vitae were analyzed using a framework adapted from Morzinski and Schubot.17 Semistructured interviews were conducted with six volunteer respondents, representative of all project types and stages. We then analyzed the transcripts of the semistructured interviews and the responses to the open- ended survey questions using a grounded theory approach19 to categorize the information and identify common themes. Codes were assigned and discrepancies resolved through discussionamong the investigators.



프로젝트 진행

Progress on projects


프로젝트를 분류하기 위해서 Glassick의 접근법을 활용하였다: 계획-시행-평가

To classify the status of projects, we used Glassick’s20 approach to scholarship as a guide to identify three stages of progress on a project: planning, implementation, and evaluation.


프로그램이 종료된 시점과 설문이 시행된 시점 사이의 기간은 9개월부터 3년 반이며 평균은 2.2년 

The time interval between completion of the programand the survey ranged from nine months to three and a half years (average 2.2 years after program completion).


설문 시점에서 5명만 프로젝트가 계획 단계를 넘어서지 못했다고 했다. 이 그룹 중, 설문-프로그램 사이 기간은 평균 1.5년이었다. 프로그램 종료 시점에서는 3명만이 평가 단계에 도달했다고 했다. 그러나 설문  시점에서는 88%가 시행 또는 계획 단계에 이르렀다.

By the time of the survey, only five individuals (12%) reported that their projects had not moved beyond the planning stage. In this group, the average time fromcompletion of the programand time of the survey was 1.5 years. Only three (7%) had achieved the evaluation stage by the end of the program(Table 2). However, by the time of the survey, a majority of respondents (36/41; 88%) reported that their projects had advanced to implementation or evaluation.



프로그램 참가자들의 학문적 진전

Academic progress of program participants


프로젝트를 '평가'단계까지 진행시킨 응답자는 (계획 혹은 진행 단계의 응답자보다) 더 많은 출판/발표/연구비 를 달성했음을 보고했다. 개인 당 학업적 성취의 숫자는 평가 단계에 간 경우 2배 이상 높았다.

Respondents who had advanced their projects to the evaluation stage reported a greater number of publications, presentations, and grants related to their projects than those whose projects remained in the planning or implementation stages (Figure 1). The total number of academic achievements per individual was more than two times greater for those who achieved the evaluation stage than for their peers in the programwhose projects were at earlier stages.


CV의 분석도 비슷한 결과 

The analysis of participants’ curricula vitae (n 34) revealed a similar pattern to the project-related academic products reported in the survey.



 




프로젝트의 효과에 대한 인식

Participants’ perceptions of project impact




실재하는 성과를 만들어냄

Producing tangible outcomes.


중요한 장점 중 하나는 새로운 스킬과 지식을 습득하게 하고, 그것을 잘 조직화하여 실재하는 학업적 성과를 달성하게 해주는 것이다. "문헌 좃와 프로젝트 준비에 익숙해졌다" "설문 설계에 익숙해졌다"

An important benefit of the project identified by participants in the JFDP is that it helped themto obtain new skills and knowledge and to organize their efforts to achieve tangible academic products. “became familiar with literature search and preparation for project” and “became familiar with survey design.”


참가 교수들은 새로운 지식과 스킬의 습득, 연구비를 따내고 논문을 마치고, 리더십 위치에 가고, 논문을 출판한 것 등을 성과로 보았다.

Participating faculty identified the acquisition of new skills and knowledge, completed grants and manuscripts, and leadership positions and publications as products of their participation.


커리어 발전(리더 혹은 집행부 보직 맡게 됨)도 있었다.

Additional outcomes included career advancement, such as appointments to leadership and administrative positions.


설문에서 많은 응답자들이 커리어 진전에 대해서 리더십과 관련된 성과를 기술했다.

In the survey data, many respondents highlighted leadership outcomes related to their career progression,


커리어의 포커스를 개발함

Developing a career focus.


참가자들은 프로젝트를 학문적 포커스를 개발하고 노력을 집중하는데 중요한 도구였다고 응답

Participants viewed the project as an important tool to help themconcentrate their efforts and develop an academic focus.


프로젝트가 커리어의 포커스에 대해서 중요한 것으로 "내 연구의 새로운 문을 열어주었다" 가 있음.

The importance of the project on developing a career focus was revealed in survey responses such as “The project has opened a new door for my research”


만약 프로그램 기간의 성과가 없었더라도 프로젝트 작업을 하는 것의 가치를 인정했으며, 왜냐하면 학문적 커리어에 포커스를 제공했기 때문이라 했다.

Participants perceived value in working on a project even if it did not come to fruition during the program, because the project provided a focus for their academic career.


일부 참가자는 프로그램을 마친 후에도 지속될 포커스를 개발한 것을 언급했고, 그들의 이후 커리어에 중요하였다고 했음.

The project helped some participants develop a focus for work that continued after completion of the programand that has had important subsequent effects on their careers.

 


관계를 개발함

Developing relationships.


주니어 교수들에게 프로젝트의 중요한 가치 중 하나는 시니어 교수 혹은 동료들과 관계를 맺게 해준 것이다. 시니어 교수들의 멘토링 관계는 그들이 필요로 했던 전문성과 가이드를 제공해주었다.

Central to the value of the project was the opportunity for junior faculty to develop productive relationships with senior faculty and their peers. The mentoring relationship with senior faculty provided needed expertise and guidance.


프로젝트는 교수들이 여러 전공과간 커넥션을  만들고 협력적 상황에서 더 효과적으로 일하도록 해주었다.

Projects provided the opportunity for faculty to develop connections across disciplines and to become more effective working in collaborative situations.




FDP에서 프로젝트의 핵심 특징

Key Features of Projects in Faculty Development Programs


우리의 결과는 개인들의 학문적 성과를 이끌어냈음을 보여준다. 더 나아가 교수들은 프로그램이 끝나고도 프로젝트를 하면서 academic career의 focus를 개발했다.

Our findings indicate that work on projects within a comprehensive faculty development programleads to individual academic achievements. Further, faculty may continue to work on projects past the completion of the programand develop a focus for their academic career.


이는 교육 관련 FDP에서 프로젝트의 유용성에 대한 연구를 확장한 것이다. 학문적 발전에서 프로젝트가 효과가 있다면 그 특징은 무엇일까?

These findings expand the work of others who have demonstrated the utility of projects in educational faculty development programs.3,4,7,8 Given the impact of projects on academic development, what are the key features of projects in faculty development programs that lead to academic achievement?


프로젝트 작업의 이점은 다음과 같다.

The benefits of project work can be summed up as follows: 

  • 지식 기술 개발 Knowledge and skill development through application
  • 커리어-포커스 발견 Identification of a career focus 
  • 인정 Recognition within the department, institution, and profession 
  • 학문적 성취 Scholarly achievement and academic productivity 
  • 커리어 발전속도 촉진 Facilitation of career advancement (promotion, leadership position)
  • 시간 확보를 정당화해줌 Justification of protected time for academic work 
  • 멘토링 Development of mentoring relationships 
  • 협력적 네트워크 Formation of collaborative networks

FDP에서 프로젝트는 학습자들로 하여금 프로젝트에서 얻은 지식과 기술을 교육과정에 적용하게 해준다. 프로젝트의 성과는 학습의 적용을 보여준다.

Faculty development programs can provide knowledge and allow practice of skills. Project work enables learners to transfer the knowledge and skills gleaned fromthe curriculumand apply these in the contextof their projects. The outcomes of their projects demonstrate the application of their learning.


학문적 포커스 차원에서 교수들은 학업 커리어를 비교적 미분화된 상태에서 시작한다. 그리고 어쩌면 그들이 도달하고자 하는 것과 해야 하는 것 사이의 균형에 대해서 모호해할 수 있다. 프로젝트는 새로운 잠재적 포커스를 찾는 '시운전(test drive)' 기회가 될 수 있다.

Faculty begin their academic careers relatively undifferentiated in terms of anacademic or scholarly focus and may be uncertain as to the balance of mission responsibilities that they wish to assume. Project work provides the opportunity to “test drive” a potential new area of focus.


따라서 노력을 집중하여 기관 차원에서 도움이 되는 결과물(새로운 교육과정)을 만들 수도 있고, 전문성을 인정받을 수도 있다(과목 디렉터로 임명됨)

Thus, concentrated effort results in a product (a new curriculum) that benefits the institution (a new course) and leads to recognition of expertise (appointment as course director). 


JFDP의 경험은 프로젝트, 아카데믹 포커스, 전문성 인정, 커리어 개발, 승진와 리더십 지위 임명 등의 관계를 보여준다.

Our experience in the JFDP demonstrates this relationship between project work, academic focus, recognition for expertise, and career advancement, including promotion and appointment to leadership positions.



프로젝트를 요구하는 FDP는 교수들로 하여금 그들의 일을 학문적 인 것으로 translate하게 해준다. 그러나 프로젝트를 그 scholarship이 가져올 명확한 기대에 따라 구조화하는 것이 필요하다. Glassick은 학문적 접근(scholarly approach)에는 여섯 개의 요소가 있다고 했다.

A faculty development programthat requires projects enables faculty to translate their work into scholarship. However, it is essential to establish a structure for project work with the explicit expectation that scholarship will result. Glassick20 defined a scholarly approach as having six components:

  • clear goals,
  • adequate preparation,
  • appropriate methods,
  • significant results,
  • effective communication, and
  • reflective critique.

 

Glassick’s principles are embedded in the JFDP.


교수들은 시간 활용에 있어서 서로 상충하는 요구를 받으며, scholarly work에 투자할 시간이 없을 수도 있다.

Faculty face competing demands on their time and may not be able to devote effort to scholarly work.14 


프로젝트에 투자할 확보된 시간을 요구하는 FDP에 참여하는 것은 scholarly work를 촉진한다. JFDP는 시간과 노력의 공식적 헌신을 요구하며, 참가자가 이렇게 시간을 쓰도록 하게 주임교수 혹은 분과장 교수의 동의를 요구한다.

Participation in a faculty development programthat requires protected time to work on a project facilitates scholarly work. The JFDP requires a formal commitment of time and effort (at least four hours per week) and agreement to this release time by the participant’s chair or division chief.



교수의 성공은 더 경험이 많은 동료의 충고와 지지에 따라 달라질 수 있다. 그러나 교수들은 멘토링이나 지지를 얻는데 차이가 있다. functional mentoring의 개념에 따라서 JFDP의 프로젝트는 멘토를 찾는데 초점을 두고 멘토링 관계를 만든다.

Successful faculty depend on the advice and assistance of more experienced colleagues.24,25 However, they may have mixed experiences in securing mentoring and obtaining the support they need.26 Using the concept of functional mentoring,18 the project in the JFDP is the focal point for identifying a mentor and establishing a mentoring relationship. Project work provides the focus for mentoring.



Best Practices


FDP 프로젝트는 다음을 따르길 권고한다.

To achieve the benefits of project work for faculty, we recommend the following framework for incorporation of projects within faculty development programs:


  • 프로젝트에 쓸 확보된 시간을 제공하라 Provide protected time for project work 
  • 프로젝트를 교수가 투입하는 노력과 맞추라 Ensure projects are aligned with faculty effort assignments 
  • 프로젝트에 대한 학문적 접근의 프레임워크 구축 Establish a framework for a scholarly approach to projects 
  • 프로젝트 성과에 대한 공식적 기대 제공 Provide a formal expectation for scholarship as a project outcome 
  • 멘토링과 프로젝트에 관한 참가자의 니즈에 초점 Focus mentoring on participants’ needs for their projects 
  • 멘토링 관계의 모니터링, 멘토 지원 Monitor the mentoring relationships; provide support for mentors 
  • 프로그램 기간 내의 진전을 위한 지원 Provide support during the programto ensure progress 
  • 참가자들에게 명확한 성과를 요구 Require participants to define explicit outcomes 
  • 프로그램 기간 내에 진행상황 모니터링을 위한 타임라인과 마일스톤 설정 Establish timelines and milestones during the programto monitor progress 
  • 진행상황 검토와 발표를 위한 기회 제공 Provide opportunities for presentation and review of progress 
  • 성공을 인정해줌 Recognize success (formal presentation, certificate, celebration event) 
  • 성과에 대한 평가 Evaluate project outcomes






17 Morzinski JA, Schubot DB. Evaluating faculty development outcomes by using curriculum vitae analysis. FamMed. 2000;32:185–189.


18 Thorndyke LE, Gusic ME, Milner RJ. Functional mentoring: A practical approach with multilevel outcomes. J Contin Educ Health Prof. 2008;28:157–164.









 




 2010 Sep;85(9):1484-91. doi: 10.1097/ACM.0b013e3181eb4d17.

The essential value of projects in faculty development.

Author information

  • 1Department of Pediatrics, Pennsylvania State University College of Medicine, Hershey, Pennsylvania, USA.

Abstract

Projects--planned activities with specific goals and outcomes--have been used in faculty development programs to enhance participant learning anddevelopmentProjects have been employed most extensively in programs designed to develop faculty as educators. The authors review the literature and report the results of their 2008 study of the impact of projects within the Pennsylvania State University College of Medicine JuniorFaculty Development Program, a comprehensive faculty development program. Using a mixed-methods approach, the products of project work, the academic productivity of program graduates, and the impact of projects on career development were analyzed. Faculty who achieved the most progress on their projects reported the highest number of academic products related to their project and the highest number of overall academic achievements. Faculty perceived that their project had three major effects on their professional development: production of a tangible outcome,development of a career focus, and development of relationships with mentors and peers. On the basis of these findings and a review of the literature, the authors conclude that projects are an essential element of a faculty development program. Projects provide a foundation for future academic success by enabling junior faculty to develop and hone knowledge and skills, identify a career focus and gain recognition within their community, generate scholarship, allocate time to academic work, and establish supportive relationships and collaborative networks. A list of best practices to successfully incorporate projects within faculty development programs is provided.

PMID:
 
20671538
 
[PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]


의학교육에서 교수개발, 교사 훈련과 교사 인증: 20년 후는 어떨까? (Med Teach, 2000)

Faculty development, teacher training and teacher accreditation in medical education: twenty years from now

DAN E. BENOR

Recanati School for Community Health Professions, Ben-Gurion University, Israel







의학교육에 이미 영향을 미치고 있는 사회적 요인 중 (   )은 점차 그 영향력이 더 커질 것이고, 누군가는 교육의 개인별 맞춤화와 강력한 자기-실현의 개념으로서 강조할 것이다. 의학을 가르치는 것은 더 이상 학생에게 흠잡을 데 없는 '구루'로서 보여지는 것은 아닐 것이다.

Among the sociological factors which already influence medical education and will influence it more and more, one may note the individualization of education as well as the powerful concept of self-actualization (Williams et al., 1999). Medical teachers will no longer be perceived by students as `gurus’ whose wisdom is irreproachable (Hardy & Conway, 1988).


더 나아가 사회는 의학교육 목표를 설정하고 우선순위를 정하는데 더 많이 관여할 것이다. '관리 의학교육(Managed medical education)'는 우리가 좋든 싫든 눈 앞에 와있다.

Furthermore, society will be involved more and more in setting and priori- tizing objectives for medical education. `Managed medical education’ is around the corner, whether we like it or not (Hafferty, 1999).


더 이상 의사가 팀워크로 협력해야 하는 다른 여러 전문직의 도움 없이 단독으로 환자를 볼 수 있는 시기는 끝날 것이다. 따라서 팀워크는 예외적인 것이 아니라 불가피한 것이다.

A point will be reached at which the physi- cian alone will not be able to manage a patient without a considerable number of other professionals who will have to cooperate in teamwork (Wahlstromet al., 1997). Teamwork, therefore, will become the unexceptional rather than the exceptional.



미래 의과해가

The future medical school


병원 밖에서 보내는 시간은 매우 늘어날 것이며, 병동에서 보내는 시간보다 더 많을 것이다. 학생들은 스스로의 학습 속도를 조절할 것이다. 현재와 같은 구조의, 시간이 제한된 교육과정은 사라질 것이다.

The time spent outside the hospital will be considerable, and may exceed the time on the wards. Students will pace their own learning (Ludmerer, 2000). The structured, time-restricted curriculum as we know it today will probably vanish.


그러나 의과대학의 두 가지 역할은 유지될 것이다. 하나는 질관리이다. 탈-중앙화된 학습은 개별 학생들로 하여금 자기자신의 전문가적 기술을 스스로의 속도에 맞춰 개발할 수 있게 해주며, 학습의 수단을 정하게 해준다. 이는 강력한 질-관리 메카니즘을 필요로 할 것이다.

Two roles of the medical school as we know it will, however, endure. One is quality control (Kamien, 1996; Kasselbaum et al., 1997). Decentralized studies will allow the individual student to develop his or her professional skills at he or she’s own pace, choosing a preferred modality for learning. This necessitates a strong quality-control mechanism.


또 다른 기능은 - 지금은 이차적인 목표이지만 - 도덕적 가이드를 제공하는 것이다. 다른 사람을 하나의 온전한 인간으로서 바라볼 수 있는 의사를 길러내는 데에는 엄청난 노력이 든다. 더 나아가 삶의 정서적, 심리사회적 문제를 해결하기 위해서는 더 많은 노력이 필요할 것이다. 학생의 스스로의 불안과 딜레마, 윤리적 불확실성에 대한 관심도 더 많이 필요할 것이며, 그 어떤 것도 지금보다 더 흔하고 더 심각할 것이다.

The other role, which is presently a secondary mission in spite of much rhetoric, is moral guidance. A lot of effort will be needed to educate a humane physician who can relate to another human being as a whole. Moreover, much effort will be needed to address the emotional and psychosocial problems of life, which will prevail. No less attention will be required to relate to the student’ s own anxieties, dilemmas and ethical uncertainties, which will be incomparably more frequent and more solemn than today.



미래의 의학교육자

The future medical teacher


미래 의학교육자(Medical Teacher)의 첫 번째 역할은 학생들에게 직접 가르치기 보다는 스스로 배울 수 있도록 기회를 제공하고 적절한 자원이 있는 곳을 가르쳐주는 것이다.

The prime role of the medical teacher of the future will be to provide his or her students with learning opportunities and to direct them to the proper resources rather than to `teach’ 


교사는 지금과 같이 지식의 일차적 출처로 남지 않을 것이며, "나도 잘 모르니 같이 찾아보자"라고 말할 수 없는 교사는 살아남지 못할 것이다.

Teachers who try to remain in the present position as the primary source of knowledge, and who will not be able to say ª I don’ t know; let’ s look it upº , will not survive.


두 번째로, 미래 의학교육자는 학생들의 미래의 삶의 도덕적, 정서적 미로로부터 학생들을 이끌 수 있어야 한다.

Second, the future medical teacher will have to be able to guide the student through the moral and emotional labyrinth of future life.


세 번째로, 미래 의학교육자는 학생들의 수행능력을 정교한 평가도구로 평가할 수 있어야 한다.

Third, the future medical teacher will have to be able to evaluate students’ performance by applying sophisticated evaluation measures.


교사의 유형은 다양한 의학교육자의 역할에 따라 구분될 것이다.

Instead, it may be envisaged that the differentroles of the medical teacher of the future will be split betweenseveral types of teachers


다수의 교수들이 단순한 학습자원의 리소스로서 활동할 것이다. 이들은 단순히 병동 혹은 외래에 기반을 둔 어떤 전공과목 혹은 특정 기술이나 테크놀로지의 전문가일 수도 있다. 그들은 학생 교육에 어떤 공식적인 역할을 담당하는 것은 아니지만 학습자원의 중요한 리소스로서 자기-학습 정보의 실제 상황에 적용을 돕는 '번역가(translator)'가 될 것이다.

The greater part of faculty members will probably act as merely resource persons. These will be mainly specialists in a clinical discipline, a specific skill or a particular technology, based in hospital wards and units as well as outpatient facilities. They will have no formal role in student education, yet they will be valuable resources and`translators’ of self-learnt information into real-life situa-tions.


두 번째 유형의 의학교육자는 평가자이다. 학생들의 역량을 평가하는 것이 그들의 유일한, 혹은 가장 중요한 책임이 될 것이다.

The second type of medical teachers will be evaluators.Assessment of students’ competences will thus be their sole,or at least main, educational responsibility.


소수의 교수들은, 그러나 지금은 거의 존재하지 않는 유형의 교사가 될 것이다. 이들은 멘토/코치/가이드로서 역할을 할 것이며, 정서적, 도덕적 이슈를 모두 다룰 수 있는 사람일 것이다.

The minority of faculty members, however, will become medical teachers of a genre that scarcely exists at present. The educational role of such teachers will be to act as mentors, coaches or guides.They will have to be both willing and capable to address emotional and moral issues.


그들의 학생의 정서, 우려, 의심, 불안을 다뤄주어야 할 것이다. 또한 학생의 거울이 되어주고, 대안을 제시하며, 위로/상담/지지를 해줘야 한다. 다른 말로는, 이들은 학생이 아무리 기술이 발전하더라도 다른 곳에서는 찾을 수 없는 것을 제공해주는 사람이 될 것이다.

They will also have to take care of their students’ emotions, concerns, doubts and anxi- eties. They will mirror behaviours to their students, suggest alternatives, console, consult and support. In other words, they will offer the only things that the student cannot find elsewhere, no matter how sophisticated the technology.


그러나 전문의와 달리 이들은 의학교육이 아니라도 어떤 분야의 전문가일 수 있으며, 학생들과 함께 탐색해나가는 과정(explorative process)를 편안하게 느껴야 한다. 따라서 이들은 '내용 전문가'가 아니라 '프로세스 전문가'라고 볼 수 있다.

However, unlike the specialists, they must not be experts in any field but education, and should feel comfort- able to take part in the explorative process of learning together with their students.They may be, therefore, regarded as `process’ rather than content experts (Kaufman &Holmes, 1998).


롤모델은 다양한 분야의 전문의일 것이다. 소위 '프로세스 교사'라고 불리는 이들에게는 추가적인 요구사항이 따를 것인데, 전통적인 권위적 교사의 모델에서 탈피해야 할 뿐만 아니라, 롤모델의 역할을 해야 한다.

The role models will thus continue to be the various specialists. This will put additional demands upon these so-called `process teachers’ ; not only will they have to relinquish the traditional authorita- tive status of a teacher, but they will be requested to forgo the position of a role model as well.


더 나아가 이러한 유형의 교사는 더 인간적이고, 더 돌봄을 중시하고, 의사소통을 중요시하는 명백한 사회의 요구로부터 나타난다. 미래에는 지금과 같은 불분명한 불만족이 보다 뚜렷해지고, 명확해질 것이다.

Moreover, this kind of teacher will emerge froman explicit societal demand for more humane, caring and communica- tive medicine. The presently murmured dissatisfaction will become blunt, clear and exacting in the future (Neufeld et al, 1998, 2000; Cohen, 1998).


그러나 우리는 이러한 유형의 의학교육자를 양성해야 하며, 우리가 그 지위에 적합한 역할을 부여할 수 있을 경우에만이 가능할 것이다. 이는 결국 우리가 어떤 교육훈련을 제공할 것인가에 달린 것이다. 교육훈련의 깊이, 진심, 프로페셔널리즘, 명망 등이 있다. 미래에 교사를 훈련시키는 것과 교수개발은 전례없는 중요성을 지닐 것이다.

However, we will be able to cultivate this kind of medical teacher if, and only if, we ascribe appropriate status to the role. This, in turn, depends also upon the training with which they will be provided, its depth, earnestness, profes- sionalism and prestige.Teacher training and faculty develop- ment in the future, therefore, will be of unprecedented importance.




오늘날의 교사훈련과 교수개발

Teacher training and faculty development today


지난 수백년간 교육은 과학이나 임상 전문가의 한 부분으로 인식되어왔다.

For centuries teaching expertise was assumed to be a part of clinical or scientific expertise (Irby, 1993;Wilkerson & Irby, 1998).


20세기 중반이 지나서야 의과대학에서의 교육이 내용전문성과 무관한 것임이 인정되기 시작했다.

Only in the second half of the 20th century has teaching in a medical school been acknowledged as a skill which is independent of content expertise.


그러나 교수개발의 개념은 더 천천히 전파되었다. 1977년 72개의 의과대학에서만 교수개발을 통한 교육 개선을 목적으로 하는 의학교육단위(medical education unit)가 있었다. 이는 그 당시 존재하던 의과대학의 4% 수준이다. 더 나아가 이 소수의 의과대학 중에서도 교수들 중 매우 일부만이 그런 프로그램에 참여했다.

The concept of teacher training and faculty develop- ment, however, was propagated slowly. By 1977 only 72 medical schools had established medical education units that attempted to improve teaching through teacher educa- tion (Jason & Westberg, 1982). This constitutes less than 4% of the medical schools which existed at the time. Moreover, even in these scarce schools only a small minority of the faculty members participated in any form of faculty development activities (idem).


교수개발 프로그램이 확산되기 시작한 것은 1970년대와 1980년대에 행동주의 이론이 확산되면서부터이다. 그 당시 학교들은 단기 워크숍, 세미나, 마이크로티칭 등을 통해서 교사들을 훈련시키기 시작했다.

The proliferation of teacher training programmes started in the late 1970s and the 1980s, alongside the dissemina- tion of behavioural theories. At that time schools started to train their teachers through short workshops, seminars and microteaching techniques (Wilkerson & Irby, 1998).


이런 행동주의적 접근법은 '저-추론(low inference)' 활동으로 강조되었으며, 이는 교사의 교실 내 행동에 대한 것임을 의미한다. 이 행동에는 목소리의 톤을 조절하는 것이나, 발표의 명확성, 요약하는 전략, 주요 개념을 강조하는 법, 보조자료의 활용 등이 있다. '교사 훈련'이라는 용어는 행동주의적 접근과 맞는다.

The behavioural approach has also stressed what was named `low inference’ activities (Murray, 1983), meaning teachers’ behaviours in the classroom. These behaviours range from time management to tone of voice, clarity of presentation, strategies of summing up and reinforcing major concepts, using teaching aids and so on. The term`teacher training’ concurred with the behavioural approach.


학생 중심으로 변화하기 시작한 것은 1980년대 인지 이론이 발전한 것과 일치한다. 교수개발활동의 초점이 변화하기 시작한 것인데, 의미의 적극적 구성과 개념 구조의 형성을 강조했다(construction of meaning, conceptual construct)

The shift to student orientation coincided with the flourishing of cognitive theories of education in the 1980s.A change in the focus of faculty development activity had occurred: the emphasis was now laid upon active construc-tion of meaning and the creation of conceptual constructs(Bruer, 1993;Wilkerson &Irby, 1998).


교사의 임무란 사실적 지식을 전달하여 학생들이 숨겨진 진실을 발견해낼 수 있도록 돕고, 지식에서 드러나는 개념을 조화시키고, 향후 학습을 위한 목적으로 활용할 수 있게 하는 것이 되었다. 다른 말로는 지향점이 '가르침' 에서 '배움'이 된 것이며, 이 패러다임에서 학생의 만족과 성공은 교사의 수행능력을 평가하는 주요 요인이 되었다.

The teacher’s mission was shifted from transferring factual knowledge to assisting students to discover hidden truths, to assimilate emerging concepts, and to put these into use for further learning (Shulmann, 1987). In other words, the orientation took another shift from teaching to learning. Under this paradigm students’ satisfaction and success had become a major component in assessing teachers’ performance.


친숙한 워크숍이나 세미나 외에 다양한 훈련 형태가 등장했다. 멘토링/상담/그룹토론/다른 교사와의 연결을 통한 위협적이지 않은 진실한 피드백 등이다.

 Various new training formats have emerged, in addition to the more familiar short workshops and seminars. These included mentoring, counselling,discussion groups and linking teachers with one another for non-threatening, sincere feedback (Skeff et al., 1997).


1990년대에는 교수개발활동이 단순한 훈련에서 더 나아가 개인과 조직의 성장과 발전의 과정으로 확장되었다. '교수개발'이라는 용어가 단순한 레토릭에서 벗어난 것은 바로 그 시기였다. 의학을 가르치는 사람이 된다는 것은 단순히 스킬을 익히는 것이 아니며, 이것은 교사, 학생, 직원으로 구성된 아카데믹 커뮤니티에 사회하되어가는 과정이라는 것이다.

The last decade of the century witnessed the first attempts to broaden the scope of faculty development activity from merely training into a process of personal and institutional growth and development. It was only then that the term `faculty development’ ceased to be simply rhetoric. It was argued that becoming a medical teacher is more than the acquisition of appropriate skills; instead, it is a socialization process into the academic community which comprises teachers, students and staff support personnel (Wilkerson & Irby, 1998). 


초보 교사는 더 노련한 교사와 지내면서 자기 자신의 기관 내 역할(institutional profile)을 만들어간다. 이러한 학습은 새로운 형태의 OTJ 학습이며, 교육 경험을 쌓아가며 시도와 실패 끝에 배우는 것과는 매우 다르다.

The neophyte teacher rubs shoulders with the older ones in shaping his or her own institutional profile (Benor & Mahler, 1987; Evans, 1995). Such learning of educational matters is a new sort of on-the-job learning, which is very different from learning by trial and error from teaching experiences.


현존하는 가장 효과적인 FDP는 'multiphasic'하다고 불리기도 한다. 여기서는 다양한 교육적 개념과 실천이 교사의 발달단계에 맞춰 서로 달라야 한다고 가정한다.

The most effective faculty development programmes which are currently comprehensive prevalent, programmes, however, sometimes are called the also `multiphasic’ (Bland & Stritter, 1988; Benor & Mahler,1989; Hitchcock et al., 1993; Quirk et al., 1998; Wilkerson& Irby, 1998). They assume that distinct educational concepts and practices are suitable for different stages of the teacher’ s development.


일부 대학에서 초기에 시도한 것은 학생들의 평가이용하는 것이며, 이것이 교수들이 교육을 개선하게 동기부여를 할 것이라고 그저 가정한 것이다. 그럼에도 이것은 교사-중심에서 학생-중심으로의 태도 변화의 전주곡이 되었다. 그러나 교사의 포트폴리오에 학생들의 평가가 포함되는데는 추가적인 20년 혹은 그 이상의 시간이 필요할 것이다.

These early attempts were accompanied in a few schools by students’ ratings of teaching, which were supposed to affect teaching merely by motivating teachers towards improvement (Eble & McKeachie, 1985). Nevertheless, these modest preludes signify the beginning of a major atti- tudinal change in education from teacher to student orienta- tion. It would take, however, another two decades or so to make students’ ratings of teaching a required component of the teacher’s portfolio.


초보 교사는 학계와 소속 기관의 커뮤니티에 사회화되어야하며, 이를 통해서 기관의 교육철학과 접근을 이해하고 그것에 동화되어야 한다. 일단 커뮤니티에 흡수되고 나면, 새로운 교수들은 기본적 교육 도구를 습득해야 하며, 교수학습의 이론을 대략이라도 접해야 한다. 더 경험이 많은 교사는 교육의 구체적인 측면에 대해서 추가적 훈련을 필요로 할 수 있다. 마지막으로 교육 리더는 교육과정 전체 혹은 일부를 관장하는 사람으로서, 의사결정자의 위치에 있을 경우 리더십은 물론 교육적 추론에 대해 또 다른 것을 알아야 한다.

The neophyte must be socialized into the academic and institutional community, both to understand and to assimilate the institutional educational philosophy and approaches. Once absorbed into the community, the new faculty member needs to acquire basic educational tools as well as a glance at the theory of teaching and learning. The more experienced teacher may need additional training in specific aspects of education, such as evaluation techniques, in order to develop further his or her skills, strengthen weaknesses and experiment with variations. Finally, educational leaders, who govern the medical school curriculum or parts of it, and who are in a decision-making position, need yet another kind of exposure to educational reasoning as well as to issues of leadership. A


따라서 포괄적, 다-시기적 접근법은 교육의 특징은 형태가 아니라 그 순서에 있는 것이며, 피훈련자의 'bite size'에 따라 점진적으로 차이가 난다. 다른 말로는 교육자들을 교육시키는 것이도 교육 원칙이 적용되어야 한다.

The unique- ness of the comprehensive, multiphasic approach is, therefore, not in the format but rather in the sequencing of the training, which is gradual in accordance with the `bite size’ of the trainee. In other words, the educational principles have been applied, at last, to education of the educators.






포괄적 교수개발 모델: Ben-Gurion 대학의 사례

A model of comprehensive faculty development: the case of Ben-Gurion University


오리엔테이션 시기에는 소그룹 활동 중심의 2일 워크숍을 한다.

This Orientation phase is a two-day workshop based on small-group activity. 


이 워크숍에서는 교육과정의 개괄과 승진과 테뉴어 정책에 이르기까지 학교 생활의 모든 측면을 다룬다. 이 프레임워크에서 참가자들은 학장과 핵심 교수들을 만나게 되며 학생도 만난다. 이 시기에서 기대하는 바는 태도의 변화이다. 새로운 교사들은 기관의 목적이 임의로 설정된 것이 아니며, 교육과정이 실제로 정해진 건강 요구에 대한 이해가능한 해결책임을 발견하게 된다.

The workshop then provides information on every aspect of the school’s life, from an overview of the curriculum to promotion and tenure policies. Within this framework the participants meet the dean and key faculty members, as well as students. The expected outcome of this phase is an atti-tudinal change. The new teachers discover that the institutional objectives are not arbitrary, and that the curriculumis indeed an understandable solution to definedhealth needs


두 번째 시기에는 '기초 교육 스킬'이라는 제목으로 3일짜리 집중적 워크숍을 한다.

The second phase, entitled Basic Instructional Skills, is an intensive three-day workshop. 


이 워크숍은 모듈 형태이며, 각 모듈은 단일한 교육 개념을 다루고 있다. 

The workshop is modular. Each module relates to a single major educational concept, such as 

  • defining and formulating educational objectives, 
  • selecting an appropriate teaching method from a wide-ranging menu, 
  • preparing teaching materials and, finally, 
  • evaluating attain- ment of the objectives.


세 번째 시기는 더 경험이 많은 교사들을 대상으로 설계된 것으로, 교육 프로그램의 모든 측면에서 다양한 활동을 제공한다. 

The third phase, designed for more experienced teachers, offers a variety of activities in all aspects of the educational programme. Among these are 

  • improving lecturing skills, 
  • raising the cognitive level of instruction, 
  • writing test items, 
  • designing clinical evaluation, 
  • activating student participation in learning, 
  • preparing audio-visual aids, 
  • teaching physical diagnosis, 
  • teaching communication skills, 
  • tutoring problem-based self-learning groups and more.
네 번째 시기에는 여러 교육 이론관 관련한 코스를 제공한다.

The fourth phase offers experienced teachers several theoretical educational courses, such as a course on 

  • evalua- tion in education, 
  • research design and 
  • other major issues of medical and health professions education.
이 시기는 명백하게 현재 혹은 미래에 의사결정자가 될 소수의 교육 리더를 대상으로 한다. 

This phase is explicitly targeted toward a small group of educational leaders, who are, or will be, in decision-making positions such as members of curriculum committees, coordinators of major courses, vice deans and the like. 



2020년의 교수개발

Teacher training and faculty development in 2020


교수개발은 일상적인 것이 될 것이다.

Faculty development will become commonplace.


이것은 더 많은 대중(public)의 참여를 통해 달성할 수 있다. 이는 학교는 물론 개별 교사에 대한 인증절차까지 가져오게 될 것이다. 정부, 대학, 의료공급자는 더 비용-효과적인 의학교육을 원할 것이고, 결국 더 효율적인 의학교육자가 필요할 것이다.

This will be achieved through more involvement of the public in education (Neufeld et al., 1998, 2000), which may also bring about accreditation procedures of both schools and individual teachers. Governments, universities and healthcare providers will prescribe a more cost-efficient medical education (Hafferty, 1999) which, in turn, will require efficient medical teachers.


반대로, Medical teacher의 시간은 지금보다, 그리고 점차 더 귀중하고 비싼 것이 될 것이다. 따라서 Teacher training도 비용효과적이고 경제적이고 시간-효율적이고 간결해야 한다.

On the other hand, the time of medical teachers will be valuable, scarce and expensive, no less than today and prob- ably more so. Thus teacher training will also have to be cost efficient, economical, time efficient and thus concise. 


어떤 식으로든 이런 훈련이 'all or none' type이 되지는 않을 것이다. 다른 말로는 종합적, 다-시기적, 맞춤형 접근법이 될 것이다.

By no means will training be an `all or none’ type. In other words, a comprehensive, multiphasic, almost `hand tailored’ approach is indicated (Figure 2).


그러나 모든 medical teacher을 대상으로 하는 두 가지 훈련활동이 있을 것인데, 하나는 기관과 학계에 관한 오리엔테이션이다. 모든 신임 교수들은 그들의 교육적 책임과 경험이 어떠하든 소속 기관과 그 기관의 미션, 접근법, 방법에 익숙해져야 한다. 그들의 교육적 역할이 무엇이든, '큰 그림'을 볼 수 있어야 한다. 또한 그들 자신을 이러한 기관 전체의 맥락 안에서 인식할 수 있어야 한다.

There are, however, two training activities that will aim at all medical teachers. The first is an orientation to the institution and to the academic community. All new faculty members, whatever their educational responsibility and experience, must be acquainted with their own institution and endorse its educational mission, approaches and methods. In order to identify with their educational role,they have to have `the big picture’ , and to perceive themselves within this institutional context.


두 번째 공통 활동은 정보 수집에 필요한 모든 테크닉에 능숙해지는 것이다. 그 교수의 미래 역할이 무엇이든, 이 기술이 반드시 필요할 것이다. 20년 후 대부분의 전문직은 이 기술을 - 기관의 도움이 있든 없든 - 어느 정도로는 마스터해야 할 것이다. 이 교육훈련은 따라서 이 기술을 습득하여 학생들에게 전수할 수 있게끔 하는데 있다. 다른말로는 학생들이 어떻게 정보의 능동적 '수렵자'가 될 수 있으며, 어떻게 습득한 정보를 크로스-체크 할 수  있는지, 어떻게 비판적 평가를 할 수 있는지, 어떻게 사용할지 등이다.

The second common activity will be acquiring proficiency in all techniques of information retrieval.Whatever the future role of the faculty member may be, it will include this particular skill. It may be envisaged that most of the profes- sionals 20 years from now will master this skill to some extent, with or without institutional intervention. The training will be aimed, therefore, at acquiring the capability to transfer this skill to students. In other words, to teach students 

  • how to be active `hunters’ of information, 
  • how to cross-check the data obtained, 
  • how to critically evaluate them, and, finally, 
  • how to use them.

단순히 학습자원의 리소스로 역할하게 될 대다수의 교수들은 추가적 교육훈련이 필요하지 않겠지만, 나머지, 즉 '평가자' 혹은 medical teacher를 전문으로 하는 사람은 추가적 입문 교육이 필요하다.

The majority of the faculty who are specialists and will serve merely as resource people for the students may be exempted from further training, unless they are interested. For the rest, namely the `evaluators’ and the `real’ , career medical teachers, another introductory activity is indicated.



교수개발 시스템의 주 노력은 '진정한' 혹은 '직업' medical teacher를 대상으로 해야 한다. 정의상 이들이 교육훈련에 쏟을 시간이 더 많을 것이다. 첫 번째 공통시기가 지난 이후, 이들 교사는 교육 스킬의 집중 훈련을 받아야 한다. 다른 말로는 지식의 리소스가 아니라 학습의 촉진자 역할을 받아들이고 수행하기 위해서 배워야 한다.

The main effort of the faculty development system should be directed, however, at the fewer `real’ , or career, medical teachers. By definition they will have more time for training,since teaching is their main thrust. After the first common phases, these teachers will have to have intensive training in tutoring skills. In other words, they have to learn, to accept and to practise the role of promoters and facilitators of learning rather than that of a source of knowledge


이후, 이 분야에서 일정한 경험을 쌓은 다음에 직업 교사들은 성인학습 프로세스에 대해서 배워야 한다. 이는 교육이론과 방법론에 대한 소개과정을 말한다.

Later on, after gaining some experience in the field, the career teachers will have to know more about adult learning processes.This means an introduction to educational theories and methodologies.


교육훈련의 마지막 단계는 기관을 위한 교육리더십 개발이다. 여기에 관심을 갖는 개인은 드물 것이다. 따라서 자원의 절약을 위해서 이러한 훈련은 지역/국가내/국가간 수준에서 이뤄져야 한다. 어떤 형태의 교사도 모두 리더가 될 수 있으므로, 앞에서 언급한 모든 phase를 이수한 사람만이 미래 지도자 교육을 받을 수 있다.

The last phase of training will be aimed at the develop-ment of educational leadership for the institution. The individuals concerned will, naturally, be but a few. Therefore,for conservation of resources, their training will probably be on a regional, national or even international level. Leaders can emerge from any type of teachers. The training of these future leaders should include, therefore, all the phases described earlier which they did not undertake. Only then may specific training start.


의학교육의 리더가 스스로 만들어지는 시기는 지났으며, 이제는 리더십에 대해서 알아야 할 것들이 있고, 따라야 할 실천들과 공유해야 할 경험이 있다.

The time when leaders of medical education were self-made people, or more or less born leaders, has passed. There are things to know about leadership, practices to follow and experiences to share. 




medical teacher의 자격과 인증

Certification and accreditation of medical teachers


슬쩍 보기에 의과대학은 교사훈련과 교수개발의 자기통제를 통해서 외부의 개입을 막아야 한다고 보일 수 있다.

At first glance it seems that medical schools should try their best to vanquish such external interference by self- regulation of teacher training and faculty development. 


그러나 최근의 추세는 외부의 평가자(국가 수준이든 어떻든)를 통해서 자격을 인정받는 방식이다. 이 프로세스는 의학교육을 해치거나 학교의 자율성을 위험에 빠뜨리기 보다는 그 반대이다. 외부 인증기관이 있는 국가에서 대학은 보다 명확하고 합의된 최소한의 가이드라인을 제공받을 수 있다.

However, the global trend today is to follow the American example, and endorse certification procedures via external examiners, whether nationwide or otherwise. This process did not harm medical education, and did not jeopardize schools’ autonomy. On the contrary: in those countries that have external certification, schools are provided with clear, agreed guidelines, which describe the minimal future professional.


우리의 아이들을 가르치는 선생님들은 자격증이 필요하다. 의사가 될 우리 학생들은 왜 동등한 특권을 누리지 못하는가?

The teachers of our children, while they are young, should be certified.Why should our children, who elect to become physicians,not have the same privilege? 


더 나아가, 의사에게 자격증을 부여하는 작업은 의사에 의해서 이뤄지고, 이들 역시 평가 전문가로서 의사의 역할에 대한 전문직간 포괄적 합의를 대표하는 사람이다.

Moreover, certification of physicians will be done by physicians, who are also evaluation experts, and who represent wide agreement between professionals on the doctor’ s role. 


더 나아가 medical teacher들은 외부 자격증에 관심을 가질 수도 있다. 전문직-역할 갈등에 대해서많은 것이 쓰여지고 논의된 바 있다.

Furthermore, medical teachers may be interested in such external certification. A lot has been written and spoken about the `profession-role conflict’ (Bazuin &Yonke, 1978).


최근 임상적, 과학적 역량을 바탕으로 고용되거나 승진한 의사들이 교사의 역할을 하는데 어려움을 겪는다. 교육은 부가적 업무가 되고, 가끔은 짐이며, 어떤 식으로든 그 개인의 가장 중요한 역할이 되지 않는다. 자격증을 주는 절차는 이 갈등을 줄여줄 수 있다. 그러한 과정을 겪는 medical teacher는 스스로를 교사-의사로서 더 인식할 것이며 교육 의무를 갖는 의사로서 덜 인식하게 될 것이다.

Nowadays the physician who has been hired and promoted for his or her clinical or scientific competences finds it hardto identify with a teacher’s role. Teaching becomes an extratask, sometimes a burden, but by no means the main thrustof the individual. A formal certification procedure may andwill alleviate this conflict.The medical teachers who undergosuch a procedure will perceive themselves more easily asteacher-physicians rather than clinicians who teach


자격증 시험을 떨어진 교수는 어떻게 되는가? 사실상 아무 일도 일어나지 않는다. 우리가 나아가는 이 경쟁적 세계에서 기관 그 자체는 교육을 자신의 주 진로로 선택한 교수의 숫자를 충분히 확보할 것이다. 다만 차이는 미래의 '아이비리그'가 의사면허시험에서 졸업생의 성공만을 고려할 것이냐 아니면 교사의 성공도 같이 고려할 것이냐일 것이다.

What will happen to faculty members who fail the certification examinations? In fact, nothing. In the competi-tive world toward which we are heading, the institutions themselves will guarantee both a sufficient number of faculty members who elect education as their main career path,and their success. The only difference, perhaps, would be that the Ivy League of the future would take into considera-tion not only graduates’ success in the national certification examinations, but also that of their teachers. 











 2000;22(5):503-12. doi: 10.1080/01421590050110795.

Faculty developmentteacher training and teacher accreditation in medical educationtwenty years from now.

Author information

  • 1Recanati School for Community Health Professions, Ben-Gurion University, Israel.

Abstract

To address the issue of faculty development in the year 2020, an attempt is made to predict the structure of the future medical school and the profile of a future medical teacher. By projecting from the technological, sociological and structural processes that affect medical education, it can be envisaged that there will be several types of medical teachers, namely specialists, who will be resource people for the students, evaluators of student performance, and a minority of 'process teachers'. The role of the process teachers will be to tutor, facilitate learning, coach and guide the students in the only domain which cannot be self-learned by technological devices, namely: moral issues, interpersonal communication and crisis management. Each type of teacher requires a different training programme. All programmes, however, should be comprehensive, longitudinal or multiphasic, and lead the faculty member from orientation in both the institution and the educational field to a leadership position by successive approximations. It is further expected that societal demands will impose teacher accreditation and, perhaps, licensing. This, however, will remain in the medical profession's hands, and may bring about a resolution of the 'role-profession conflict', and a more favourable self-perception of facultymembers as teachers. Finally, an optimistic conclusion is drawn for the future of medical education.

PMID:
 
21271965
 
[PubMed]


FDP의 교육-스킬에 있어서 장기 효과성에 대한 질적 평가(Med Educ, 2007)

Qualitative assessment of the long-term impact of a faculty development programme in teaching skills

Amy M Knight, Joseph A Carrese & Scott M Wright






FDP의 평가는 보통 프로그램이 끝난 직후에 시행되나 많은 경우 이러한 평가는 양적평가가 된다. 질적연구 설계는 특정 주제에 대해서 대상자의 관점을 더 폭넓고 깊게 확인할 수 있게 해준다. 비록 많은 FDP 성과 연구들이 질적연구방법을 사용했지만, 대부분은 20명 이하의 참가자만을 대상으로 하거나, 6개월 이내에 시행된 바 있다.

Evaluations of FDPs are usually performed immedi- ately or soon after their conclusion and the majority of these assessments have been quantitative in nature.6 Qualitative study designs may better identify the breadth and depth of subjects’ perspectives on a particular topic.7 Although several studies of FDP outcomes have used qualitative methodologies,8–14 most have included fewer than 20 participants8–11 or have occurred within 6 months of the conclusion of the programme.8,9,13


9개월짜리, 매주 반일동안 교육스킬에 대해 진행되는 FDP가 1987년부터 진행되어왔다. 프로그램 종료 직후의 평가와 장기 follow-up 설문의 양적연구 결과는 출판된 적 있다.

A 9-month, 1 half-day per week FDP in teaching skills (FDP⁄ TS) has been offered annually at our institu- tion since 1987. An immediate post-programme evaluation15 and results froma quantitative long-term follow-up survey16 have previously been published.



방법
METHODS


프로그램

Programme description


5~8명씩. 1~2명의 퍼실리테이터와 만남. 9월 초부터 5월 말까지. 매주 반일. 모듈별 운영. 모듈당 길이는 1~6주. 프로그램 목표. 

Participants in the FDP⁄ TS meet in groups of 5–8 participants with 1–2 facilitators between early September and late May for 1 half-day each week to work on modules that vary in length from 1 to 6 weeks. Programme goals are for participants to experience and gain expertise in concepts believed to be critical to educating medical learners, such as learner-centredness, self-directed learning, and the building of a supportive learning environment.


모듈 토픽

Module topics include 

    • giving and eliciting feedback, 
    • precepting (1-to-1 teaching), 
    • time management, 
    • communication and interviewing, 
    • negotiation and conflict management, 
    • giving lectures and presenta- tions, and 
    • small-group leadership skills.


The programme has been described in detail elsewhere.15


연구대상

Study population


1987년부터 2000년까지 참여한 242명

In July 2002, we surveyed the 242 faculty members and fellows who had taken part in the FDP⁄ TS from 1987 through 2000.


연구 설계

Survey design



자료 수집

Data collection





분석

Analysis


  • Handwritten responses to the open-ended question about programme impact were transcribed verbatim and analysis was independently performed by 2 investigators (AMK and SMW) using an editing analysis style .18 
  • Categories and subcategories of themes were generated and conceptually organised by each investigator. 
  • A third investigator (JAC) independently compared these generated themes with the transcribed subject comments, looking for completeness, congruence and coherence
  • The 3 investigators then had a series of meetings to discuss the analyses. 
  • Final domains and subcategories were agreed on by all 3 investigators, and the number of responses related to each subcategory was tabulated. 
  • Several representative quotes were selected for inclusion by consensus. The year in which programme participation began is provided with each quote.



RESULTS


프로그램 효과의 질적 평가

Qualitative assessment of programme impact


Table 2에 나와있음.

Table 2 also notes how many responses to the open-ended question were related to each of the subcategories. Each domain was represented in comments from 1 or more respondents from each of the 14 cohorts studied. Descriptions of each domain and its subcategories follow, with supporting quotes.



내적 성장

Intrapersonal development


성찰과 자기인식

Commitment to reflection and self-awareness


우선순위와 목표 설정

Prioritising and setting goals


조직관리, 시간관리 기술

Organisation and time-management skills



대인관계 성장

Interpersonal development


건강한 관계

Healthier relationships


경청과 타인과 의사소통

Listening to and communicating with others


피드백 주고 받는 능력

Ability to give and elicit feedback


갈등관리와 협상 기술

Conflict management and negotiation skills


리더십과 그룹 참여 스킬

Leadership and group participation skills


교사로서의 발전

Development as a teacher


전반적인 교육기술, 능력

Overall teaching skills and abilities


교사로서의 자신감

Confidence in self as teacher


교육을 더 즐기게 되고 만족하게 됨

Greater enjoyment and satisfaction in teaching


학습자 중심 교육, 지지적 학습환경 조성

Being learner-centred and creating a supportive learning environment


프로그램은 일부 참가자들이 (1)보다 학습자중심이 되고 (2)학습자를 존중하게 되고 (3)학습자의 요구에 신경쓰며 (4)긍정적 학습 환경을 조성하게 도와주었다.

The FDP⁄ TS has helped some past participants to: 

1 become more learner-centred; 

have more respect for learners; 

be more aware of learners’ needs, and 

establish a positive learning climate.


배운 교육법을 지속적으로 사용하고, 다른 교수들이 발전하게 도와줌

Continuing to use teaching methods learned and helping other teachers improve



커리어 발전

Career development


FDP담당 교수들과 동료를 만남으로써 얻은 것

Benefits from exposure to FDP faculty and peers


일부 응답자들은 FDP/TS 담당 교수들을 만나고 이들이 지속적으로 롤모델과 멘토 역할을 해주었다고 했음. 다른 참가자들과 네트워킹의 가치와 friendship을 형성하는 가치를 알게 되었다고 했음.

Some respondents noted benefits deriving from being exposed to FDP⁄ TS faculty who had continued to serve as role models and mentors. They also appreciated the value of networking and forming friendships with other participants:



진로와 진로 계획에 대한 영향

Influence on career path and planning


일부 참가자들은 프로그램에서 (1)교육자로서 그들의 커리어에서 무엇을 기대할 수 있는가 (2)성공을 염두에 둔 커리어 설계는 어떻게 해야 하는게 등을 배웠다고 함

Some participants credited the programme with giving them perspectives on: 

1 what to expect from their careers (particularly as educators), and 

2 how to structure their careers with success and advancement in mind.



전문성 향상으로 인한 기회

Opportunities due to expertise gained



DISCUSSION


지난 참가자에서는 (1)학습자-중심, (2)지지적 학습환경 구축, (3)효과적인 피드백 제공을 할 수 있게 되었다고 응답함.

Past participants were also more likely to describe themselves as: 

learner-centred; 

building supportive learning environments, and 

giving effective feedback.15 


이러한 폭넓은 효과는 프로그램의 장기적 성격으로 인한 것이며, FDP담당 교수 및 다른 참가자들과 관계를 맺을 기회를 주었기 때문으로 생각된다.

This broad impact probably results from the longitudinal nature of the programme4 and the opportunities it provides for building relationships with programme faculty and other participants.


FDP에 대한 많은 장기 follow-up 연구는 학문적 성공의 객관적 지표(프리젠테이션, 출판, 리더십 위치) 등에 초점을 두었다. 이렇게 협소하게 정의된 ㅍ로그램의 성과는 참가자들에게 더 깊고 지속적으로 일어나는 변화, 그리고 개인적 성장이나 타인과의 관계적 측면을 잘 보여주지 못할 수 있다.

Many long-term follow-up studies of longitudinal FDPs have focused on objective markers of academic success, such as presentations, publications and leadership positions.10,12,19–22 These narrowly defined quantitative programme outcomes may preclude the detection of deeper and more sustained changes in participants’ professional or personal growth and relationships with others.


FDP/TS 참가자들은 프로그램에서 프로그램 담당 교수들과 다른 참가자들과 관계를 발전시킬 수 있는 기회에 대해 높은 가치를 두었다. 이는 다른 연구에서도 나타난 바 있다. 학문적 동료들과 네트워크를 형성하는 것은 커리어 성공과 연관되어 있으며, FDP의 중요한 부산물이다.

Past participants in the FDP⁄ TS highly valued opportunities provided by the programme to develop relationships with programme faculty and other participants. This finding has been borne out in other studies of FDPs.8–10,12–14 The development of a network of academic colleagues has been shown to be associated with career success23–25 and is an import- ant by-product of FDPs such as that described in this manuscript.


이 다양한 응답들이 개방형 문항에서 자발적으로, 아무런 요구가 없는 상태에서 얻은 응답이라는 것이 중요하다. 또한 더 적게 언급된 카테고리가 더 많이 언급된 것들보다 덜 중요하다고 생각해서는 안된다.

It is important to note that the variety of responses to the open-ended question about programme impact were spontaneous and unsolicited, and we should not assume that those subcategories mentioned fewer times are less valid than those mentioned more frequently.


15 Cole KA, Barker LR, Kolodner K, Williamson PR, Wright SM, Kern DE. Faculty development in teaching skills: an intensive longitudinal model. Acad Med 2004;79:469–80.


18 Crabtree BF, Miller WL. Doing Qualitative Research, 2nd edn. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage 1999;145–61.












 2007 Jun;41(6):592-600.

Qualitative assessment of the long-term impact of a faculty development programme in teaching skills.

Author information

  • 1Johns Hopkins Bayview Medical Center, Baltimore, MD 21230, USA. aknight@jhmi.edu

Abstract

CONTEXT:

The long-term impact of faculty development programmes (FDPs) is poorly understood, and most assessments of them have been quantitative in nature.

OBJECTIVE:

This study aimed to use qualitative methods to better understand the long-term impact of an FDP in teaching skills (FDP/TS).

METHODS:

A survey was carried out in July 2002 of the 242 faculty members and fellows who had participated in a 9-month FDP/TS at any time from 1987 through 2000. The survey included 2 quantitative questions and an open-ended qualitative question about the impact of the programme on the participants' professional and personal lives.

RESULTS:

A total of 200 past participants (83%) responded to the survey. Participants from early and recent cohorts were similarly represented. In all, 82% of respondents said programme participation had had 'a moderate' or 'a lot' of impact on their professional life, and 49% said their personal life had been affected to this degree. Four major domains, each containing at least 3 subcategories, emerged from qualitative analysis. The domain intrapersonal development included changes participants reported in themselves and in their approach to self-management. Interpersonaldevelopment contained subcategories relating to how participants interact with others. Subcategories in the domain development as a teacher related to increased teaching ability and enjoyment. The domain career development included professional growth and career opportunities attributed toprogramme participation.

CONCLUSIONS:

Longitudinal FDPs can have broad and sustained positive effects on the professional and personal lives of participants. Qualitativeevaluation methods may result in a richer and deeper understanding of the impact of these programmes.

PMID:
 
17518840
 
[PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]


교수개발: 꿈의 영역? (Med Educ, 2009)

Faculty development: a ‘Field of Dreams’?

Yvonne Steinert,1,2,3 Peter J McLeod,1,2,4 Miriam Boillat,1,2,3 Sarkis Meterissian,2,6 Michelle Elizov1,2,4 &

Mary Ellen Macdonald2,7,8






목적: FD 워크숍 참석자들은 종종 '가장 FD가 필요한 사람들이 가장 참석하지 않는다'라고 코멘트한다.

OBJECTIVES Participants in faculty develop- ment workshops often comment that ‘those who need faculty development the most attend the least’.



"만들면, 올 것이다" Kinsella 1980

‘If you build it, [they] will come.’ Kinsella, 19801


임상교육자들은 더 이상 내용전문가라는 사실 만으로 성공하지 못한다. 다른 연구자들도 임상교육자로 성공하기 위해서 필요한 스킬에 대해서 언급한 바 있다

Clinical teachers can no longer succeed with mere content expertise. Others4,5 have identified the skills required to succeed as teachers, including the ability to 

  • 적절한 환경 만들기 create an appropriate environment, 
  • 학습자 관찰하고 평가하기 observe and assess learners, 
  • 피드백 제공하기 provide feedback, 
  • 다양한 세팅에서 가르치기 teach in multiple settings, and 
  • 효과적 롤 모델 되기 role model effectively.


FDP에 대한 다양한 연구에도 불구하고, 참석과 참여에 대한 연구는 부족하다. 교육-개선 목적 프로그램 참여의 장애에 대해서는 지금까지 단 하나의 연구가 있었는데 여기에는 다음과 같은 것들이 있따.

Despite many published descriptions of faculty development programmes and activities,5–7 the liter- ature on attendance and participation is scant. To our knowledge, there is only one descriptive paper8 that outlines potential barriers to participation in teaching improvement programmes. These barriers include: 

  • 교사의 태도와 오해 the attitudes and misconceptions of teach- ers; 
  • 기관의 불충분한 지원 insufficient support from the institution, and 
  • 교육개선방법의 이점에 대해 확신을 주는 근거의 부족 a lack of convincing research on the benefits of teaching improvement methods. 


참여에 대한 가능성을 낮추는 요인으로는..

Non-participant attitudes that diminish the likelihood of participation comprise: 

  • FDP의 필요성을 평가절하하는 경향 a tendency to underestimate the need for faculty development programmes; 
  • 교육스킬의 효용성에 대한 신념 부족 lack of belief in the utility of teaching skills, and 
  • 교육자 훈련이 excellence 교육과 무관하다는 신념 a belief that teacher training is unrelated to teaching excellence.8



방법

METHODS



설계

Design


포커스그룹의 장점

We selected focus groups13 as the primary method of data collection for this descriptive study. Focus groups, which encourage participants to 

    • recount their beliefs and practices, 
    • provide an opportunity for group interaction and 
    • trigger memories of hitherto forgotten experiences,14 

allowed us to meet our study objectives.



참가자 모집

Subject recruitment



포커스그룹

Focus groups


의료인류학자 진행

A medical anthropologist, who was not involved in our programme, conducted the focus groups. The focus group questions were pilot tested with members of the Centre for Medical Education and tapped four main areas of inquiry: 


질문 영역

    • perceptions of faculty development; 
    • reasons for non-participation; 
    • perceptions of effec- tive teaching methods and preferred learning formats, and 
    • perceived barriers to participation. 

프로브 질문의 목적, facilitator의 역할

‘Probes’ accompanied each question to stimulate thinking, to encourage faculty members to give detailed responses, and to solicit examples of more general observations.13 The facilitator...

    • took minimal field notes during the focus groups, but 
    • wrote more extensive notes within 24 hours of the session in order to record her impressions, 
    • capture main themes and 
    • facilitate preliminary data analysis


한 그룹에서 어떤 주제가 등장하면 이후 그룹에서 다시 확인함

The focus group questions evolved slightly as the process unfolded; when salient issues emerged in one group, they were reiterated in subsequent groups to test their relevancy.



데이터 분석

Data analysis


  • We audiotaped and transcribed all focus groups using standard rules of transcription.14 
  • We removed iden- tifiers and names from the final transcripts. 
  • All transcripts were reviewed by one of the investigators for accuracy. 
  • Content analysis guided the data analysis. 
    • Three of the investigators independently read all transcripts, using multiple close readings; 
    • recurrent themes were identified and agreed upon, and 
    • similar themes noted across transcripts were assembled and analysed together, for both specialties. 
    • Additional codes for newly emerging topics were created as needed. 
    • The final step in the analysis included the development of major categories and 
    • the identification of exemplar quotations illustrating each theme.


결과

RESULTS


세 가지 주요 카테고리

We grouped our findings into three main categories: 

1 What are faculty members’ perceptions of faculty development? 

Why do some faculty members not participate? 

3 How can we get faculty members to attend more often?



FD에 대한 교수들의 인식은?

What are faculty members’ perceptions of faculty development?


다수의 참여자들이 FD의 필요성을 인식했으며, '어떻게 가르쳐야 하는가에 대한 지도'를 전혀 받지 못했는지에 대해 지적했다. 한 참가자는 FD를 '교수를 위한 문법학교'라고 했다.

A number of participants perceived the need for faculty development and commented on howthey had never been given ‘instructions on howto teach’. One participant likened faculty development to ‘grammar school’ for teachers:


'아이가 학교에 가는 것과 비슷합니다. 아이들은 말하는 법을 이미 알지만, 그들은 자신들의 예술을 더 정제할 수 있게 해주는 문법을 배우고, 더 효과적으로 할 수 있게 됩니다'

‘It’s sort of like kids going to school; they all know how to speak, except that they are learning the grammar which allows them to refine their art and perhaps be more effective at doing it.’


한 참가자는 CME와 임상기술을 업데이트 하는 것 등과 '혼란'이 있어 보일 수 있는 점을 지적했다. 또 다른 사람은 FD를 '교육기술에 대한 CME'라고 했다.

One participant described what might be seen as a possible ‘confu- sion’ with continuing medical education (CME) and the updating of clinical skills. Another viewed faculty development as ‘CME for teaching skills’.


FD의 역할이 진로개발을 촉진해주는 것이라는 점은 여러 참여자가 언급했으며, 이 질문에 들어있다.

The role of faculty development in promoting career development was also noted by many of the partici- pants, as reflected in this rhetorical question:


'대학 커뮤니티에서 FD란 단지 더 잘 가르치는 것, 혹은 더 생산성높은 구성원이 되는 것만 의미할까?'

‘Does faculty development just mean teaching or being a productive member of the [university] community?’



왜 일부 교수들은 참여하지 않는가?

Why do some faculty members not participate?


• clinical reality, which includes volume of work and a lack of (protected) time; 

• a perceived lack of direction from, and connec- tion to, the Faculty of Medicine; 

• a perceived lack of recognition and financial reward for teaching, and 

• the geographically central location of faculty development activities and other logistical issues.


임상 현실, 과도한 근무량과 시간 부족

Clinical reality, volume of work and lack of (protected) time


의과대학과에서의 방향제시 혹은 의과대학과의 연결성에 대한 인식 부족

Perceived lack of direction from, and connection to, the Faculty of Medicine


다수의 참가자들은 대학에서 방향을 제시해주거나 커리어 가이드를 해줌으로써 개인적 차원의 목표나 전문직 차원의 목표를 도달할 수 있게 도와주기를 바랐다. 이러한 정서는 대학 교수로서 처음 시작할 때 프로그램(패키지)에 대한 오리엔테이션을 제공받고 싶은 바람을 포함하고 있었으며, 처음에 어떤 식으로 해야하는지에 대한 조언을 누군가가 주기를 바라는 것도 있었다.

A number of participants highlighted a desire for direction or career guidance from the university to help themto achieve personal and professional goals. This sentiment included a strong wish for an orien- tation programme or package on first starting at the university, as well as the desire to have someone tell them what to do at the outset:



참가자들은 개인적/커리어 개발에 관련하여 멘토십에 대한 강한 희망을 나타냈으며, 어떤 정보원에 접근가능한지(승진이나 테뉴어 관련 정보, 연구비 제안서 작성) 등도 있었다. 추가로 대학 차원의 중요한 지원으로서 구조적, 교육 도구의 제공이나 파킹 바우처, 온라인 교육 등이 있었다.

Participants also expressed a strong preference for mentorship to help promote personal and career development, as well as knowledge about what resources they could access (e.g. information on promotion and tenure, grant writing possibilities and support). In addition, they voiced a desire for instrumental support from the university, ranging from the provision of structural and educational tools, to parking vouchers and online resources.



교육에 대한 인정 혹은 재정적 보상 부족

Perceived lack of recognition and financial reward for teaching


FDP가 개설되는 장소, 다른 로지스틱 이슈

Location of faculty development activities and other logistical issues



다수의 포커스그룹 참여자들은 4시간 워크숍은 너무 길고, 강력하게 '짧은 교육'을 선호했다. 실제로, 여러 참여자들은 그랜드라운드에서 교육 주제를 다룰 것을 요청하거나, FD를 모듈 형식으로 혹은 '위성(파견) 워크숍'형식으로 해주기를 바랐다.

A number of focus group participants commented that a 4-hour workshop was too long, and voiced a strong preference for ‘short snappers’. In fact, several participants requested educational topics at grand rounds, faculty development in a modular format, or ‘satellite workshops’:



어떻게 더 자주 참여하게 만들 수 있을까?

How can we get faculty members to attend more often?



지역에서 (그리고 더 짧은) 프로그램 제공

Offer local (and shorter) activities


교육을 인정하고 보상해주기

Recognise and reward teaching



FD를 요구(기대)사항으로 만들기

Make faculty development an expectation


여러 참여자들이 FD가 모든 임상교육자에게 의무화 될 것을 제안했다. 의무화에 반대하는 일부도 있었으나, 이들도 FD가 '기대사항(expectation)'이 되어야 한다고 제안했다.

Several participants suggested that participation in faculty development be mandatory for all clinical teachers. Others balked at this idea, but did suggest that faculty development be made an ‘expectation’:


상호연결성의 인식 확립하기

Build a sense of connection



DISCUSSION


가장 놀라운 결론은 참여자들이 FD를 교수로서 한 개인의 일반적 성장에 대한 것으로 인식하고 있었으며, 단순히 스킬 습득으로 인식하지 않는다는 점이었다. 사실 교수개발은 교수를 포괄적 관점에서 개발하는 것이며, 여기에는 personal and career 개발이 포함된다. 단순히 교육/연구/행정에 관한 특정한 역량 향상이 아니다.

One of the most surprising results of this inquiry was the finding that partic- ipants perceive faculty development as referring to a person’s general development as a faculty mem- ber, not just his or her skills acquisition. In fact, faculty development was perceived as the develop- ment of faculty in the broadest sense, which included personal and career development, and not merely the enhancement of specific competencies related to teaching, research or administration.


또 다른 기대하지 못한 결과는 많은 참여자들이 FD에 대해 물었을 때 '대학에 대한 실망'을 표했다는 점이다. 다수가 '단절'을 느꼈고, 이는 종종 심리적 문제였다.

Another unexpected finding was that many of the 16 focus group participants, when asked to describe their views on faculty development, described a sense of disappointment with the university at large. Many felt ‘disconnected’, often in a psychological sense.


많은 경우에 우리의 결과는 Baldwin이 generalist academic doctors의 요구도 조사 결과와 비슷하다. 이 연구자들도 심대한 변화를 이루기 위해 필요한 세 가지 포괄적 니즈를 발견했다.

In many ways, our findings resonate with the obser- vations of Baldwin et al.9 in their needs assessment of generalist academic doctors. These researchers found that participants identified three global needs requiring significant change: 

  • a better understanding of and rewards for their academic activities; 
  • better networking with one another, and 
  • more control over their time and responsibilities.


다양한 방식으로 본 연구는 FDP가 학자로서의 스킬을 다룰 것을 강조했으며, 이는 FD에서 간과되는 영역이다.

In diverse ways, our study’s findings underscore the need for faculty development programmes to address professional academic skills, often neglected in faculty develop- ment,16 as well as institutional goals and priorities.7


Morzinski 등은 professional academic growth를 이루기 위해서 FD에서 멘토링의 중요성을 강조했는데, 여기에는 가치/지식/동료관계 등이 포함된다. 우리의 결과는 FD가 진로개발에 보다 초점을 맞출 것을 권고한다. 초기 연구에서 Steinert는 FD가 조직개발에 초점을 맞출 것을 강조했다. 또한 학문적 활동으로서 교육의 촉진, 교육적 문화 배양, 교육 리더십/혁신/수월성에 대한 보상 등도 강조했다.

Morzinski et al.17 highlighted the importance of mentoring as a faculty development strategy to address professional academic growth, which includes the values, knowledge and collegial relations needed to succeed as an academic. The findings of our inquiry further reinforce the need for faculty development to focus on career development. In an earlier paper, Steinert16 highlighted the need for faculty development to focus on organisational development: to play a role in promoting teaching as a scholarly activity and to create an educational climate that encourages and rewards educational leadership, innovation and excellence.


Skeff 등의 연구 및 Liben의 연구에 더하여 본 연구는 교수들이 중앙-기반(centrally based) FDP에 참여하지 않는 이유가 '시간이 없어서'라고 하였다.

The results of our study also build upon those of Skeff et al.8 and complement the findings of a more recent survey by Liben et al.,19 who observed that faculty members do not participate in centrally based activities because they ‘cannot afford the time’.


초반에 말한 것처럼 Skeff 등은 FDP 참여에 다양한 장애를 언급했는데, 흥미롭게도 우리 연구의 참여자는 기관 차원의 지원 부족만을 주요 장애로 언급했다. Skeff가 언급한 '태도'의 문제(FDP의 필요성이 낮다든가 교육스킬의 효용성이 없다든가)를 언급한 사람은 매우 소수였다.

As we noted at the outset, Skeff et al.8 described a number of barriers to participation in faculty devel- opment activities. Interestingly, the participants in our study only highlighted insufficient institutional support as a major deterrent. Very few of our teachers identified the attitudes noted by Skeff et al.,8 includ- ing a tendency to underestimate the need for faculty development programmes or a lack of belief in the utility of teaching skills.






 2009 Jan;43(1):42-9. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2923.2008.03246.x.

Faculty development: a 'field of dreams'?

Author information

  • 1Faculty Development Office, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada. facdev.med@mcgill.ca

Abstract

OBJECTIVES:

Participants in faculty development workshops often comment that 'those who need faculty development the most attend the least'. The goals of this study were to explore the reasons why some clinical teachers do not participate in centralised faculty development activities and to learn how we can make faculty development programmes more relevant to teachers' needs.

METHODS:

In 2006, we conducted focus groups with 16 clinical teachers, who had not participated in faculty development activities, to ascertain their perceptions of faculty development, reasons for non-participation and perceived barriers to involvement. Content analysis and team consensus guided the data interpretation.

RESULTS:

Focus group participants were aware of faculty development offerings and valued the goals of these activities. Important reasons for non-participation emerged: clinical reality, which included volume of work and lack of (protected) time; logistical issues, such as timing and the central location of organised activities; a perceived lack of financial reward and recognition for teaching, and a perceived lack of direction from, and connection to, the university.

CONCLUSIONS:

Clinical reality and logistical issues appeared to be greater deterrents to participation than faculty development goals, content or strategies. Moreover, when asked to discuss faculty development, teachers referred to their development as faculty members in the broadest sense, which included personal and career development. They also expressed the desire for clear guidance from the university, financial rewards and recognition for teaching, and a sense of 'belonging'. Faculty development programmes should try to address these organisational issues as well as teachers' personal and professional needs.

PMID:
 
19140996
 
[PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]


새천년의 교수개발: 도전과 미래 방향(Med Teach, 2000)

Faculty development in the new millennium: key challenges and future directions
YVONNE STEINERT
Department of Family Medicine, Sir Mortimer B. Davis Jewish General Hospital and Faculty of
Medicine, McGill University, Canada

 

 

 

 

 

 

FD는 의학교육에서 매우 중요한 요소가 되었다. FD활동은 모든 교육연속체에서 교사의 효과성 향상을 위해 설계된다.

Faculty development has become an increasingly important component of medical education. Faculty development activities have been designed to improve teacher effectiveness at all levels of the educational continuum

 

이 논의에서 FD는 다음의 정의를 따른다. "기관이 교수들의 역할을 새롭게(renew)하거나 도와(assist)하기 위해서 활용하는 광범위한 활동". 즉, FD는 교수로서 일을 수행하는데 필수적으로 여겨지는 영역에 있어서 개인의 지식이나 스킬을 향상시키기 위해 설계된 모든 활동이며, 여기에는 교육, 연구, 행정이 모두 포함된다. 더 나아가 FD는 기관이나 교수들을 다양한 역할에 대비시키고 생산성과 생명력을 유지하기 위한 프로그램들도 포함한다.

For the purpose of this discussion, faculty development refers to that broad range of activities that institutions use to renew or assist faculty in their roles (Centra, 1978). That is, faculty development is considered to be any planned activity designed to improve an individual’ s knowledge and skills in areas considered essential to the performance of a faculty member, including teaching, research and administra- tion (Sheets & Schwenk, 1990). Moreover, faculty develop- ment includes those programs designed to prepare institutions and faculty members for their various roles and to sustain their productivity and vitality (Bland et al., 1990).

 

교수개발의 포커스

The focus of faculty development

 

지금까지, FDP의 대다수는 교수의 교육스킬 개발에 초점을 두어 왔으며, 개인의 성장이나 교수/조직적 요소(의사결정, 변화 프로세스)에는 관심을 덜 가져왔다. 비록 다른 FD 활동이 기술된 바 있지만, 교육 개선 또는 교육 효과성을 지나치게 강조한 측면이 있으며, 더 포괄적인 프로그램이 고려되어야 한다. 특히 FDP는 리더십이나 조직관리 스킬, 프로페셔널 학문 스킬, 조직개발 등이 교육개선 프로그램의 '메뉴'에 포함되어야 한다. 추가로, 특정 내용(정보 테크놀로지, 프로페셔널리즘, EBM) 과 '교육자들 교육시키기' 프로그램도 필요하다.

To date, the majority of faculty development programs have focused on the improvement of faculty members’ teaching skills (Hitchcock et al., 1993; Irby, 1996), with minimal attention being paid to the personal development of faculty members or organizational elements such as decision- making or the change process (Lipetz et al., 1986). Although other faculty development initiatives have been described, most notably in the area of research (e.g. Hekelman et al., 1995; Holloway et al., 1988), there has clearly been an over-emphasis on teaching improvement and instructional effectiveness, and more comprehensive programs should be considered. In particular, faculty development programs designed to enhance leadership and management skills, professional academic skills, and organizational develop- ment should be added to the `menu’ of teaching improve- ment programs. In addition, we should offer programs that focus on the teaching of speci®c content areas (e.g. informa- tion technology; professionalism; evidence-based medicine) and `educating the educators’ .

 

 

 

리더십과 관리 기술

Leadership and management skills

 

유례없는 헬스케어 분야의 변화가 교수의 역할과 보상체계를 바꿔놓고 있다. 내적, 외적 영향력에 의해 의사들은 점점 관리자적 역할과 리더십 역할을 맡아야 하게 되었으며, 그러나 아직 어떻게 우리가 교수들을 이 역할에 대비시킬지는 잘 모른다. 일부 프로그램이 이 목적으로 설계되었으나 리더십, 관리자, 행정스킬 개발 등에 대한 강조가 더 필요하다.

Extraordinar y changes in health care delivery have signi®cantly altered faculty roles and rewards (Bland & Simpson, 1997). In response to internal and external forces, physicians are being asked to take on increasing administra- tive and leadership roles, and yet, how do we formally prepare our faculty members for these challenges? Several programs designed to address this need have been described (e.g. McGaghie et al., 1981; Morahan et al., 1998; Steinert et al., 1997a); however, an increased emphasis on leadership, management, and administrative skill development is essential in these times of change.

 

이런 분야에 해당하는 프로그램에는 다음과 같은 것이 있을 수 있다.

Content areas for such programs might include: 

    • 조직의 구조 understanding `formal’ and `informal’ organizational structures; 
    • 현 정치, 경제, 조직 압력 분석 analyzing current economic, political, and organizational pressures and trends; 
    • 리더십과 관리 스킬 leadership and management skills; 
    • 갈등 관리와 협상 conflict management and negotiation; 
    • 시간 관리 time management; 
    • 수행능력 평가 performance appraisal; and 
    • 재정 관리 financial management (Bogdewic et al., 1997; Burke et al., 1997; Irby, 1996). 


Bogdewic이 말한 것처럼 조직과 리더십 스킬은 전통적인 의미에서 교수가 맡는 교육/연구/진료적 역할에 부가적인 것이 아니라, 이제는 핵심적 중요성을 갖는 스킬이다.

As Bogdewic and colleagues (1997) have said, organizational and leadership skills can no longer be thought of as an adjunct to the traditional roles of teaching, research, and service. These skills are of central importance.

 

 

프로페셔널 학문 스킬

Professional academic skills

 

프로페셔널 학문 스킬은 학자로서 성공하기 위해 필요한 가치/지식/동료관계 등을 말한다. 이 스킬은 학계의 핵심 가치, 규범, 기대치에 대한 이해, 어떻게 생산성 높은 커리어를 관리하는지, 경험이 많고 박식한 동료와의 네트워크를 갖추는지 등을 필요로 한다.

Professional academic skills encompass the values, knowledge, and collegial relations needed to succeed as an academic (Morzinski et al., 1996). These skills include an understanding of the underlying values, norms and expecta- tions of academia, knowing how to manage a productive career, and establishing a network of experienced and knowledgeable professional colleagues (Bland et al., 1990; Wilkerson & Irby, 1998).

 

관련 토픽

Examples of topics to be addressed include: 

    • academic promotion 달성 how to achieve academic promotion; 
    • 멘토 찾고 함께 일하기 how to identify and work with a mentor; 
    • 동료와 함께 일하기 how to work with colleagues; and 
    • 전문가 네트워크 개발 how to develop professional networks (Bland et al., 1990; Hitch- cock et al., 1997).

 

조직 개발

Organizational development

 

여러 저자들이 조직시스템의 변화와 리더십 전략이 더 생산성높은 교육환경을 만들기 위해 필요하다고 주장한다. 그러나 비록 1980년대부터 조직개발이 FD의 한 부분이 되었지만, 이 분야에 특정한 FD노력은 미미하다. 이 영역에 포함되는 것들.

Several authors have suggested that changes in organizational systems and leadership strategies may be needed to promote more productive educational environments (Bland et al., 1990; Bogdewic et al., 1997). However, although organizational development became part of the language of faculty development in the 1980s (Ramsey & Hitchcock, 1980), few faculty development efforts have speci® cally targeted this content area. Initiatives in this domain should include 

    • 참여적 조직 정책과 구조 efforts to create participative and empowering organizational policies and structures; 
    • 우수한 교육의 평가와 보상 procedures to evaluate and reward teaching excellence; and 
    • 교육과정 운영과 교실간 협력 programs to enhance curriculum administration and collaboration across departmental boundaries (Irby, 1996). 


Lipetz 등은 "FD의 클라이언트는 누구인가?"라는 흥미로운 질문을 던졌다. 명백히, 우리는 개인과 조직의 니즈를 연결시켜야 하며, 조직개발과 개인의 스킬개발의 짝을 이룰 수 있어야 한다.

Lipetz and colleagues (1986) have posed an interesting question: ªWho is the client in faculty development? º Clearly, we need to link individual and organizational needs (Bland & Simpson, 1997), and we should pair organizational development with individual skill development (Baxley et al., 1999).

 

특정 내용분야의 교육

The teaching of specific content areas

 

Cruess & Cruess 는 의학교육의 모든 레벨에서 변화하는 사회적 기대에 부응할 것을 강조했다. 커뮤니케이션 기술은 충분한 관심을 받지 못하고 있다. 비록 이 주제가 전통적으로 도제교육과 롤모델 분야에서 다뤄졌지만, 현재의 의료전달체계 맥락에서는 이러한 트레이닝 방법의 가능성은 낮으며, 더 공식화되고(formal) 조직적 방법이 필요하다.

Cruess & Cruess (1997a,b) have highlighted the need to teach professionalism at all levels of medical education in response to changing societal expectations. Communica- tion skills are also not receiving the attention they deserve. Although these subjects have traditionally been addressed through apprenticeship and role modeling, the current context for health care delivery negates the potential of these training methods, and we need to consider more `formal’ , systematic methodologies for addressing these content areas.

 

컴퓨터와 정보 테크놀로지. 

At the same time, computers and information technolo- gies are transforming many aspects of our personal and professional lives (Irby & Hekelman, 1997). As a result, the demand for training in this area will increase signi®cantly in the next decade. Crandall and colleagues (1997) outline a series of skills that might be included in such faculty develop- ment initiatives: 

    • accessing and managing the medical literature; 
    • planning and delivering lesson plans and presenta-tions; 
    • using computers for research and writing; and
    • integrating computers into clinical practice.

 

 

교육자들 교육시키기

Educating the educators

 

교수개발자들은 개개 교수들의 교육 효과성을 향상시키기 위한 프로그램의 전달 측면에서 성공을 거뒀다. 그러나 이제는 교육에 있어서 리더십을 발휘할 수 있는 개인들을 어떻게 더 발전시킬 수 있는지, 어떻게 그들이 '교육의 멘토'로서 역할을 할 수 있는지, 혁신적 FDP를 어떻게 설계하고 전달할 수 있는지 고민할 시간이다.

Faculty developers have succeeded in delivering programs designed to enhance individual teachers’ instructional effectiveness. It is now time, however, to further develop individuals who will be able to provide leadership to educational programs, act as `educational’ mentors, and design and deliver innovative faculty development programs.


Cusimano & David가 기술한 것과 같이, 다른 사람을 교육하는 방법에 대해서 훈련된 사람이 더 많아야 한다. 그리하여 의학교육이 지속적으로 변화의 동력에 반응할 수 있게 해야 한다. 또한 우리는 교육 측면의 학자를 더 양성해서, 이들이 교육에 접근할 때 교육과 교육과정의 프로세스와 성과에 대해 질문하도록 해야 하며, 의학교육 연구를 수행하게 해야 한다.

As Cusimano & David (1998) have stated, there is an enormous need for more health care professionals trained in methods of educating others so that medical education will continue to be responsive to driving forces of change. We must also work to encourage the development of educational scholars, individuals who approach education with questions about the process and outcome of teaching and curricula (Wilkerson & Irby, 1998) and who conduct research in medical education.

 

 

 

트레이닝 방법과 형식들

Training methods and formats

 

 

공식 멘토십

`Formal’ mentorships

 

멘토링은 교수들의 사회화/개발/성장을 촉진할 수 있는 흔한 전략이다. 

Mentoring is a common strategy to promote the socializa- tion, development, and maturation of academic medical faculty (Bland et al., 1990). It has also been recommended as a faculty development strategy by a number of educators (Bower et al., 1998; Longhurst, 1994; Morzinski et al., 1994, 1996).

 

Daloz 는 멘토십 모델을 세 가지 핵심 요소의 균형으로 보았다. (지지, 도전, 비전)

Daloz (1986) has described a mentorship model that balances three key elements: support, challenge, and a vision of the individual’ s future career. 

      • 불확실성과 불안 줄여주기 Support refers to those activities that affirm the value of the individual or try to reduce uncertainty or anxiety (Bower et al., 1998). 
      • 자신이 가진 가정을 점검하고 성찰의 가치 일깨움 Mentors challenge their colleagues by encouraging them to check out their assumptions and re¯ ect on their values and competen- cies; and 
      • 롤모델링, 토론 they foster career vision through role modeling or guided discussion. 


이 세 가지 요소의 균형을 통해서 멘토는 변화와 성장에 필요한 핵심적 텐션을 만들 수 있다. 롤모델의 가치와 멘토의 가치는 Osler 시대부터 강조되어 왔으며, 이 방법이 주는 장점을 잊어서는 안된다.

By balancing these three components, mentors create a tension essential for change and growth. The value of role models and mentors has been highlighted since Osler’ s time, and we should not forget the bene®ts of this method of professional development despite new technologies and methodologies.

 

 

통합적, 장기 프로그램 

Integrated, longitudinal programs

 

일부 연구자들은 '통합적, 장기 프로그램'의 가치를 강조했다 

Several authors (e.g. Elliott et al., 1999; Gelula, 1997) have highlighted the value of `integrated, longitudinal programs’ such as the Teaching Scholars Program in North Carolina (Stritter et al., 1994) and at McGill University, and we should build on this new faculty development practice.

 

비록 이들프로그램 대부분이 교수의 교육자로서 역할에 초점을 두지만, 행정, 관리, 연구에 대한 프로그램도 쉽게 개발 가능하다.

Although the majority of these programs to date have focused on the educational role of faculty members, such programs could easily be designed to promote expertise in administration, management, and research.

 

분권화된 활동

Decentralized activities

 

많은 부분 가정의학 분야에서 처음 시작한 FDP는 종종 각 학과 단위로 혹은 중앙에서 조직되어 운영된다. 커뮤니티 프리셉터가 늘어나고 외래-기반 교육이 늘어나면서 우리는 점점 FDP를 대학 바깥으로 '수출'해야 하는 상황이 되었다. 우리는 또한 주니어와 시니어 교수의 서로 다른 니즈를 해소해주기 위해서 노력해야 하며, minority 교수를 위한 것도 필요하다. 또한 지원이 적은 환경(underserviced setting)에서 근무하는 사람들을 위한 것도 필요하다.

Faculty development programs, many of which started in Family Medicine, are often departmentally based or centrally organized (i.e. faculty-wide). Given the increasing use of community preceptors and ambulatory sites for teaching, we should now `export’ faculty development programs outside of the university setting (e.g. Anderson et al., 1991; Baxley et al., 1999; Bing-You et al., 1999; DeWitt et al., 1993). We must also work harder to address the differing needs of junior and senior faculty members (Burke et al., 1997; Lipetz 1999), minority faculty members et al., (Johnson et al., 1998; Rust et al., 1998), and individuals who work in underserviced settings (Freeman et al., 1998). Our focus to date may have been too limited.

 

 

자기주도 학습 프로그램

Self-directed learning initiatives


Ullian & Stritter 이 말한 바와 같이 교수들은 성찰, 학생평가, 동료평가 등을 통해 스스로의 니즈를 결정해야 하며, 스스로의 자기개발 활동을 설계해야 한다.

As Ullian & Stritter (1997) have said, faculty must be encouraged and taught to determine their own needs through self-reflection, student evaluation, and peer feedback, and they must learn to design their own development activities.


Harris and colleagues 는 교수 효과성의 향상에 있어서 성찰의  가치를 강조했다. 실제로 우리는 FD에서도 성찰을 개인적 성장의 방법으로 삼아야 한다.

Harris and colleagues (1995) have underscored the value of re¯ ection as a method of improving teaching effectiveness; indeed, we should take advantage of the increasing attention paid to re¯ ection as a method of personal growth (SchoÈn, 1987) in faculty develop- ment initiatives as well.

 

 

컴퓨터 기반 FD

Computer-based faculty development

 

컴퓨터 기반 FD의 장점

Computer-based faculty development would allow for individualized programs targeted to speci®c needs. Moreover, the technology is now in place so that interactive instructional programs can be created in all domains of faculty development (Westberg &Whitman, 1997).

 

 

 

프로그램 평가

Program evaluation

 

 

더 철저한 프로그램 평가

More rigorous program evaluations

 

    공통적으로 나타나는 문제는 대조군, 비교군의 부재, 자기보고 측정에 지나친 의존, 작은 샘플 크기

Common problems have included a lack of control or comparison groups, heavy reliance on self-report measures of change, and small sample sizes.

 

가능하다면, 더 철저한 연구를 해야 함.

Whenever possible, we should try to conduct more experimentally rigorous research studies and work to overcome commonly encountered design problems.


참여자에 의한 학습을 기록해야 하며, 가능하다면 참가자의 학생/동료/기관에 대한 효과도 기록해야 함.

Programs should document learning by par ticipants, and whenever possible, the program’ s effect on the participants’ students, colleagues, and institution (Skeff et al., 1997b).


동시에 만족도에 대한 재평가가 필요함. 비록 연구자들이 이 정보의 가치를 평가절하하긴 하지만 참가자의 만족도는 교수들이 배우고자 하는 동기부여가 되고, FD를 동료들에게 권장하는 데 중요한 변인이다. 또한 프로그램 기획자들에게 가치잇는 피드백이다. 

At the same time, we should re-assess the value of participant satisfaction data. Although researchers have denounced the value of this source of information, participant satisfaction remains an important variable if faculty members are to be motivated to learn and to recom- mend faculty development initiatives to their colleagues. Participant satisfaction also gives valuable feedback to program planners.

 

 

프로그램 평가의 다른 모델들

Other models of program evaluation

 

교육 관련 문헌들을 보면 프로그램 평가와 관련한 다양한 모델을 제시한다. 그 중 많은 것들은 FD에서 잘 고려되지 않고 있다. 이러한 모델을 평가 구조에 포함시키는 것은 가치가 있을 것. 

The educational literature is rich with models of program evaluation, many of which have not been systematically considered in faculty development. Incorporating aspects of these models (Popham, 1975;Wholey et al., 1994) into our evaluation schema would now be worthwhile. 

    • 목표달성 모델 For example, the application of a goal attainment model (e.g.Tyler, 1942) would force us to clarify our program goals and ensure that we are assessing the attainment of our objectives; this model would also help us to consider unanticipated consequences, which occur frequently in this domain. 
    • 판단 모델 A judgmental model (e.g. Scriven, 1974) would have value if faculty development programs were to become part of the accreditation process and receive feedback on program design and implementation from a group of peers and experts. 
    • CIPP모델 The CIPP model (Stufflebeam, 1974) could be useful for examining the faculty development literature (Meurer & Morzinski, 1997) and for decision-making in times of budgetary restraint. CIPP is an acronym representing four levels of evaluation: 
      • the program objectives and the basis for those objectives (Context)
      • the educational strategies and how they were chosen (Input)
      • the actual implementation and how it compares with planned activities (Process); and 
      • how well the needs of the target population were met (Product). By


 

질적 방법론

Qualitative methods

 

 

양적방법론의 한계, 질적방법론의 가치

A number of authors have noted the limitations of quantita- tive methods in evaluating the effectiveness of faculty development programs and activities, and they havehighlighted the value of adding qualitative methodologies to more traditional assessments (Freeman et al., 1992; Hitch- cock et al., 1993; Skeff et al., 1997b).

 

더 광범위한 평가

Broader focus of evaluation

 

모든 경우에 'impact' 수준의 평가는 매우 값진 것이다. FD활동이 더 광범위한 시스템이나 개개인의 커리어패스에 영향을 주었는지에 하는 것. 학문적 전파(발표나 출판), 프로그램 개발(트레이닝 자료, 메뉴얼), 프로그램 수행 등에도 관심을 가져야 함.

Indeed, in all situations, it would be worthwhile to assess change at the impact level, trying to identify whether faculty development activities have had an impact on the system at large or on individuals’ career paths. We should also consider the question of academic dissemination (e.g. presentations and publications), product development (e.g. training materials and manuals), and implementation (Blumberg & Deveau, 1995).

 

 

장기 변화에 대한 평가. 즉각적 단기성과를 넘어선 평가. 6개월 혹은 그 이상 후에 평가한 연구는 매우 적음

Finally, it would be worthwhile to focus on the assess- ment of longer-term change. It is essential for us to move beyond immediate short-term outcome measures. Too few studies have assessed change at 6 months or longer (Nasmith et al., 1997).

 

 

파트너십

Partnerships

 

 

자원이 한정되고 재정적 제약이 있을 때 협력은 점점 더 중요하다. 실제로 파트너십은 여러 수준에서 가능하다.

Collaboration is becoming increasingly important in the current environment of limited resources and ®nancial constraints. Indeed, partnership is possible at a number of levels: 

    • among academic institutions; 
    • between academic institutions and professional societies and organizations; 
    • between faculty development and continuing medical educa- tion (CME); and at an international level.

학문기관 간, 그리고 학문기간 내 협력의 필요성은 프로그램 기획/수행/평가의 모든 단계에서 강조되어왔다. Skeff 등은 다양한 전문가 조직에 의해서 주최되는 지역과 국가 단위 미팅에서 제공되는 여러 FD활동을 조화(coordinate)시킬 것을 권고했다. 

The need for collaboration amongÐand withinÐ academic institutions has been highlighted in the area of program planning, delivery and evaluation (Steinert et al., 1997b). Skeff and his colleagues (1997b) have also pointed out the need to coordinate faculty development activities that are offered at regional and national scienti®c meetings hosted by various professional organizations. The time to consolidate available activities, and avoid duplication, is upon us.

 

국제 파트너십도 중요하다. 북미와 유럽의 전문성을 감안할 때, 성공한 모델이 공유되어야 한다.

International partnerships also hold great promise. Medical schools in many countries wish to start academic medical programs but do not have speci®cally trained faculty available. Given the expertise in faculty development in North America and in Europe, successful models should be shared. 

    • For example, Johnson & Zammit-Montebello (1990) describe an interesting program to train Maltese general practitioners in Malta with a visiting professor of Family Medicine. 
    • Thompson & Spann (1997) provide an example of a faculty development program they developed for Latin American physicians, conducted in Spanish in an American University.

These models for enhancing academic skills could also be exported to other settings.

 

 

근본 원칙

Underlying principles

 

 

1. 기관의 맥락과 문화를 이해하고 이에 기반하여 FD하라

1. Understand and work within the institution’s context/culture


기관의 문화와 맞아야 하고 니즈에 반응해야 한다. 조직의 강점을 강조하고, 조직의 수장(리더)와 함께해야 한다. 추가로 현재의 맥락을 FD노력을 촉진하고 향상시킬 수 있게 활용해야. 예컨대, 큰 교육과정이나 교육의 개혁이 있는 시기에 FD활동이 중요하다. Rubeck과 Witzke가 언급한 바와 같이 "자연적으로 발생하는 기회"를 노려야 한다.

Faculty development programs need to match the institution’ s culture and be responsive to its needs (Rubeck & Witzke, 1998). They should also capitalize on the organization’s strengths and work with the leadership to ensure success. In addition, we should remember that the current context can be used to promoteÐ or enhanceÐ faculty development efforts. For example, faculty development activities during times of substantial educational or curricular reform can take on added importance. As Rubeck &Witzke (1998) have stated, we should always remember to look for ª natural opportunitiesº .

 

 

2. 니즈에 기반한 FD를 하라

2. Ensure that programs and activities are based on needs

 

교수의 니즈, 기관의 니즈, 학생의 니즈, 사회의 니즈, 환자의 니즈, 조직의 요구와 도전 등

Faculty development programs should anticipateÐand basethemselves onÐthe needs of faculty members as well as the institution in which they work. Student needs, patient needs, and societal needs, as well as organizational demands and challenges, should be considered in the design of all programs, for faculty development should aim to renew and assist faculty in their diverse roles and help to meet the needs of the organization in which they work.

 

3. 지지를 끌어내고 효과적으로 마케팅하라

3. Promote `buy in’ and market effectively

 

FD에 참여할지 말지에 대한 결정은 그렇게 단순하지 않다. 아래와 같은 요인이 있다.

The decision to participate in faculty development is not as simple as it might at ®rst appear. It involves 

    • 특정 FDP에 관한 관심(reaction)
      the individual’ s reaction to a particular faculty development offering, 
    • 특정 기술을 얻고자 하는 동기
      motiva- tion to develop or enhance a speci®c skill, 
    • 시간이 가능한지
      being available at the time of the faculty development session, and 
    • 필요하다는 사실을 인정하는 심리적 장벽
      overcoming the psychological barrier of admitting need (Rubeck & Witzke, 1998). 


이러한 한계를 극복하고 우리의 '상품'을 팔 때에 그러한 저항이 학습의 자원이 되게 해야 한다.

As faculty developers, it is our challenge to overcome these potential obstacles and to market our `product’ in such a way that resistance becomes a resource to learning.

 

4. 다양한 프로그램과 방법을 제공하라

4. Offer diverse programs and methods

 

 

다양한 교수(역할, 발달단계 등)들의 니즈를 민감하게 반영해야 함. 

The need for diverse approaches to faculty development has been highlighted by many authors (Rubeck & Witzke, 1998; Steinert et al., 1997b). As discussed earlier, we must design programs that are sensitive to the needs of different faculty members. We must also consider differing faculty roles and address the various developmental stages of faculty members.

 

5. 성인학습의 원리와 다른 관련 이론틀을 활용하라

5. Incorporate principles of adult learning and other relevant theoretical frameworks

 

 

많은 경우 이들 원칙은, FDP의 초점이나 형식과 무관하게, Knowles가 설명한 것처럼, FDP의 개발과 운영의 지침이 되어야 한다. 이는 우리가 다음을 기억해야 함을 말한다.

In many ways, these principles, best articulated by Knowles (1980), should continue to guide the development and implementation of all faculty development programs, irrespective of their focus or format. That is, we should remember 

    • 의사들의 자기주도성과 경험 that physicians demonstrate a high degree of self-direction and that they possess many experiences that should be used as a learning resource; 
    • '알아야 할 필요'를 경험한 다음에 학습할 준비가 됨 that adults will only become ready to learn after a `need to know’ is experienced; and 
    • FDP는 과제-중심, 경험학습, 즉각적 적용을 강조해야 that faculty development programs should be task- centered, with an emphasis on experiential learning and immediacy of application (Carroll, 1993).

 

As Turnbull (1999) has so eloquently said, until recently those of us responsible for educating future physicians have emphasized the art of medical education and have tended to ignore the fundamental science of learning underlying our basic practice.The same can be said of faculty development activi- ties.

 

 

6. 실용성을 놓치지 마라

6. Remain relevant and practical

 

교수의 활동과 관련성이 있어야 하며 실용적이어야 한다. 경험학습이 핵심이다.

Although it is important that theory inform practice, faculty development activities and programs must remain relevant and practical. As stated above, experiential learning is key.

 

또한 개념과 스킬을 가르칠 때 단순하고 명확해야 한다. 비록 FD의 영역들은 복잡하지만, 교수들은 단순한 메시지, 개념, 방향을 원하며, 복잡성을 지양하고 실용성을 추구하는 것이 우리의 책임이다.

The teaching of concepts and skills in this area must also remain clear and simple. Although the domains for faculty development are complex (Rubeck &Witzke, 1998), faculty members want simple messages, concepts, and directions, and it is our responsibility to avoid complexity and promote practicality.

 

 

7.흔한 문제를 극복하기 위해 노력하라

7.Work to overcome common problems

 

조직 차원의 지원, 제한된 자원, 제한된 시간 등. 이를 극복하기 위한 창의적 프로그래밍, 능숙한 마케팅, 목표가 분명한 재정지원 확보, 양질의 프로그램 제공 등을 통한 극복

Common implementation problems include a institutional support, limited resources, and limited faculty time (Steinert et al., 1997b). Faculty developers must work to overcome these problems through creative program- ming, skilled marketing, targeted fundraising, and the delivery of high quality programs. lack of

 

 

8. 효과성을 평가하고 보여주라

8. Evaluate and demonstrate effectiveness

 

교수개발은 단순한 학문적 활동 이상이라는 것을 기억하라

The need to evaluate our programs and activities has been highlighted in a separate section. However, we must remember that the evaluation of faculty development is more than an academic exercise.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 


 

Faculty development in the new millennium: key challenges and future directions
Research Article

Faculty development in the new millennium: key challenges and future directions

PDF
Full access
DOI:
10.1080/01421590078814
Yvonne Steinerta

pages 44-50

Abstract

Faculty development initiatives in the year 2000 will need to respond to changes in medical education and health care delivery, to build on the achievements and accomplishments of the past, and to continue to adapt to the evolving roles of faculty members. To remain at the forefront, faculty development programs will need to broaden their focus, consider diverse training methods and formats, conduct more rigorous program evaluations, and foster new partnerships and collaborations. Academic vitality is dependent upon faculty members' interest and expertise; faculty development has a critical role to play in promoting academic excellence and innovation.

 

교육효과성을 높이기 위한 FD initiative 의 systemic review (BEME Guide No. 8) (Med Teach, 2006)

A systematic review of faculty development initiatives designed to improve teaching effectiveness in medical education: BEME Guide No. 8


YVONNE STEINERT1, KAREN MANN2, ANGEL CENTENO3, DIANA DOLMANS4, JOHN SPENCER5, MARK GELULA6 & DAVID PRIDEAUX7 

1McGill University, Montreal, Canada; 2Dalhousie University, Halifax, Canada; 3Austral University, Buenos Aires, Argentina; 4University of Maastricht, Maastricht, The Netherlands; 5University of Newcastle upon Tyne, Newcastle, UK; 6University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, USA; 7Flinders University, Adelaide, Australia











결론: 대부분의 인터벤션은 진료를 하는 의사를 대상으로 하였다. 모든 연구는 교육의 향상을 목적으로 하여 워크숍/세미나 시리즈/단기코스/장기프로그램 등으로 분류되었다.

Results: The majority of the interventions targeted practicing clinicians. All of the reports focused on teaching improvement and the interventions included workshops, seminar series, short courses, longitudinal programs and ‘other interventions’. The study designs included 6 randomized controlled trials and 47quasi-experimental studies, of which 31 used a pre-test–post-test design. 

 

방법론적 한계를 감안하더라도 다음의 결과를 지지한다.

Key points: Despite methodological limitations, the faculty development literature tends to support the following outcomes: 


  • FDP의 전반적인 만족도는 높다. 참가자들은 지속적으로 프로그램이 수용가능하고/유용하고/자신들의 목표와 관련된다고 응답하였다.
    Overall satisfaction with faculty development programs was high. Participants consistently found programs acceptable,useful and relevant to their objectives. 
  • 응답자들은 FD와 교육에 관하여 긍정적인 태도 변화를 보고하였다.
    Participants reported positive changes in attitudes toward faculty development and teaching. 
  • 참가자들은 교육 원칙에 대한 지식이 향상되었으며, 교육 기술이 향상되었다고 응답하였다. 지식 향상 점검을 위해 시험을 보았을 때에는 유의미한 향상이 있었다.
    Participants reported increased knowledge of educational principles and gains in teaching skills. Where formal tests of knowledge were used, significant gains were shown. 
  • 교육 행동의 변화는 지속적으로 참가자들에 의해 보고되었으며, 학생들도 그렇게 보고하였다.
    Changes in teaching behavior were consistently reported by participants and were also detected by students. 
  • 조직 차원의 변화와 학생들의 배움의 향상은 자주 연구되는 것은 아니었다. 그러나 연구 결과를 보면 교육에 대한 참여가 높아지고, 동료간의 네트워크가 확립되었다.
    Changes in organizational practice and student learning were not frequently investigated. However, reported changes included greater educational involvement and establishment of collegiate networks. 
  • 경험학습, 긍정적 피드백의 제공, 효과적인 동료관계, 교수학습 원칙을 따른 잘 설계된 인터벤션, 하나의 인터벤션 내에서 다양한 교수법 활용 등이 효과적인 FD에 기여한다.
    Key features of effective faculty development contributing to effectiveness included the use of experiential learning, provision of feedback, effective peer and colleague relationships, well-designed interventions following principles of teaching and learning, and the use of a diversity of educational methods within single interventions. 

 

학계의 생명력은 교수의 흥미와 전문성에 달려있다. FD는 학문적 수월성과 혁신을 촉진하는데 핵심적 역할을 한다.

Academic vitality is dependent upon faculty mem-bers’ interest and expertise; faculty development has a critical role to play in promoting academic excellence and innovation. (Wilkerson & Irby,1998)

 

교수들이 다양한 역할을 할 수 있게 돕기 위해서 다양한 FDP가 설계되고 도입되었다. 워크숍/세미나...등등을 포함한다. 이들 활동의 많은 부분이 의학교육연속체의 교수 효과성을 높이기 위해 설계되었다. 또한 local, regional, national level의 보건의료전문직에게 제공되어왔다.

To help faculty members fulfill their multiple roles, a varietyof faculty development programs and activities have been designed and implemented. These activities include work-shops and seminars, short courses and site visits, fellowships and other longitudinal programs. Many of these activitieshave been designed to improve teacher effectiveness acrossthe medical education continuum (e.g. undergraduate andpostgraduate education), and they have been offered tohealthcare professionals at local, regional and national levels(Clark al., 2004; Skeff al., 1997). 


교수개발

Faculty development


 

FD는 다양하게 정의되어왔다.

Faculty development has been defined as

  • 교수의 역할을 지원하거나 새롭게 하기 위해서 기관 차원에서 활용하는 활동
    that broad range of activities that institutions use to renew or assist faculty in their roles (Centra, 1978), and
  • 교수들의 교육/연구/행정에 있어서의 수행역량을 향상시키기 위한 것
    includes initiatives designed to improve the performance of faculty members in teaching,research and administration (Sheets & Schwenk, 1990).
  • 기관과 교수들을 학문적 역할(교육, 연구, 행정, 저술, 경력 관리)을 준비시키는 계획된 프로그램
    In many ways, faculty development is a planned program to prepare institutions and faculty members for their academic roles, including teaching, research, administration, writingand career management (Bland et al., 1990).
  • 개인 강점과 능력, 조직적 역량과 문화를 향상시킴으로서 변화의 실천과 관리를 개선시키는 것
    Faculty development is also meant to improve practice and manage change (Bligh, 2005), by enhancing individual strengths and abilities as well as organizational capacities and culture. 

 

FDP는 다양한 방식으로 분류되었다. 

Faculty development programs have been classified indifferent ways.
  • 조직차원의 전략, 펠로우십, 포괄적 지역 프로그램, 워크숍과 세미나, 개별활동 으로 분류
    Ullian & Stritter (1997) describe a typology that includes organizational strategies, fellowships, compre-hensive local programs, workshops and seminars, and individual activities.
  • 신임교수들의 전문직으로서 방향 설정, 교수역량 개발, 리더십역량 개발, 조직 개발.
    Wilkerson & Irby (1998) offer a different classification, ranging from professional orientation for new faculty members to instructional development, leadership development and organizational development. These authors also suggest that all four elements comprise a comprehensive approach to faculty development that is fundamental to academic vitality.
  • FDP는 기관이 그들의 직원에 대해서 가지고 있는 내적 신념을 외부로 보여주는 신호이며, 성공적인 FD는 교육의 향상과 학생 혹은 의사의 더 나은 학습성과로 나타난다.
    Bligh (2005) has made a similar suggestion,stating that faculty development programs are outward signs of the inner faith that institutions have in their workforce, and that successful faculty development performance is expected to result in improved teaching and better learning outcomes for students or doctors. 


지금까지 여러 문헌에서 FD활동의 효과성을 리뷰하였다.

To date, a number of publications have reviewed the effectiveness of faculty development activities.

  • FDP는 많지만, 평가는 잘 되지 않고 있으며, 주로 만족도를 평가하는 짧은 설문에 그치고 있다.
    In 1984
    , Sheets & Henry observed that despite the growth in faculty development programs, evaluation of these initiatives was a rare occurrence, usually consisting of short questionnaires tapping participants’ satisfaction.
  • 가정의학전공 교육자들에 관한 FD에 관한 연구로부터 비슷한 결론을 도출하고, 관찰한 행동 변화에 근거한 더 철저한 평가를 요구했다.
    In 1990
    , Sheets & Schwenk reviewed the literature on faculty development activities for family medicine educators and made a similar observation, calling for more rigorous evaluations based on observed changes in participant behavior.
  • 이전의 연구를 요약하면서, FD의 개념이 진화/확장하고 있다고 하였음. 특히, 교육 기술이 FD의 두드러지는 측면이며, 펠로우십이 새로운 교수를 모집하고 훈련시키는데 효과적이며, FD의 효과는 더 연구가 필요하다
    In 1992
    , Hitchcock et al. summarized earlier reviews of the faculty development literature (e.g. Stritter, 1983; Bland & Schmitz, 1986; Sheets & Schwenk, 1990) and concluded that the concept of faculty development was evolving and expanding. In particular, they observed that teaching skills were a prominent aspect of faculty development, that fellowships were being used effectively to recruit and train new faculty, and that the efficacy of faculty development needed better research documentation.
  • 24개의 문헌을 리뷰하여, 비록 일부 긍정적인 성과가 보고되지만, 방법론적 약점이 단정적인 결론을 내는 것에 장애가 된다
    In 1997
    , Reid et al. reviewed 24 papers (published between 1980 and 1996) and concluded that despite some positive outcomes for fellowships, workshops and seminars, methodological weaknesses precluded definitive conclusions regarding faculty development outcomes.
  • FD가 의학교육과 의료의 변화에 대응해야 하며, 교수들의 진화하는 역할에 지속적으로 적응해야 한다. 또한 더 철저한 프로그램평가가 필요하다. FDP는 초점을 더 확장시켜서 다양한 훈련 방법과 형식을 고려하고, 새로운 파트너십과 협력을 모색해야 한다.
    In 2000
    , Steinert highlighted the need for faculty development to respond to changes in medical education and healthcare delivery, to continue to adapt to the evolving roles of faculty members, and to conduct more rigorous program evaluations. She also commented that faculty development programs need to broaden their focus, consider diverse training methods and formats, and foster new partnerships and collaborations.


목적

Objectives

 

교수들의 교육역량 강화에 초점을 둔 연구에만 한정함.

The goal of this review is to determine the effect of faculty development activities on faculty members’ teaching abilities and to assess the impact of these activities on the institutions in which these individuals work. We focused specifically on programs designed to improve faculty members’ teaching abilities because the majority of faculty development programs have targeted this particular role (Hitchcock et al., 1992; Irby 1996); instructional effectiveness is central to the mission of medical education; and we wanted to limit the scope of our search to a feasible task. We did not examine faculty development programs designed to improve research or writing skills, administrative or management skills, or professional academic skills (career development). We also chose to limit the review to faculty development programs designed for teachers in medicine, and did not examine those programs specifically designed for residents or other healthcare professionals (e.g. nurses; dentists). All types of faculty development interventions (e.g. workshops, short courses and seminars, and fellowships) were included in the review.



검토 질문

Review question


FD를 효과가 있게 하는 특징은 무엇인가?

What are the features of faculty development that make it effective? 


FD가 차이를 만드는가?

Does faculty development make a difference?

  •  What makes for effective faculty development?
  •  Does participation in faculty development improve facultymembers’ teaching, research and administrative skills?
  •  Does faculty development have an impact on the institu-tional climate and organization? 

 

FD인터벤션이 교사의 지식,, 태도 술기에 미치는 효과는 무엇이며, 그 교수가 속한 기관에 미치는 영향은?

What are the effects of faculty development interventions on the knowledge, attitudes and skillsof teachers in medical education, and on the institu-tions in which they work?

 In addition, we also explored the following questions: 

  • What characterizes the faculty development activities tha thave been described?
  • What are the methodological strengths and weaknesses ofthe reported studies? 
  • What are the implications of this review for facultydevelopment practices and ongoing research in this area? 


리뷰 방법

Review methodology


그룹 형성

Group formation


An international Topic Review Group (TRG) of individualsrepresenting six countries was constituted. Three criteriaparticipation:were used to invite individuals for TRG international diversity; practical experience in faculty devel-opment and medical education; and expertise in educationalresearch methodology. 



파일럿 단계

The pilot process


A two-step pilot process was undertaken to prepare for the formal, systematic review. 


개념틀 개발

Development of a conceptual framework


그림 1

The pilot phase led to the development of a conceptual framework that guided this review (see Figure 1).


커크패트릭 모델 사용

To classify and analyze outcomes, we used Kirkpatrick’s model of educational outcomes (Kirkpatrick, 1994), which offers a useful evaluation framework for this purpose (see Figure 2).


커크패트릭은 이 성과가 위계적이지 않으며, 모델은 정책과 프로그램 개발에 더 전체적이고 포괄적인 평가를 의도한 것이라 하였음.

In his original work, Kirkpatrick (1967) asserted that these outcomes were not hierarchical and that the model is intended to provide a more holistic and comprehensive evaluation that can inform policy and program development. The model has also been used by other BEME groups (e.g. Issenberg et al., 2005) as well as other review groups (e.g. Freeth et al., 2003), and with some modifications, was well suited to our review.


포함/배제 기준

Inclusion/exclusion criteria


Based on the pilot studies, the following criteria guided theselection of articles for review:


탐색 전략, 논문 출처

Search strategy and sources of papers


A literature search was conducted on Medline and ERICusing the following key words: staff development; in-service training; medical faculty; faculty training/development; andcontinuing medical education. (A copy of the search strategyis included in Appendix I, which is available on the BEMEwebsite: http://www.bemecollaboration.org



선택 방법과 방법론적 질 점검

Selection methods and judgment of methodological quality


The literature search resulted in a total of 2777 abstracts. A two-stage process was employed in the selection of studies eligible for review (Freeth et al., 2003) and is outlined in Figure 3.

 




데이터 관리 기술

Data management techniques


Data extraction, analysis and synthesis

어떤 자료를 추출하여 분석하고 종합하였는가?


결과

Review findings


리뷰에 포함된 연구의 개괄

Overview of studies included in review


(a) Description of the interventions and expected outcomes—which will be further divided into: setting, professional discipline, focus of the intervention, program type,instructional methods, duration, and level of outcome assessed. 

(b) studies—which will be Methodological quality of the further divided into: study goal and theoretical frame-work, study design, data-collection methods, data sources, and study quality and strength of findings. 



(a) Description of the interventions and expected outcomes


세팅(국가, 기관)

Setting: Of the 53 papers reviewed, 38 studies (72%) took place in the US, the remainder being in Canada, Egypt, Israel, Malta, Nigeria, the UK, Switzerland and South Africa. Most activities were delivered in a university, hospital or community setting, with several initiatives offered by profes- sional associations.

 

참여 대상의 전공(내과, 가정의학과, 40%에서는 참가자의 전공 종류가 2개 이상, 기초과학자 대상 등)

참가자 수(6~399명, 평균 60명)

Professional discipline: The majority of faculty development interventions targeted practicing clinicians, with a prepon- derance of activities in family medicine and internal medicine. Interestingly, 21 of the faculty development initiatives (40%) welcomed more than one clinical discipline. Five interventions (10%) were designed for both clinicians and basic scientists; an additional two (4%) targeted basic scientists only. The number of participants in the interven- tions (which does not equal respondents for the evaluative component) ranged from six to 399, with a mean attendance of 60.



Table 2. Summary of faculty development outcomes by Kirkpatrick level.*


인터벤션의 초점: 교육 개선, 임상교육, 피드백과 평가, 소그룹 교수법, 강의기술, 학습자-중심 교육, 특정 내용 교육에 대한 것, 일반적인 교육 향상, 개인적/진로 개발, 조직변화, 행정과 리더십, 연구기술

Focus of the intervention: As a result of the selection criteria, all of the reports focused on teaching improvement. The majority aimed to improve clinical teaching, with a secondary emphasis on feedback and evaluation, small-group teaching and lecturing skills. Several studies highlighted ‘learner centeredness’ as an outcome, and several others focused on the teaching of specific content areas in addition to general teaching improvement (e.g. communication skills and medical interviewing; principles of family medicine and preventive medicine). Although the primary focus of these reports was instructional improvement, many also addressed personal/career development, organizational change, administration and educational leadership, and research skills.


프로그램 유형: 워크숍, 세미나 시리즈, 단기 코스, 장기 프로그램, 개인별 피드백, 증강(augmented) 피드백, 현장 방문. 용어의 비일관적인 그리고 다양한 사용이 분류를 어렵게 하는 측면이 있음.

Program type: The majority of activities were workshops (n¼23; 43%), of varying duration. Ten (19%) of the interventions were described as a seminar series and six (11%) as a short course. Five (10%) were described as a longitudinal program (e.g. fellowship) and nine (17%) fell under ‘other’, which included a seminar method, individual or augmented feedback, or site visits. An inconsistent and variable use of terms (e.g. workshops and seminars; seminars and short courses), complicated this classification; however, whenever possible, the authors’ terminology was used.


교수법: 강의, 소그룹토론, 상호작용 연습, 역할극, 시뮬레이션, 비디오-녹화 리뷰. 강의로만 진행되는 프로그램은 없으며, 대부분의 프로그램은 피드백이 동반된(microteaching과 같은) 실습(experiential) 부분을 포함하고 있음. 일부 프로그램은 현장훈련을 제공하며, 배운 것을 바로 적응할 수 있게 한다. 비록 교육 프로젝트와 in vivo practice가 일부 인터벤션(대부분 세미나와 단기 코스)의 일부였지만, 교사의 지속적 교육활동과 연관되어 있는 것을 묘사한 연구는 극히 적었다. 요구도 조사가 이루어진 경우는 적었다.

Instructional methods: All reports described a wide range of instructional methods that included lectures, small-group discussions, interactive exercises, role plays and simulations, films and videotape reviews of performance. No programs were completely lecture-based, and the majority included an experiential component with opportunities for guided practice with feedback (i.e. micro-teaching). Some programs offered on-site training opportunities where teachers could readily apply what they learned. Few described a direct link to teachers’ ongoing educational activities, although educational projects and in vivo practice were part of several interventions (most notably seminars and short courses). Needs assessments were used sparingly.


길이: FDP 인터벤션은 1시간에서 1년까지 다양했다. 워크숍(대체로 one-time 인터벤션)의 경우 3시간에서 1주까지 분포하고 있었으며, 중간값은 2일이었다. 세미나 시리즈(장기간에 걸쳐 진행되는 것)은 12시간에서 1달까지 분포하고 있었으며, 중간값은 14시간이었다. 단기코스는 1주에서 1달에 분포하였다. 펠로우십은 full-time와 part-time이 모두 있는데, 한 인터벤션은 18개월에 걸쳐 50시간에 달하였다.

Duration: The faculty development interventions ranged in duration from one hour to one year. Workshops, which were generally one-time interventions, ranged in duration from three hours to one week, with a median duration of two days. The seminar series, which occurred over time, ranged in duration from 12 hours to one month (with a median duration of 14 hours), and the short courses ranged from one week to one month. Fellowships were both full time and part time in nature, and one intervention, entitled a ‘longitudinal program’, was 50 hours in length over 18 months. 


평가 항목: 74%의 연구가 reaction을 평가하였으며(만족도, 유용성 인식, 수용가능성, 학습활동의 가치), 77%에서 learning을 평가하였다(태도, 지식, 술기의 변화), 72%에서 '행동'을 평가하였으며, 'Result'평가는 13%에서 조직의 변화를, 6%에서 학생/레지던트 학습의 변화를 평가하였다.

Level of outcome assessed: Table 2 shows that 39 studies (74%) assessed reaction, which included participant satisfaction, perception of program usefulness and acceptability, and value of the activity. Forty-one studies (77%) assessed learning, which included changes in attitudes, knowledge or skills. Thirty-eight (72%) assessed change in behavior. At the results level, seven studies (13%) reported change in organizational practice and three (6%) assessed change in student or resident learning.

 

 


 

(b) 연구의 방법론적 품질

(b) Methodological quality of the studies


연구 목표와 이론틀: 모든 연구에서 목표를 기술하였으며, 일부는 더 구체적으로 목표를 기술하였음.(FDP의 교육행동 또는 교육태도에 대한 효과성 평가). 7개를 제외한 모든 연구에서 관련 문헌을 인용하였으며, 57%에서 개념틀 혹은 이론틀(주로 성인학습, Instructional design, experiential learning, reflective practice)과 연결지었다.

Study goal and theoretical framework: All 53 reports stated their objective, sometimes quite broadly (e.g. to describe, implement and evaluate a faculty development initiative). Some reports described more specific objectives, outlining a particular study question such as assessing the effectiveness of a faculty development program on teaching behaviors (Hewson, 2000) or attitudes (Schmidt et al., 1989). One study examined the effect of experience on workshop gains (Baroffio et al., 1999), and several others assessed different methods of assessment (Nasmith et al., 1997; Hewson et al., 2001) and program evaluation (Sheets, 1985). All but seven cited the relevant literature, though often in a very limited fashion. Thirty reports (57%) placed their work within a conceptual or theoretical framework, primarily drawing upon principles of adult learning, instructional design, experiential learning and reflective practice.


연구 설계: 11% RCT, 89% quasi-experimental. 45개의 단일그룹설계 중, 69%는 pre-post test, 26%는 post-test만. 질적 접근만 활용한 경우는 없었으며, 21%는 질적연구방법 사용

Study design: Of the 53 papers reviewed, there were six (11%) randomized controlled trials. The majority of studies (n¼47; 89%) were quasi-experimental in design, with two including a comparison group in the main part of the study. Of the 45 single-group designs, 31 (69%) employed a pretest– post-test design. Fourteen studies (26%) used a post-test only. None of the reports used a qualitative approach only, though 11 (21%) incorporated a qualitative method (or analysis) in their design. 


데이터 수집: 워크숍 후 설문, pre and post 측정, 학생/레지던트/자기 평가, 교육행동 관찰 등. 설문이 가장 흔히 사용되는 방법이었음. 55%에서는 설문만 사용. 38%에서는 설문+alpha. 대부분의 설문은 특정 연구를 위해 개발되었고, 매우 소수 연구에서는 psychometric properties도 보고함. 30%는 (비디오 녹화 등) 직접 관찰 평가를 수행.

Data collection methods: Methods to evaluate faculty development programs included end-of-workshop questionnaires, pre- and post-test measures to assess attitudinal or cognitive change, student, resident and self-assessment of post-training performance, and direct observations of teaching behavior. Questionnaires were the most popular method of data collection. All but four of the interventions used a survey or questionnaire. Twenty-nine (55%) of the interventions used a questionnaire only; 20 (38%) used a questionnaire and another method (e.g. observation; expert opinion). Most questionnaires were designed for a particular study, and few reports described psychometric properties. Sixteen studies (30%) included direct observation (of live or videotaped teaching sessions) as part of their assessment methodology. 


데이터 출처: 대부분 교육에 대한 자기보고에 의존하고 있으며, 수행-기반 변화측정은 매우 제한적으로 사용되었음. 28%는 학생/레지더트의 평가를 도입하였음. 전문가 견해를 사용하기도 함. 학생의 시험점수, 레지던트 행동에 관한 환자의 평가 등도 있음. 응답률은 low 또는 unspecified.

Data sources: The majority of programs relied on selfreported ratings of teaching, with a limited use of performance-based measures of change. Fifteen studies (28%) employed student or resident ratings to assess changes in teaching behaviors. An additional two used expert opinions to assess outcomes. One study assessed student exam scores; another included patient ratings of resident behaviors. In many studies, the response rates for outcome measures were low or unspecified; statistical methods or differences were often not described.


연구의 품질과 연구결과의 견고성: 5점척도로 평가했을 때(원래는 subscale도 넣었지만 reliable하지 않았음) study quality는 평균적으로 3.14점이었으며 1점에서 5점까지 분포(1 낮음, 5 높음). strength of finding은 2.88이 평균이었고 1점에서 4점까지 분포 (1점: no clear conclusions can be drawn; 3점: conclusions can probably be based on results; 5점 results are unequivocal)

Study quality and strength of findings: Study quality was rated on a five-point scale (1¼low; 5¼high), and reviewers were asked to indicate study strengths and weaknesses. We had originally included subscales to rate the evaluation methods (e.g. appropriateness of and implementation of study design; appropriateness of data analysis), but this did not yield reliable results. We therefore chose to use an overall rating for this variable. Strength of findings was rated on a five-point scale with specific anchors (1¼no clear conclusions can be drawn; 3¼conclusions can probably be based on results; 5¼results are unequivocal). The mean rating for study quality was 3.14, with a range from 1 to 5. The mean rating for strength of findings was 2.88 (with a range of 1–4).



인터벤션 유형에 따른 결과 요약

Summary of findings by intervention type


(a) 워크숍

(a) Workshops


23개의 인터벤션이 워크숍이었으며, 대부분은 duration이 다양한 single intervention이었음.

Twenty-three of the interventions reported were described as workshops, most commonly a single intervention of varying duration.

 

23개 중 7개 만이 개념 또는 이론틀을 기술함

Only seven of the 23 stated a theoretical or conceptual framework.



(b) 단기 코스

(b) Short courses


54개의 인터벤션 중 6개가 단기코스 형태였고 1주에서 1달까지 분포하였다. 모두 목표를 기술하였고, 6개 중 5개에서 이론틀을 제공하였다.

Six of the 54 interventions (Sheets & Henry, 1984, 1988;Gordon & Levinson, 1990; Skeff et al., 1992b; DaRosa et al.,1996; Pololi et al., 2001) were in the form of a short course,ranging in duration from one week to one month. All hada stated objective and all but one provided a theoretical framework. 


(c) 세미나 시리즈

(c) Seminar series


10개의 연구에서 세미나시리즈를 하였고, 이것의 특징은 각 세션이 시간 간격을 두고 진행되는 것이다.

Ten studies described a seminar series characterized by the fact that the sessions were spaced over time 


(d) 장기 프로그램과 펠로우십

(d) Longitudinal programs and fellowships


한 연구에서 장기프로그램을 보고하였으며, 모두 목표를 기술했다.

One report described a longitudinal program.

All had stated objectives and all but one incorporated a theoretical framework.



우수 연구 자세히 들여다보기

The focused picture


8개의 연구가 study quality와 strenght of findings에서 4점 혹은 그 이상의 점수를 받았다. 이 연구만 따로 보면 다음과 같다.

Eight articles scored 4 (or higher) for both study quality andstrength of findings, and we chose to examine these separately in order to provide a more focused picture offaculty development. 

 

8개 중 4개의 연구에서 effect size를 계산 할 수 있었다. 평균점수와 SD로 effect size를 계산함. Table 3에 그 결과가 나와있다.effect size는 다양했지만 moderate to high 한 정도의 효과크기가 네 가지 모두에서 나타났다. 즉 인터벤션의 효과가 있었으며 특히 교육의 측면에서 그리고 인터벤션에서 도움을 받은 교수들의 측면에서 있었다.

Four of the eight studies included in our focused review provided data that allowed for the calculation of effect size(Baroffio et al., 1999; Skeff, 1983; Skeff et al., 1986; Mahler& Benor, 1984). Mean scores and standard deviations weredrawn from the data and were converted into effect sizes (d)using Cohen d’s calculation (Cohen, 1988). These effects areshown in Table 3, where these studies are summarized. Whileeffect sizes varied, moderate to high effect sizes were found inall four studies, highlighting the effects of the interventions,particular aspects of teaching that were affected, and groupsof teachers who might benefit from the intervention. 


(a) 인터벤션과 기대 효과

(a) Description of the interventions and expected outcomes


45분짜리 피드백 세션에서부터 1달짜리 세미나 시리즈까지 다양했다.

The interventions described in these eight reports rangedfrom a 45-minute feedback session for clinical teachers(Marvel, 1991) to a month-long seminar series designed tofacilitate dissemination of workshop concepts (Stratos et al.,1997). One study described two workshops aimed at improving tutor behavior, each consisting of several phases(Baroffio et al., 1999). Another study provided augmented feedback, consisting of norm-referenced graphic summaries of teachers’ clinical teaching performance ratings, together with individually written clinical teaching effectiveness guide-lines, to attending staff and residents (Litzelman et al., 1998).Two studies assessed the benefits of a four-day workshop designed to improve teachers’ cognitive styles (Mahler & Benor, 1984; Mahler & Neumann, 1987), and two studies assessed the impact of an intensive feedback and seminar method on clinicians’ teaching behaviors (Skeff, 1983; Skeff et al., 1986).

 

모든 연구에서 behavior change를 평가했으며, 이는 3단계와 4단계에 해당한다. 4개의 연구에서 참가자의 만족도를 조사하였고, 3개의 연구에서 학습의 변화를, 7개의 연구에서 교육행동의 변화를 3개에서 학생과 시스템의 변화를 평가하였다.

All of the studies assessed behavioral change, targeting level 3 or 4 of Kirkpatrick’s model. Four studies included participant satisfaction. Three studies examined changes in learning (i.e. knowledge, attitudes or skills); seven studies assessed change in teacher behavior and three assessed change at the level of the student or system. One study assessed outcome at all four levels (Skeff et al., 1986).


(b) 방법론적 품질

(b) Methodological quality of the studies


3개는 RCT. 5개는 single-group design. 1개 연구에서 non-equivalent control group을 포함함. 8개 연구에서 pre- post- test 디자인을 활용. 3개의 연구에서는 delayed post-test 활용

Three of the eight studies (38%) were randomized controlled trials; the remaining five (62%) were single-group designs, with one study including a non-equivalent control group for one part of the intervention. All eight studies employed a pre- test–post-test design, with the addition of a delayed post-test in three.


8개 중 6개에서 설문을 활용했으며(이론적 구인에 따라 reliability를 점검함). 이 6개 중 3개는 수행능력을 객관적으로 측정함. 2개는 수행능력에 대한 관측측정만 함.

Six of the eight studies (75%) used questionnaires (the majority of which were tested for reliability and based on a theoretical construct). Three of these same six studies also incorporated objective measures of performance. The two remaining studies used observed measures of performance only.


8개 모두 참가자의 자기-보고 외에 다른 자료 출처를 사용함. 5개의 연구는 교육 행동에 대한 학생, 레지던트의 평가 활용. 5개는 숙련된 관찰자의 평가를 활용

All of the eight studies used data sources other than participants’ self-report. Five of the studies incorporated student and resident ratings of teacher behavior; five utilized trained observer ratings.




Discussion


결과 요약

Summary of outcomes


FDP에 대한 높은 만족도: 참가자가 자발적으로 참여했다는 사실 외에도, 일관되게 FDP가 수용가능했고, 유용했으며, 개인 목표에 부합한다고 응답함. 실습과 스킬-기반 방법이 높은 평가를 받았음.

High satisfaction with faculty development programs: Overall satisfaction with faculty development programs was high. Notwithstanding the fact that the participants were volunteers, they consistently found the programs acceptable, useful and relevant to their personal objectives. The methods used, especially those with a practical and skills-based focus, were also valued by program participants.


교육과 교수개발에 대한 태도 변화: 두 가지 모두에서 긍정적으로 변화했다. 개인의 강점과 약점을 더 잘 인식하게 되었고, 동기부여가 더 되었으며, 교육에 대한 열의가 생겼고, professional development에 대해 긍정적으로 평가하게 되었다. 이러한 효과는 개방형 설문과 pre-post 측정에서 모두 나타났다.

Changes in attitudes towards teaching and faculty development: Participants reported a positive change in attitudes towards faculty development and towards teaching as a result of their involvement in a faculty development activity. They cited a greater awareness of personal strengths and limitations, increased motivation and enthusiasm for teaching, and a notable appreciation of the benefits of professional development. This impact was observed both in answers to open-ended questions and in pre–post measures of attitudinal change.


지식과 스킬의 습득: 교육의 다양한 측면(구체적인 교육전략, 보다 학습자-중심적 접근) 외에도 교육적 개념에 대한 지식 향상을 언급하였다. 스킬의 습득(학습자 요구사정, 성찰 촉진법, 피드백 제공법)도 이뤄졌다. 지식의 평가를 위한 시험은 흔히 사용되진 않더라도 긍정적 변화를 보여준다.

Gains in knowledge and skills: Participants often reported increased knowledge of educational concepts and principles as well as various aspects of teaching (e.g. specific teaching strategies; a more learner-centered approach). They also described gains in skills (e.g. assessing learners’ needs, promoting reflection and providing feedback). Formal tests of knowledge, though infrequently used, also demonstrated positive changes.


교육 행동의 변화: 스스로 인식한 교육행동의 변화는 지속적으로 보고되었다. 학생들의 평가에서 FDP 참가자들이 인식하는 변화를 항상 반영하는 것은 아니지만, 교육 행동에 변화가 있는 것은 명확해보인다. 예컨대 교육 행동의 변화는 23개의 워크숍 중 15개, 10개의 세미나 시리즈 중 7개에서 드러난다.

Changes in teaching behavior: Self-perceived changes in teaching behavior were consistently reported. While student evaluations did not always reflect the changes that participants perceived, there was evidence that change in teaching performance was detectable. For example, changes in teaching behavior were reported for 15 (of 23) workshops and seven (of 10) seminar series. New educational initiatives, designed and implemented during the intervention, were also described.


조직과 학생 학습의 변화: 흔히 평가되는 것은 아니지만, 이것을 평가한 소수 연구를 보면 새로운 교육활동에 더 적극적으로 참여하고, 동료들과 새로운/개선된 네트워크를 형성한다.

Changes in organizational practice and student learning: Changes in student (or resident) behavior as well as organizational practice were not frequently investigated. However, in those few studies that examined organizational practice, participants reported a greater involvement in new educational activities and the establishment of new and improved networks of colleagues. The latter outcome was most frequently noted for the seminar series and longitudinal programs.



핵심 특징 요약

Summary of ‘key features’


경험학습의 역할: 배운 내용을 적용하는 것, 스킬을 연습하는 것, 스킬에 대한 피드백을 받는 것의 중요성이 여러 연구에서 강조되었다. 모든 연구자들은 교수들이 배운 것을 연습하고, 즉각적 관련성과 실용성이 핵심이라고 하였다.

The role of experiential learning: The importance of applying what has been learned (during the intervention and afterwards), practicing skills, and receiving feedback on skills learned was highlighted by several authors (Irby et al., 1982; Coles & Tomlinson, 1994; Hewson, 2000), all of whom suggest that faculty members need to practice what they learn, and that immediate relevance and practicality is key (e.g. Sheets & Henry, 1984, 1988).


피드백의 가치: 변화를 만드는데 피드백의 역할을 여러 보고된 인터벤션에서 명백하다. 추가로 여러 연구에서 인터벤션 전략으로서 피드백 활용을 조사하였으며, systematic한 건설적 피드백이 교육 행동의 개선을 가져올 수 있음을 보여주었다. 그러나 한 연구에서 augmented feedback은 일부 부정적 효과를 보였다.

The value of feedback: The role of feedback in promoting change was evident in many of the reported interventions. In addition, several studies (Skeff, 1983; Litzelman et al., 1998) specifically examined the use of feedback as an intervention strategy and found that systematic and constructive feedback can result in improved teaching performance. However, in one study (Litzelman et al., 1998), augmented feedback was shown to have some negative effects; this potential effect should be considered and investigated further.


동료의 중요성: 많은 연구에서 동료 관계의 이점에 대해서 언급했다. 특히 동료를 롤모델로 삼는 것, 정보와 아이디어를 서로 교환하는 것, 변화를 촉진하고 유지하는데 동료의 지지의 중요성 등을 언급했다.

The importance of peers: A number of reports (DeWitt et al., 1993; Elliot et al., 1999) commented on the benefits of peer and collegial relationships. In particular, they highlighted the value of using peers as role models, the mutual exchange of information and ideas, and the importance of collegial support to promote and maintain change.


교수-학습의 원칙을 고수하는 것: 많은 FDP가 이론/개념적 프레임워크에 기반하고 있지 않지만, 많은 연구에서 성인학습을 인용하였으며 경험학습을 인용하였다. 실제로 이러한 원칙에 입각하여 진행하는 것이 더 효과적인 교수-학습을 가져온다는 컨센서스가 나타나고 있다. instructional design 원칙 역시 자주 언급된다.

Adherence to principles of teaching and learning: Although many of the programs were not grounded in a theoretical or conceptual framework, many cited principles of adult learning (e.g. Knowles, 1988) and experiential learning (e.g. Kolb, 1984) as an organizing structure. In fact, there appears to be a developing consensus that adherence to these principles promotes more effective learning and teaching. Principles of instructional design were also frequently cited.


목표 달성을 위한 다양한 교수법 활용: 앞서 언급된 바와 같이 모든 인터벤션은 여러 교수법을 활용하며(소그룹 토의, 상호작용 연습, 롤플레이, 시뮬레이션) 강의만 하는 것은 없다. 명백히 모든 프로그램은 다양한 학습스타일에 맞춰야 할 필요성과 더불어 다양한 목표를 달성하기 위해서는 다양한 방법이 필요함을 인식하고 있다.

The use of multiple instructional methods to achieve objectives: As mentioned earlier, all of the interventions included a wide range of instructional methods (e.g. smallgroup discussions; interactive exercises; role plays and simulations) and none relied on lectures alone. Apparently, each program was aware of the need to accommodate different learning styles as well as the fact that different methods are required to meet diverse objectives.



FD인터벤션과 관련한 관찰결과

Observations re faculty development interventions


맥락의 역할: 대부분의 연구는 교수 중 특정 맥락에 있는 특정 그룹의 니즈에 맞는 프로그램을 개발하였다. 이 프로그램 개발과 '맞춤형' 프로그램이 종종 성공을 이루곤 했지만, 놀라운 것은 아니다. 이러한 관찰 결과에서 배워야 할 점은 '맥락'이 핵심이라는 것이며, 연구의 결과가 일반화가능하지 않을 수 있지만, FDP의 개발의 원칙은 일반화가능할 수 있다는 점이다.

The role of context: The majority of reports describe programs that were developed to meet the needs of a particular group of faculty members, in a particular context. To the extent that this development and ‘match’ were often successful, it is not surprising that there were many reports of changes in the desired direction. One lesson to be learned from this observation is that context is key, and that although the results of these studies may not be generalizable, the principles of faculty development might be.


맥락은 또 다른 의미에서 중요한데, Kirkpatrick에 따르면 변화가 일어나려면 네 가지 조건이 맞아야 한다. (1)변하고자 하는 욕망이 있어야 하며, (2)무엇을 어떻게 할지에 대한 지식이 있어야 하고 (3)지지적 환경이 필요하며 (4)변화의 보상이 필요하다. 흥미롭게도 처음 두 개의 요소는 FDP를 통해 달성가능하나 나머지 두 개는 그렇지 않다. 그러나 우리가 바라는 변화는 이 지점에 있다.

Context is important in another way as well. According to Kirkpatrick (1994), four conditions are necessary for change to occur: the person must have the desire to change, knowledge of what to do and how to do it, a supportive work environment, and rewards for changing. Interestingly, the first two elements of change can potentially be achieved through faculty development activities; the last two cannot, and yet it is at this level that we expect change to occur.


참여의 특성: FDP에 참여하고자 하는 동기는 아직 해결되지 않은 의문이다. 왜 참여하는가? 왜 어떤 사람이 특정 프로그램에 특정 시점에 참여하고자 하는가? 지금까지 대부분의 참여자는 자발적 참여자였다. 아마 이제는 이 '자발성'을 넘어서야 할 때인지도 모른다. 개인적 차원의 것을 넘어서 FDP참여를 촉진하거나 방해하는 요인을 알아봐야 한다. '교육'이란 것은 '사회적 활동'이기 때문에, 참여의 사회적 결정요인에 대해 살펴볼 필요가 있을 수도 있다. 경험을 통해서 얻는 것과 워크숍을 통해서 얻는 것의 차이를 볼 필요도 있다.

The nature of participation: Motivation to attend faculty development activities remains an unanswered question. What motivates participation? What determines whether someone will take advantage of specific offerings at a particular time? To date, the majority of participants are volunteers. Perhaps it is time for us to move beyond ‘volunteerism’ as we strive to enhance teaching and learning. It would also be worth exploring factors beyond the individual that encourage or impede attendance. As teaching is a ‘social activity’ (D’Eon et al., 2000), the social determinants of participation merit further inquiry. It would also be worthwhile to conduct further studies to determine what is learned through workshops vs. experience. 

 

FD의 facilitator로 참여하는 것의 효과도 연구할 가치가 있을 것이다. "가르치는 것은 두 번 배우는 것과 같다" 라는 말이 있다. 흥미롭게도 지금까지 어떤 연구도 FD facilitator의 참여의 영향을 연구하지 않았다. FD intervention에 faciitator로 참여하기 위해서는 독특한 스킬과 자질이 필요할 것이라는 것이 우리의 생각이다.

The impact of participation on faculty development facilitators would also be worthy of investigation. It has been said that ‘‘to teach is to learn twice’’. Interestingly, no studies to date have examined the impact of participation on faculty development facilitators. It is our impression that facilitating a faculty development intervention requires a unique blend of skills and aptitudes that should be examined in greater depth.


 

확장 프로그램의 가치: 더 장기간 이뤄지는 프로그램(세미나 시리즈)이 단기성 프로그램보다 더 성과를 낼 가능성이 높아 보인다. 예컨대 세미나 시리즈는 네트워크를 형성시키고, 협력적 관계를 만들어준다. 이러한 인터벤션은(펠로우십 포함) FDP이후 교육활동에 더 많이 참여하게 하며, 이는 지속가능성을 시사한다. 단기 프로그램과 장기 프로그램의 더 철저한 비교가 필요하다.

The value of extended programs: Our review of findings by intervention type suggests that longer programs, extended over time (e.g. the seminar series), tend to produce outcomes not apparent in one-time interventions (e.g. short courses or workshops). For example, in several instances the seminar series resulted in the creation of networks and cooperative interactions among colleagues that are possible when a group meets over time (e.g. Rayner et al., 1997). These interventions, as well as fellowships, also reported more involvement in educational activities following the faculty development activity, implying sustainability over time. A more rigorous comparison of ‘short’ and ‘long’ interventions would be beneficial to test out the hypothesis that extended programs yield more long-term changes.


FDP의 다양한 대안 고려: 이번 연구에서 전통적인 면-대-면 방식의 FDP에 지나치게 의존하고 있음이 드러났다. 이러한 인터벤션이 일정관리에 장점이 있고, 관심이 있는 교육자들의 커뮤니티를 형성해주며, 동기를 더 부여해주는 것으로 나타나지만, 다른 방법(온라인 교육, 자기주도 학습, 피어-코칭)도 고려해봐야 하며 멘토링도 고려해봐야 한다. 여기에 속하는 일부 연구들이 'strength of findings'에서 높은 점수를 받았다.

The use of ‘alternative’ practices: The current literature demonstrates an over-reliance on traditional face-to-face methods such as workshops and seminars. Whereas these interventions seem to have the stated advantage of ease of scheduling, building a community of interested educators and increasing motivation, we should consider other methods that include online and self-directed learning, peer coaching (Flynn et al., 1994) and mentorship (Morzinski et al., 1996). It is interesting to note that some of the studies that scored highly on ‘strength of findings’ used alternative methods (e.g. individual feedback session).


 

방법론적 이슈와 관련한 관찰결과

Observations re methodological issues


더 철저한 연구설계의 필요성: 1992년 Hitchcock 등은 FDP를 더 철저한 질적/양적 설계로 평가해야 한다고 언급했다. 그 때부터 상황은 크게 달라진 것 같지 않다. 본 리뷰에서도 더 철저한 연구를 통해서 흔히 마주치는 연구설정상의 문제를 극복할 필요를 제시한다. 만약 가능하다면, RCT를 고려하거나 최소한 대조군을 포함해서 FDP가 정말 차이를 만드는지 더 일반화가능한 결론을 내야 할 것이다.

The need for more rigorous designs: In 1992, Hitchcock et al. commented on the need to better evaluate faculty development programs and use sound qualitative and quantitative designs to document outcomes. The situation does not seem to have changed significantly since then. The results of this review suggest the need to conduct more rigorous research studies and overcome commonly encountered design problems. If possible, we should consider the use of randomized controlled trials, or at least comparison groups, so that we can make more generalizable statements about whether faculty development does, indeed, make a difference. 

 

문헌을 검토한 바, 엄격한 질적연구방법이 잘 활용되지 않음을 발견했다. 동시에, 많은 저자들이 FD활동 이후에 교수들의 열정/갱신(renewal)/변화에 대한 직관적인 인상을 기술했다. 그러나 현재까지의 연구방법은 이러한 직관이나 관찰 일화를 잘 잡아내지 못하고 있다. 더 나아가 비록 FD활동이 교육활동에 대한 흥미에 불을 지핀다는 일반적 동의가 있지만, 이것이 어떻게 도달되는 것인지, 이 열망이 어떤 것인지 등이 더 면밀히 조사될 필요가 있다. 많은 경우 질적연구를더 많이 활용할 경우 얻을 수 있는 이점이 많다.

In reviewing the literature, we perceived an underutilization of rigorous qualitative methodologies. At the same time, many authors described an intuitive impression of enthusiasm, renewal and change following a particular faculty development activity. Current methods do not adequately capture these intuitions or anecdotal observations. Moreover, although there is general agreement that faculty development activities kindle interest in educational activities, how this is achieved, and what this inspires, needs to be examined more carefully. In many ways, a greater use of qualitative methods (e.g. Freeman et al., 1992) would yield considerable benefits.

 

 

FDP는 복잡한 세팅에서 이뤄지는 복잡한 인터벤션이다. 우리의 개념틀에서 지적한 바와 같이, 많은 매개변수(개인 특성, 교사의 직위와 책임) 등이 통제불가능한 외적 요인으로 작용한다. 이것이 평가가 어려운 이유이며(변화가 있다고 해서 프로그램의 기여가 아닐 수 있다), 새로운 연구방법론이 필요한 이유이다. Blumberg와 Deveau는 교육 혁신/인터벤션의 학문적 전파/교육제품(product)개발/도입을 평가하기 위한 모델을 개발하였다.  이것이 우리가 고려해야 할 것이며, 조직에 대한 영향과 더불어 기대 성과와 '기대하지 않은' 성과의 가치를 고려해야 한다.

Faculty development activities represent complex interventions in complex settings (Drescher et al., 2004). As noted in our conceptual framework, many intervening, mediating variables (e.g. personal attributes; teacher’s status and responsibilities) interact with uncontrollable, extraneous factors. This is one of the many reasons that evaluation of effectiveness is difficult (for even if changes are noted, they may not definitively be attributed to the program) and that new research methodologies are required (e.g. Campbell et al., 2000). Blumberg & Deveau (1995) have developed a model by which to evaluate an educational innovation/ intervention that looks at academic dissemination, product development and implementation. This is something that we should consider in faculty development. We should also consider the value of examining anticipated and ‘unanticipated’ outcomes (e.g. Blumberg & Deveau, 1995), including impact on the organization.


 

참가자 만족도에 보다 관심을 기울이기: 참가자 만족도 자료의 가치를 다시 돌아보아야 할 때이다. 비록 FDP에 대한 반응은 초보 단계의 평가이지만, 변화의 토대가 된다. 참가자들의 만족이 중요한 이유는 높은 만족도가 더 학습하고자 하는 동기를 부여해주고, 전문성-개발 활동에 참여하게 해주기 때문이다. 또한 프로그램 개발자에게 가치있는 피드백이 되기도 한다. Belfield 등이 말한 바와 같이 참가자들의 만족도는 교육의 잠재적 효과에 대한 대강의 대리지표이다. 그러나 특정 프로그램에 대한 만족도는 그러한 정보의 목적과 활용이 명확하기만 한다면중요한 정보가 되기도 한다. 우리의 견해로는 만족도를 완전히 무시하기보다는 가치를 만들어나갈 수 있어야 한다. 참가자의 경험과 스토리에 대한 질적 연구방법(네러티브 분석, 결정적 사건 분석)은 또 다른 접근법이 된다.

Attention to participant satisfaction: It is time to re-affirm the value of participant satisfaction data. Although reaction to the program is an elementary level of evaluation, it is fundamental for change to occur. Participant satisfaction is important if faculty members are to be motivated to learn and to attend professional development activities. It also gives valuable feedback to program planners. As Belfield et al. (2001) have said, participant satisfaction is a crude proxy for the substantive effects of education. However, information on the reactions of participants to a specific program provides valuable information, as long as the purpose and use of such information is made explicit. In our opinion, we must build on the value of participant satisfaction rather than discredit it completely. Applying qualitative methodologies to participants’ experiences and stories (e.g. analysis of narratives; critical incident technique) is another approach worth

pursuing as we try to understand participants’ reactions to faculty development offerings. 


 

성과 측정: 지금까지의 연구결과를 보면 변화 측정에 있어 자기평가와 설문에 지나치게 의존한다. 더 나아가기 위해서 새로운 평가방법을 고려해야 한다. 예컨대 Simpson 등은 교수의 교육능력을 개발하기 위한 표준화된 교육 상황을 개발하였으며, Zabar 등은 objective structured teaching examinations 를 통해서 효과를 평가했다.

Outcome measures: The literature to date suggests an overreliance on self-assessments and survey questionnaires to assess change. To move forward, we should consider the use of novel assessment methods. For example, Simpson et al. (1992) have developed standardized teaching situations to develop faculty teaching skills; Zabar et al. (2004) have utilized objective structured teaching examinations to evaluate impact.


적절한 측정은 reliable하고 valid 해야 한다. 대부분의 연구는 psychometric property를 보고하지 않았다. FD개발자들과 연구자들은 validity와 reliability가 확립된 설문지 활용을 고려할 필요가 있다. 혹은 그러한 척도를 개발하고자 노력해야 한다. 예컨대 많은 교수 효과에 대한 여러 scale이 개발되어 있으며, 가능하다면 이러한 평가도구를 사용하고 리소스를 더 공유해야 한다.

Accurately measuring change requires reliable and valid measures. The majority of studies in this review used questionnaires for which psychometric properties were not reported. Faculty developers and researchers interested in assessing change should consider using questionnaires that have already been tested for validity and reliability, or work to establish these measures. For example, a number of scales and measures of teacher effectiveness have been developed in education (e.g. Gibbs & Coffey, 2004). Whenever possible, we should try to make use of these assessment tools and collaborate in order to share resources more consistently. 

 

 

우리는 다양한 수행능력의 척도(자기평가, 비디오테입평가, 학생평가) 간 상관관계를 살펴봄으로써 모든 척도를 모든 연구에 사용하지 않아도 되게 해야 한다. 예컨대 일부 연구에서는 비디오테입 평가와 지식 검사의 강한 상관관계를 보고했다. 이들 연구결과는 입증되기만 한다면 항상 직접 관찰(비용과 시간이 많이 드는)을 사용하지 않아도 된다는 것을 시사한다. 비슷한 결과에 따르면 학생이나 레지던트의 교수 수행능력에 대한 평가를 (지식검사와 함께 사용하여) 비디오테입 녹화 대신 사용할 수 있다. 그러나 삼각측량의 가치는 축소될 필요가 없다. 대부분의 높이 평가된 연구들을 보면 성과 측정을 위해서 다양한 방법을 사용하였다.

We should also try to correlate different measures of performance (e.g. self-assessment questionnaires and videotape recordings; student assessments and faculty self-ratings) so that we do not need to include all measures of change in every study. For example, several studies (e.g. (Mahler & Benor, 1984; Sheets & Henry, 1984) found a strong correlation between videotape ratings (albeit sometimes based on single observations) and knowledge tests. These findings, if corroborated, suggest the possibility of conducting reliable evaluations without always using direct observation (which can be costly and time-consuming). Based on similar results, we might be able to use student or resident evaluations of teachers’ performance (together with knowledge tests) instead of videotaped observations. However, the value of triangulation to validate results cannot be understated. Some of the most highly rated studies (Skeff, 1983; Skeff et al., 1986) used multiple measures to assess outcome (e.g. self-ratings, videotaped observations and student ratings).

 

 

FDP의 중요한 성과는 학생들의 수행능력 향상이 되어야 한다. 우리는 따라서 교수들의 교육행동과 학생들의 성과와의 관계를 봐야 한다. 즉, 더 철저하게 학생과 레지던트의 자료를 수집해야 하며, 학생들의 교육 역량에 대한 평가는 매우 유용하다. 이러한 방식이 더 활용되어야 하나, 학생과 레지던트의 지식/태도/술기에 대한 평가가 더 면멸히 이뤄져야 한다.

An important outcome of faculty development is improved student performance. We must therefore work to seek evidence of a relationship between changes in faculty members’ teaching behaviors and learner outcomes. That is, we need to collect student and resident data (including indices of learner behaviour) more rigorously. Student evaluations of teaching competencies are invaluable; they need to be augmented, however, by a careful assessment of changes in students’ and residents’ own knowledge, attitudes and skills. 


 

응답 편향에 관심가지기: 편향된 응답에도 관심을 기울여야 한다. Skeff등이 언급한 바와 같이 FDP 이후의 자기평가는 종종 기대보다 낮거나 더 떨어지기도 하는데, 이는 개개인이 시작시에는 스스로를 과대평가하다가 과정이 끝나면 스스로를 더 정확하게 평가하기 때문일 수 있다. Skeff 등이 말한 바와 같이 더 조직적으로 후향적 사전-, 사후- 검사를 평가하여 이러한 편향을 극복해야 한다. 한 흥미로운 연구에서 후향적 사전-검사의 결과는 (일반적인 사전검사보다) 학생의 교수에 대한 워크숍-이전 평가가 더 정확함을 보여준다. 이에 더하여 후향적 사전- 사후- 검사는 태도 측면에서 유의미한 결과를 보여주는데, 이는 전통적인 사전- 사후- 에서는 잘 드러나지 않는다.

Attention to response shift bias: The notion of ‘response shift bias’ warrants more careful attention. As noted by Skeff et al. (1992a), post-course self-ratings are often lower than expected, and occasionally decrease, when increases are expected. This may occur because individuals overrate themselves at the beginning of a course, and then after the course (when they have a better idea of what is meant by different aspects of teaching and learning), they rate themselves more accurately (Nayer, 1995). As Skeff et al. have argued, we should more systematically consider the value of retrospective pre–post testing to overcome this possible response shift bias. In an interesting study (Skeff et al., 1992a), retrospective pre-tests correlated better with students’ pre-workshop evaluations of their teachers’ performance than did the regular pre-test. In addition, the retrospective pre- and post-tests showed significant differences in attitudes towards teaching that were not apparent in more traditional pre- and post-tests.


 

시간 변화에 따른 변화 평가: 소수의 연구에서 시간 변화에 따른 FDP성과의 유지를 보았다. 많은 경우 1년까지 그 변화가 유지됨을 보여주었다.

Assessment of change over time: A few studies assessed the maintenance of change over time. Most of them (Mahler & Benor, 1984; Skeff et al., 1986; Steinert et al., 2001)


 

FD 전략간 비교: 비록 우리가 효과적인 FDP의 '핵심 특징'을 따로 떼어 놓았지만, FDP의 어떤 요소가 가장 유용한지에 대한 비교 연구는 거의 없으며, 한 방법이 다른 방법보다 우월한지에 대한 연구도 없다. 예컨대 비록 워크숍이 가장 흔한 방식이지만, 많은 연구자들이 지속적 변화를 가져오기에는 너무 짧다고 지적한다. 그러나 워크숍은 여전히 가장 많이 쓰이는 방법이다. 우리의 연구에 따르면 더 긴 인터벤션이 더 오래 지속되는 성과를 가져온다.

Comparison of faculty development strategies: Although we have attempted to tease apart key ‘features’ of effective faculty development, there is little comparative research on which components of faculty development interventions are most useful (e.g. micro-teaching; role plays) and whether one method (e.g. seminar series) is more effective than another (e.g. short courses). For example, although workshops are one of the most common methods, many have suggested that they are too short to bring about lasting change. At the same time, they persist as a method of choice. Our findings suggest that longer interventions may have more durable outcomes. This, too, requires further investigation.


 

이론과 실천에 기반한 FD: 리뷰 결과에 따르면 단 하나의 '완벽한 인터벤션'을 찾으려는 노력을 경계해야 한다. 실제로 다양한 접근법이 존재하며, 적절한 활용이란 환경에 따라 다 다르다. 그러나 FDP는 이론과 실제적 근거에 기반해야 한다. 아직 교육이론이 어떻게 학습이 일어나는지에 대한 통합된 이해를 제공해주지는 못하나, 학습에 있어 상당한 지지를 받는 모델이나 원칙이 있고, 이것을 기획/성과측정/효과분석에 활용해야 한다. 여기에는 다음과 같은 것들이 있다.

Grounding faculty development in theory and practice: Based on the findings of our review, we should caution ourselves against searching for the single ‘perfect intervention’. In fact, an array of approaches exists and their appropriate use may differ from activity to activity and across settings. However, the work of faculty development should be grounded in both theory and empirical evidence. While educational theory has not yet provided us with a unified understanding of how learning occurs, there are well-supported models and principles of learning that can inform us in planning interventions, measuring outcomes and analysing effects (Mann, 2002). These include principles that draw

  • 인지과학 on the science of cognition (e.g. how individuals make meaning of information and store it in memory) (Regehr & Norman, 1996);
  • 사회적 학습 on understandings of social learning (e.g. how learning occurs from and with others;
  • 환경 the influence of the learning environment) (Bandura, 1986);
  • 경험 learning through experience (Kolb, 1984);
  • 성찰 and making meaning of learning and experience through reflection (Scho¨n, 1987; Moon, 1999).
  • 실천 커뮤니티에의 참여 More recently, the idea of learning through participation in communities of practice has also been explored (Lave & Wenger, 1991; Boud & Middleton, 2003), and this notion will have important implications for faculty development.


프로그램과 다양한 전공간 협력: 자원을 공유하고 프로그램간 협력을 해야 한다. 교육 영역에서 배울 것이 많은데, 우리의 결과를 보면 다른 대학 교수들의 트레이닝의 리뷰에서의 결과와 유사하다. 많은 경우 이들 연구로부터 배우고 우리에게 적용해야 한다.

Collaborating across programs and disciplines: The value of sharing resources and collaborating across programs has been highlighted earlier in this review. There is also much for us to learn from colleagues in the field of education. For example, many of our findings resemble what has been found in reviews of research on training of university teachers (Gibbs & Coffey, 2004); in many ways, it would be wise to learn from these studies and incorporate their methodologies (and findings) into our work.



FDP 실천에 대한 함의

Implications for practice:

We need to:


  • 우리의 성공을 토대로 하자. 성공적 프로그램에 들어있는 식별가능한, 복제가능한 요소들을 활용하자
    Build on our successes. The literature describes successful programs, with recognizable, replicable elements. It is now important to tease apart the elements that work.
  • 이론과 교육 원칙을 설계와 개발에 더 잘 활용하자. 더 나아가 이론을 실천에 연결시켜야 한다. 교수들의 실제 교육행위를 더 잘 이해하고, 실제로 맞닥뜨리는 문제를 이해하여 이 정보를 이론에 관련지어 더 향상된 인터벤션을 개발과 효과성 평가로 이끌어야 한다.
    Make more deliberate use of theory (particularly theories of learning) and educational principles in the design and development of our faculty development programs. Further, we need to link theory with practice, in an iterative cycle of asking questions in practice, studying these questions and testing our answers. We also need to better understand teachers’ educational practices and the real problems that teachers encounter so that we can use this knowledge to inform theory, which can help us in developing improved interventions and evaluating effectiveness.
  • 맥락의 중요성을 인정하자. 조직문화, 교육과정, 교사와 학생이 모두 '맥락'에 기여한다.
    Acknowledge the importance of context. The organizational culture, the curriculum, teachers and students all contribute to a context that is critical to the effectiveness of educational change.
  • 장기간에 걸쳐 진행되는 프로그램을 개발하자. 학습, 실천, 성장을 축적하자
    Develop more programs that extend over time, to allow for cumulative learning, practice and growth.
  • 학습자 간 성찰과 배움을 촉진하는 프로그램을 개발하자. 그들이 스스로를 교사로 인식하게 하자. 이것이 교수자-지도 인터벤션이 아니라 지속적인 자기주도발전의 토대가 될 것이다.
    Develop programs that stimulate reflection and learning among participants, raising their awareness of themselves as teachers. This would form the basis for ongoing self-directed development rather than the need to primarily have ‘teacher-directed’ interventions.
  • 자발적 참여의 문제를 다시 생각하자. 많은 경우 효과적인 교육을 위해 필요한 전제조건은 참여가 없으면 달성되지 않는다. 더 나아가 FD의 자발성이란 특징을 생각할 때 조직문화와 그 조직이 교수-학습에 있어 어디에 가치를 두는지를 고려해야 한다.
    Re-examine the question of voluntary participation. In many contexts, the requirement to prepare for teaching effectiveness may not be met unless participation is expected and required. Moreover, the voluntary nature of faculty development raises questions about the institutional culture and the values (both explicit and implicit) that it places on teaching and learning. 


연구에 대한 함의

Implications for future research:

We need to:

  • 더 철저한 연구를 수행하자. 통제그룹과 비교집단, 질적연구를 활용하자. 성과를 더 잘 정의하고, 프로그램의 시작시부터 평가를 계획하고 연구를 함께 하는 동료들과 협력하라
    Conduct more rigorous research studies, using control or comparison groups and qualitative methodologies. This requires careful definitions of outcomes, planning for evaluation at the inception of any program, and closer collaboration with research colleagues. We must also find a way to corroborate anecdotal observations and capture faculty members’ stories.
  • 결과 중심의 연구가 아닌 과정 중심의 연구를 하자. 즉, 어떻게 변화가 일어나는 것인지 더 잘 이해할 필요가 있다. (어떻게 교수의 신념이 변하는가, 인터벤션이 교수의 성찰기술을 향상시켰는가) 질적연구방법이 더 적합할 것이다.
    Carry out process-oriented studies in addition to outcomeoriented ones. That is, we need to better understand how change occurs, both as a result of the intervention and within the individual (e.g. how did teachers’ beliefs change; did the intervention result in improving teachers’ reflective skills). In fact, qualitative methods may be more appropriate here.
  • 수행능력-기반 변화를 측정하고 이를 위한 척도를 개발하자.
    Continue to develop and utilize performance-based measures of change. The use of these methods, which do exist, is an essential and natural next step. 
  • 데이터 수집에 다양한 방법을 사용하자
    Use multiple methods and data sources to allow for 
    triangulation of data.
  • 평가도구의 타당도와 신뢰도를 평가하자. 적절한 도구가 있다면 새로운 도구 개발에 앞어서 먼저 고려되어야 한다. 표준화된/비교가능한 도구를 사용하자.
    Assess and report the validity and reliability of instruments used. Further, where appropriate instruments exist, these should be considered in preference to developing new instruments. Using standardized or comparable measures across studies will help to understand the field and improve the quality of research in this area.
  • 다양한 변수가 예측불가능하게 돌아가는 복잡한 환경에서 이뤄지는 인터벤션에 대한 연구를 장려하자. 여러 요인 간 상호작용이 있는 연구를 더 해야 한다.
    Promote studies in which an intervention is recognized as occurring in a complex environment in which many unforeseen and unpredictable variables play a role. We need to conduct more studies in which the interaction between different factors is investigated, highlighting under what conditions and why an intervention might be successful or not.
  • 서로 다른 FD 방법 간 비교하자
    Compare different faculty development methods to enable an analysis of which features of faculty development contribute to changes in teacher performance.
  • 시간에 따른 변화를 평가하자.
    Assess change over time. This is important both in determining any enduring effects, and in understanding which interventions or factors may be associated with more sustained change. Longitudinal follow-ups may also help us to understand the development of faculty members throughout their careers.
  • 기관이나 조직에 대한 FD의 효과를 더 철저하게 평가할 수 있는 수단 개발
    Develop means of assessing the impact of faculty development on the institution/organization in a more rigorous and systematic fashion.
  • 이론/개념틀 안에서 연구 진행. 결과 해석에 이론 활용
    Embed our research studies in a theoretical or conceptual framework, and utilize theory in the interpretation of our results.
  • 의학 외 분야와 협력
    Collaborate with colleagues within and outside medicine.



HITCHCOCK, M.A., STRITTER, F.T. & BLAND, C.J. (1992) Faculty development in the health professions: conclusions and recommenda-tions, Medical Teacher, 14(4), pp. 295–309. 




 


 







 2006 Sep;28(6):497-526.

systematic review of faculty development initiatives designed to improve teaching effectiveness in medicaleducationBEME Guide No. 8.

Author information

  • 1Faculty of Medicine, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada. yvonne.steinert@mcgill.ca

Abstract

BACKGROUND:

Preparing healthcare professionals for teaching is regarded as essential to enhancing teaching effectiveness. Although many reports describe various faculty development interventions, there is a paucity of research demonstrating their effectiveness.

OBJECTIVE:

To synthesize the existing evidence that addresses the question: "What are the effects of faculty development interventions on the knowledge, attitudes and skills of teachers in medical education, and on the institutions in which they work?"

METHODS:

The search, covering the period 1980-2002, included three databases (Medline, ERIC and EMBASE) and used the keywords: staffdevelopment; in-service training; medical facultyfaculty training/development; continuing medical education. Manual searches were also conducted. Articles with a focus on faculty development to improve teaching effectiveness, targeting basic and clinical scientists, were reviewed. All study designs that included outcome data beyond participant satisfaction were accepted. From an initial 2777 abstracts, 53 papers met the review criteria. Data were extracted by six coders, using the standardized BEME coding sheet, adapted for our use. Two reviewers coded each study and coding differences were resolved through discussion. Data were synthesized using Kirkpatrick's four levels of educational outcomes. Findings were grouped by type of intervention and described according to levels of outcome. In addition, 8 high-quality studies were analysed in a 'focused picture'.

RESULTS:

The majority of the interventions targeted practicing clinicians. All of the reports focused on teaching improvement and the interventions included workshops, seminar series, short courses, longitudinal programs and 'other interventions'. The study designs included 6 randomized controlled trials and 47 quasi-experimental studies, of which 31 used a pre-test-post-test design.

KEY POINTS:

Despite methodological limitations, the faculty development literature tends to support the following outcomes: Overall satisfaction with faculty development programs was high. Participants consistently found programs acceptable, useful and relevant to their objectives. Participants reported positive changes in attitudes toward faculty development and teaching. Participants reported increased knowledge of educational principles and gains in teaching skills. Where formal tests of knowledge were used, significant gains were shown. Changes in teachingbehavior were consistently reported by participants and were also detected by students. Changes in organizational practice and student learning were not frequently investigated. However, reported changes included greater educational involvement and establishment of collegiate networks. Key features of effective faculty development contributing to effectiveness included the use of experiential learning, provision of feedback, effective peer and colleague relationships, well-designed interventions following principles of teaching and learning, and the use of a diversity of educational methods within single interventions. Methodological issues: More rigorous designs and a greater use of qualitative and mixed methods are needed to capture the complexity of the interventions. Newer methods of performance-based assessment, utilizing diverse data sources, should be explored, and reliable and valid outcome measures should be developed. The maintenance of change over time should also be considered, as should process-oriented studies comparing different faculty development strategies.

CONCLUSIONS:

Faculty development activities appear highly valued by participants, who also report changes in learning and behavior. Notwithstanding the methodological limitations in the literature, certain program characteristics appear to be consistently associated witheffectiveness. Further research to explore these associations and document outcomes, at the individual and organizational level, is required.

PMID:
 
17074699
 
[PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]



평가에 관한 교수개발: 역량중심교육과정의 잃어버린 고리(Acad Med, 2011)

Faculty Development in Assessment: The Missing Link in Competency-Based Medical Education

Eric S. Holmboe, MD, Denham S. Ward, MD, PhD, Richard K. Reznick, MD, Peter J. Katsufrakis, MD, MBA, Karen M. Leslie, MD, Vimla L. Patel, PhD, Donna D. Ray, MD, and Elizabeth A. Nelson, MD





가장 처음 도입된 역량바탕 프레임워크는 CanMEDS로 1990년대 중반 도입되었다. 이후 ACGME는 레지던트와 펠로우에 대한 일반역량을 개발 및 도입하였다.

One of the first competency-based frameworks to be introduced was CanMEDS in the mid-1990s.14 The Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education followed with the development and introduction of the general competencies framework for residency and fellowship in 2001.15



CBME는 복잡한 상황과 맥락에 따른 성과에 좌우되기 때문에 피교육자가 다음 단계로 진행하기에 정말 준비가 되었는가를 평가하기 위한 강건한 평가법과 평가절차가 반드시 필요하다. 그 결과, CBME의 도입시기부터 의학교육자들은 평가도구의 성배를 찾아다녔다.

CBME, because it is driven by complex situational and context-dependent outcomes, requires robust assessment and evaluation processes to determine whether a trainee is truly prepared to enter the next stage of his or her career. As a result, since the inception of CBME, medical educators have been seeking the holy grail of evaluation tools.



그러나 다양한 평가법과 도구들도 비판적으로 학생을 관찰하고, 질문하고, 그들의 수행능력을 실제 환자가 있는 현장에서 판단하는 교수를 대체하지는 못했다. 시험이나 표준화환자로 측정된 피교육자의 능력 또는 역량이 실제 근무지 기반 수행능력으로 '전이'됨을 확인하는 것은 반드시 교수의 책임이 된다. 왜냐하면 발달의 궤적에 있어서 CBME는 더 빈번한, 더 적시의, 건설적이고 실제 상황에서의 평가에 의존해야 하며 '대리지표'로서의 총괄평가에 의존해서는 안되기 때문이다.

However, these methods and tools cannot replace the importance of faculty who are enabled to critically observe, question, and judge trainee performance in actual patient care situations.24 Ensuring that a trainee’s capability or competence, as measured by exams and standardized patients, translates, or “transfers,” into actual work-based performance with patients and families is an essential faculty responsibility.25 Because of its emphasis on developmental trajectories, CBME requires more frequent, timely, formative, and authentic assessment and less dependence on “proxy,” summative assessments.10



전문성의 개발, 그리고 고립된 자기평가의 오류에 대한 근거들은 이러한 관점을 지지한다. 예컨대 SP만을 이용하여 피교육자를 평가하는 것은 비용이 비쌀 뿐만 아니라, 더 중요하게는 정기적으로 지속적 피드백을 주지 못한다.

This perspective is supported by evidence from work in the development of expertise and the perils of isolated selfassessment. For example, exclusively using standardized patients to judge whether a trainee was acquiring competence in clinical skills would not only be expensive but, more important, would not provide the learner with regular and ongoing feedback



또한 많은 문헌이 대부분의 의사들이 자신의 강점과 약점을 외부 자료나 피드백 없이는 발견하지 못한다는 것을 보여준다.

Furthermore, a substantial body of literature clearly demonstrates that most physicians cannot determine their own strengths and weaknesses without external data and feedback.28 ***




평가자로서의 교수: 도전과 기회

Faculty as Evaluators: Challenges and Opportunities


분절된 학습환경

The fractured learning environment

현재 의과대학 교수는 주로 임상현장에서 피교육자와 근무하게 되고, 이 말은 외래, 클리닉, 병동, 수술장, ICU 등의 microsystem을 의미한다. 이런 임상현장은 근무지기반 훈련과 평가가 이루어지는 맥락이라 할 수 있다.

At present, medical faculty work with trainees primarily in clinical units, referred to by some as microsystems, such as an ambulatory clinic or officebased setting, a hospital ward, a surgical suite, an intensive care unit, or other such sites.29 These clinical units are the context for work-based training and assessment.


피교육자가 열악한 임상 microsystem에서 교육을 받는다면 임상현장에서의 역량, 질적 향상, 시스템 기반 진료를 충분히 배우고 있는지를 알기가 어렵다.

It is hard to conceive that trainees can effectively acquire competency in clinical care, quality improvement, or systems-based practice if they practice in poorly functioning clinical microsystems.



입원환자에 대해 보면, 너무 많은 교수들이 그들의 교육하고 평가하는 장소에 아주 잠시만 머무를 뿐이다. 예를 들면 내과나 소아과 교수는 입원 환자 회진을 2주~4주 정도만 돌게 된다. 이러한 로테이션 구조는 전문과 수련 문화에 너무 깊이 뿌리내리고 있지만, 이러한 microsystem에서의 로테이션이 학습자의 역량에 대한 평가에 대한 교수의 능력에 어떤 영향을 주는지 잘 알지 못한다.

In the inpatient setting, too many faculty are transients in the very clinical units where they teach and assess. For example, faculty in internal medicine and pediatrics often rotate on inpatient clinical services for just two to four weeks. This rotational structure is deeply ingrained within these specialty training cultures, yet we know little about how rotating through these microsystems affects the faculty’s ability to accurately assess competence of their learners.32



현재 의학교육 시스템에서 환자 경험과 시간의 불연속성은 지속적 평가와 피드백을 어렵게 한다. Hirsh 등은 이러한 '연속성'을 의학교육의 "조직 원리"로 강조해야 한다고 주장한다.

This lack of continuity in both patient experience and time with faculty for trainees in the current medical education system makes longitudinal assessment and feedback very difficult. Hirsh and colleagues34 argued for the importance of continuity as an “organizing principle” for medical education



분절된 학습환경과 연속성의 부족은 교수들로 하여금 자신들이 받은 느낌을 동료교수들에게 전달하는 "feed forward"를 주저하게 만든다. 그들은 이러한 feed forward가 교수들에게 편견을 심어줄까 걱정한다. 그러나 그 결과는 정보의 공유를 통한 피교육자의 발달 및 의미있는 전략 수립이 아니라 '매 번 새로 시작하는' 평가일 뿐이다.

Compounding the fractured learning environment and lack of continuity is the substantial reluctance on the part of faculty to “feed forward” information to their colleagues about trainees over fear of “biasing” the receiving faculty.36,37 However, the end result is a perpetual cycle of “starting over” with assessment instead of using the shared information for the trainee’s development and creation of meaningful action plans.



교수들은 시스템의 과학을 이해해야 하며, 어떻게 학제간 팀에서 효과적으로 일하는가를 알아야 하며, 자율성에 대해서 전통적 과점이 아니라 보다 '관계중심적'관점으로 초점을 옮겨야 한다. '관계적 자율성'에서는 인간은 서로 연결되어있으며 상호의존적이고, 자율성이라는 것은 사회적으로 구성되며 다른 사람에 의해서 주어지는 것임을 의미한다.

To do this, faculty must understand the science of systems and how to work effectively in interdisciplinary teams, and they must move away from traditional views to a more relational view of autonomy. Relational autonomy recognizes that human agents are interconnected and interdependent, meaning that autonomy is socially constructed and must be granted by others.42,43



미래의 교수개발은 어떻게 시스템 요인이 교육과 진료의 질에 영향을 주며, 시스템 기반 진료환경에서 교수들이 피교육자 역량 평가을 위해 어떤 준비가 되어야하는가를 다뤄야 한다.

Future faculty development will need to incorporate training about how system factors affect the quality of both teaching and patient care, and also how faculty must be prepared to assess their trainees’ competencies in systems-based practice



몇 가지 이유로 외래환경이 입원환자보다 지속적 평가와 피드백에 더 적합하다.

For several reasons, the outpatient setting holds potentially more promise than inpatient settings for longitudinal assessment and feedback for most specialties.44 

First, many trainees in specialties such as internal medicine, family medicine, and pediatrics work with a stable group of faculty preceptors who can observe these trainees over time.24 

Second, because trainees often have their own panel of patients, assessment methods such as a medical record audit can be combined with reflection guided by faculty.45 

Finally, as so much of medicine has moved into the outpatient setting, it follows logically that more training and assessment should occur here as well.





전통적 평가 역할 

Traditional assessment roles

예측가능한 미래에 두 가지의 역할이 계속 중요할 것이다. (1)지식과 임상추론의 프로빙을 위한 질문, (2)면담, 신체진찰, 상담, 기타 의사소통 기술에 판단을 위한 직접 관찰

For the foreseeable future, two traditional faculty roles in assessment will continue to be essential: (1) questioning to probe knowledge and clinical reasoning and (2) direct observation to judge the clinical skills of medical interviewing, physical examinations, counseling, and other communication skills as well as procedural skills.



교수들은 추론 과정을 강조하는 질문 기술을 개발해야 한다.

Faculty need to develop the skills to ask questions that emphasize the reasoning process and incorporate key findings and lessons from a growing body of evidence from research on cognition.46,47 Practical approaches exist to help faculty acquire these skills.46,48 These questioning skills apply equally well to the evaluation of procedural skills. ***



비록 교수들이 피교육자의 수행능력을 비판적으로 정확하게 관찰할 수 있어야 하지만, 일부 연구결과는 교수들이 피교육자의 부족한 점을 정확히 찾아내지 못한다는 것을 보여준다.

Although faculty need to be critical and accurate observers of trainee performance, limited published research demonstrates that faculty frequently fail to identify deficiencies in trainees’ clinical skills.24,49–51



확실하게 하기 위해서 교수들은 기본적 psychometric과 quality properties에 대한 평가가 이루어진 도구를 활용해야 하며, 최근의 연구는 최소한의 질적 기준을 만족하는 관찰도구들을 정리했다. 그러나 평가서식을 재설계하는 것이 전체 평가의 10%만을 설명한다는 점에서 의학교육자들은 교수들을 더 효과적인 관찰과 평가로 눈을 돌려야 한다.

To be sure, faculty should only use tools that have been evaluated for basic psychometric and quality properties, and a recent systematic review identified a small group of observation tools that meet minimal quality criteria for use.55 However, given that the redesign of evaluation forms only explains up to 10% of the variance in ratings,56 medical educators must now shift their attention to developing more effective methods to train faculty in observation and assessment.



추가적으로 교수들을 숫자에만 기반한 스케일 평가에만 유지하지 않도록 해야 한다. CBME는 질적 평가에 상당히 의존하게 될 것이다.

In addition, we must help faculty and programs move away from rating scales based on just numbers, as CBME will require a greater reliance on descriptive or “qualitative” assessment.57



교수들은 숫자로 하는 평가는 피교육자에 대한 판단을 종합하여 대표할 수 있게 나타내는 것에 그치지 않는 다는 것을 인식해야 한다. 궁극적으로 평가도구는 그 도구를 사용하는 사람의 수준 만큼만 좋은 것이다.

Faculty need to recognize that numeric ratings are nothing more than a process to synthesize and then represent a composite judgment about a trainee. Ultimately, evaluation tools are only as good as the individuals using them;



Albanese 등은 교육 커뮤니티와 기관이 어떻게 교수개발을 구성해야 하는가에 대한 유용한 프레임워크를 제시한다.

Along those lines, recent work by Albanese and colleagues60 provides a useful framework about how the educational community and institutions might structure faculty development activities using an integrated systems model (ISM).


• Changes in assessment and supervision that are also mission critical for the institution and help to build system

“reserve” will be more likely implemented.

• The further a faculty member moves along the stages of change, the higher the likelihood of adoption that can also produce individuals more likely to become champions for the change. 

• Enlisting the assistance of respected educational faculty to help implement the change helps to promote broader

and more rapid uptake by other faculty.

• Helping faculty mentally picture how the change in the educational program will affect and improve their own educational practices will also assist in the adoption of new knowledge and skills.



Assessment by faculty must be grounded in the principles of CBME


CBME에서는 준거와 발달을 기반으로 한 평가가 필요하다. 발달적 용어로 준거를 정의해야 하는데 이는 흔히 milestone이나 benchmark라고 명명되고, 교수나 프로그램 관리자들로 하여금 피교육자들이 적절한 '궤적'상에 있는가를 판단할 수 있게 한다.

CBME requires assessment be criterion based and developmental. Defining the criteria in developmental terms, commonly called milestones or benchmarks, allows faculty and program directors to determine whether the trainee is on an appropriate “trajectory.”62



Milestone은 교육과정과 평가의 청사진이 될 수 있다.

Milestones, in effect, can become the blueprint for curriculum and assessment.62



다양한 연구로부터 평가의 가장 큰 문제 중 하나는 교수들이 적절한 수행능력이 어느 정도인지에 대한 동의가 부족하다는 것이다. 이와 같은 교수진 내에서의 합의의 부족은 신뢰도와 타당도의 가장 큰 적이다. 또한 피교육자들에게 교수로부터 받는 이질적인 평가와 피드백에 대한 부당한 짐을 지우게 된다.

Multiple studies highlight that one of our biggest and most refractory problems in assessment is the lack of agreement among faculty about what constitutes satisfactory performance across competencies regardless of the competency framework.20,54 This lack of agreement among faculty is a major threat to the reliability and validity of decisions about trainee competence.54,56 In addition, it places an unfair burden on trainees to make sense of the disparate ratings and feedback they receive from faculty.



궁극적으로 교수들은 피교육자를 다른 교수에게 넘길 때 의미있는 수행능력 자료를 제공하는 것에 대한 두려움을 벗어나야 한다. 이는 특히 현재 우리의 로테이션 모델에서 중요하다. forward feeding 없이는 피교육자들은 피상적, 비구체적 평가와 피드백에 머물고 말 것이다.

Ultimately, faculty must become less fearful of providing meaningful performance data—including strengths and developmental needs— about the trainee during educational handoffs.36,37 This is especially important in our current rotational model of training—without “forward feeding” of information, trainees may end up in a perpetual cycle of superficial, nonspecific assessment and feedback..




Assessment requires competent faculty 

교수의 임상역량은 효과적 평가를 위해서 중요한 요소이지만, 아직까지 이 부분은 충분한 관심을 받지 못하고 있다. 여러 프로그램들은 교수들이 - 비록 아주 높은 수준은 아니더라도 - 교육과 평가에 충분한 지식/술기/태도 역량을 갖추었음을 전제로 하고 있다. 그러나 우리는 여러 학생들과 전공의가 임상 술기에 상당히 부족한 부분이 있음을 알고 있고, 따라서 나중에 이들이 교수가 되었을 때 중요한 부분이 부족할 수 있다는 것이 그다지 놀라운 사실만은 아니다. 여러 문헌들이 이를 뒷받침하는데, 심장 청진기술에 대한 연구에서 교수들은 3학년 학생들보다 딱히 더 나은 기술을 가지고 있지 않았다. 다른 연구에서는 가정의학의사, 인턴, 외과의사들이 informed decision making skill이 부족함을 보여줬다.

Clinical competence of faculty is a crucial component of effective assessment, yet this issue has received little attention to date. Programs operate on the assumption that faculty possess sufficient, if not high, levels of knowledge, skills, and attitudes in the competencies they are responsible for teaching and assessing. We have known for some time that numbers of students and residents graduate with significant deficiencies in clinical skills,24 so it might not be surprising that those who later become faculty may possess important deficiencies in clinical skills. A growing body of literature supports this concern. For example, a study of cardiac auscultation skills found that faculty were no more skilled than thirdyear medical students.68*** Another study highlighted substantial deficiencies in informed decision-making skills among family medicine physicians, internists, and surgeons,69***



이러한 결과가 시사하는 바는 CBME를 위한 교수개발은 평가능력에 대해서 임상술기 수련만 필요한 것은 아니라는 점이다. 새로운 21세기에 필요한 역량 개발이 필요하다. 대부분의 교수들은 이러한 역량에 대한 어떠한 공식적 교육도 받은 적이 없다. 그 결과 피교육자가 그러한 역량을 학습할 때 교수도 같이 학습하게 되며, collaborative model이 더욱 필요한 것이다.

The implication of these findings is that CBME-focused faculty development will need to incorporate clinical skills training with training in assessment. In addition to improving the clinical skills of faculty, faculty development will also need to incorporate training in the “new” competencies crucial to 21st century practice: evidence-based practice using point-of-care clinical decision support and information; health information technology; teamwork; care coordination; systems functionalities; advocacy; and contextaware professionalism, to name a few. The majority of faculty working today never received formal training in any of these competencies.29 In effect, there are a number of new competencies that faculty will need to learn as their trainees learn them, necessitating more collaborative models of faculty training.



한 명의 교수가 모든 부분에 전문가가 되어야 한다는 것도 안디ㅏ.

This is not to say that a single faculty member need be an expert in all competencies; rather, trainees should be taught and evaluated by those individuals that truly possess the highest level of knowledge and skill in the domain of interest, and those individuals may not be physicians.




Faculty as coach and mentor in assessment

대부분의 피교육자는 감독자 없이 진료를 하게 된다.

Ultimately, the majority of trainees will graduate from their programs and enter unsupervised practice.


포트폴리오는 스스로에 대한 평가를 할 수 있게 도와주는 강력한 도구이다.

Portfolios are a potentially powerful tool for engaging trainees in their own assessment.71



Next Steps: Preparing Faculty for the CBME Era

교수개발이 CBME의 속도결정단계라는 합의가 늘어나고 있다.

There is a growing consensus that the rate-limiting step in the evolution to CBME is faculty development.72


교수가 교육, 평가, 피드백을 포함하는 코치로서 전문가 역할을 할 수 있어야 한다.

The role of faculty as expert “coaches” must encompass teaching, assessment, and feedback.



아직 우리는 효과적인 교수개발 모델이 없다.

We have yet to develop the most effective faculty development models. The good news from a recent systematic review is that the faculty who participate in educational training activities report 

(1) high levels of satisfaction, 

(2) positive changes in their attitudes, 

(3) increased understanding of educational principles and teaching skills, 

(4) changes in behavior as noted by their students, and 

(5) greater involvement in teaching.75



교수개발에서 행동 변화까지.

However, few studies have investigated whether faculty training translates into actual behavior changes among trainees. In addition, most faculty development is designed as a one-time “bolus” activity and less often as a longitudinal designed program.














 2011 Apr;86(4):460-7. doi: 10.1097/ACM.0b013e31820cb2a7.

Faculty development in assessment: the missing link in competency-based medical education.

Author information

  • 1American Board of Internal Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19106, USA. eholmboe@abim.org

Abstract

As the medical education community celebrates the 100th anniversary of the seminal Flexner Report, medical education is once again experiencing significant pressure to transform. Multiple reports from many of medicine's specialties and external stakeholders highlight the inadequacies of current training models to prepare a physician workforce to meet the needs of an increasingly diverse and aging population. This transformation, driven bycompetency-based medical education (CBME) principles that emphasize the outcomes, will require more effective evaluation and feedback byfaculty.Substantial evidence suggests, however, that current faculty are insufficiently prepared for this task across both the traditional competencies of medical knowledge, clinical skills, and professionalism and the newer competencies of evidence-based practice, quality improvement, interdisciplinary teamwork, and systems. The implication of these observations is that the medical education enterprise urgently needs an international initiative of faculty development around CBME and assessment. In this article, the authors outline the current challenges and provide suggestions on where faculty development efforts should be focused and how such an initiative might be accomplished. The public, patients, and trainees need the medical education enterprise to improve training and outcomes now.

© by the Association of American Medical Colleges.

PMID:
 
21346509
 
[PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]


교수개발프로그램의 전이(transfer)를 높이기 위한 12가지 팁(Medical Teacher, 2014)

Twelve tips for increasing transfer of training from faculty development programs

STEPHEN L. YELON, J. KEVIN FORD & WILLIAM A. ANDERSON Michigan State University, USA






Introduction

임상적으로 교수가 될 준비가 잘 되었다고 해도, 교수로서 맡아야 할 새로운 학문적 역할에 모두 준비된 것은 아니다. 교수개발의 정의는 아래와 같다. 교수개발의 수단으로는 멘토링, 자기주도학습, 웹기반학습, 워크숍, 펠로우십 프로그램 등등이 있다.

Physicians who choose a career in academic medicine are generally well prepared clinically to serve as faculty; however, they may not be as well prepared to be successful in their new academic roles (Steinert et al. 2006). Medical schools have provided training in essential academic skills through faculty development programs. Steinert et al. (2006) define the term faculty development as the broad range of activities that institutions use to renew or assist faculty in their academic roles”. Medical schools have largely focused faculty development efforts on new faculty, addressing the knowledge, skills and attitudes necessary for instruction, scholarship, and administration (Bland et al. 1990). Faculty developers have taught these skills via mentoring, self-directed learning initiatives, web-based learning, workshops, and full or part-time fellowship programs (Steinert 2000).


미시간주립대학의 교수개발 프로그램 개요(1)

The Michigan State University’s (MSU) Primary Care Faculty Development Program is one example of a successful national on-campus/at-home, part time faculty development fellowship program that ran from 1978 to 2012. The overall goal of the program was to prepare new primary care physicians for full-time careers in academic medicine. The fellowship curriculum addressed the basic roles of instruction, research, and leadership and also included other domains such as the use of computer technology, and adjustment to working in the academic community. For each role, there were objectives for all participants to attain. For example, for instruction, fellows, as the program’s participants were known, were to plan and present a lesson, teach a psychomotor skill, give feedback, and carry out selected clinical teaching approaches.


미시간주립대학의 교수개발 프로그램 개요(2)

Six hundred and one academic physicians from medical schools and primary care residencies completed this fellowship. Fellows spent a total of four weeks at MSU learning and practicing teaching, research or leadership skills in workshops, seminars and small group activities. At their home institutions, fellows completed assignments and projects to practice new skills or to demonstrate their attainment of program objectives.


미시간주립대학의 교수개발 프로그램 개요(3)

The MSU faculty development fellowship program used both formative and summative evaluation strategies. Fellows consistently expressed high satisfaction with their learning. Generally, fellows stated they were able to master most, if not all, of the program learning objectives, and, subsequently, supervisors noted positive changes in fellows’ faculty behavior.


교육의 현장전이에 대한 효과를 평가하는 것이 어렵다. 현장전이(Transfer)의 정의와 영향을 미치는 세 가지 주요 요소(학습자 특성, 훈련설계방식, 근무환경)

One of the most challenging outcome evaluation questions for the MSU Faculty Development Fellowship Program was a question of transfer of training, that is, the degree to which fellowship program graduates used at their home institutions the methods of instruction they acquired. Transfer is defined as the extent to which trained knowledge and skills are applied to the work context. Systematic reviews of training transfer research have identified three major factors affecting the extent of transfer to the job: 

  • trainee characteristics (e.g. trainee motivation to learn), 
  • training design features (e.g. incorporation of learning principles), and 
  • work environmental factors (e.g. supervisory support for training) (Baldwin & Ford 1988; Blume et al. 2010; Grossman & Salas 2011).


MSU 교수개발 프로그램의 평가결과 요약. 신뢰할 수 있고, 실용적이고, 필요한 것을 적용한다. 조직이 필요로 하고, 배운 내용을 적용하는 것에 대한 보상이 있고 그것을 지원받을 수 있기에 적용한다.

MSU fellowship program faculty systematically investigated the transfer of instructional skills from the MSU program over the past 15 years (Yelon et al. 1997 2004, 2013; Sleight & Reznich 2006). In brief, the researchers uncovered a continuous, dynamic, transfer process whereby individual fellows perceived the utility of a method learned in the program, became ready to use it, applied it, and learned from its application. Fellows decided to use a method when they perceived its credibility, practicality and need. Immediately, and over years, in different ways and in varied contexts, fellows applied behavioral skills such as presenting a lecture, teaching a psychomotor skill, and giving feedback, as well as intellectual skills, such as planning, analyzing, and evaluating instruction. Fellows reported continuing to use what they learned because their well-designed plans were effective in addressing recognized institutional needs, and because they were supported and rewarded for application.


'전이'란 복잡하고 점진적으로 나타나는 단계로서, 훈련 이전, 훈련 중, 훈련 후에 걸쳐서 나타난다.

Researchers reviewing transfer, including the articles about MSU fellows, proposed that transfer is a set of complex, gradually emerging processes taking place before, during, and after training (Ford & Weissbein 1997; Yelon & Ford 1999). Accordingly, faculty developers must strive to incorporate strategies and principles that are effective in facilitating transfer prior to, during, and following a training experience.


본 article의 목적

(...)


MSU 펠로우십을 기반으로 진행된 연구, 기존 논문, 이론적 논문, 33년간의 운영경험에 기반한 팁임을 밝힌다.

The tips are based on the research conducted by MSU fellowship faculty about the ways medical fellows transferred instructional skills they learned to their work, reviews of empirical literature on transfer (Baldwin & Ford 1988; Baldwin et al. 2009; Grossman & Salas 2011), theoretical articles on transfer (Broad & Newstrom 1992; Yelon & Ford 1999; Yelon & Sheppard 1999; Broad 2005; Ford et al. 2011) and knowledge we gained from thirty three years of experience in directing, teaching and evaluating the MSU Primary Care Faculty Development Program.



무엇을 필요로 하는지 분석하라

Tip 1 Assess development needs

프로그램의 내용이 참가자들에게 관련된, 효용성있는 것일 때 현장전이가 촉진된다.

Researchers assert that participants’ perceived relevance and utility of an instructional program’s content has a strong influence in producing transfer (Grossman & Salas 2011). For example, MSU medical fellows said they transferred what they learned in the program because they believed they needed the skills taught to do their work well (Yelon et al. 2004, 2013). One fellow, who needed to improve his medical skills course reported that he knew immediately that he would apply one of the program’s instructional goals: able to systematically teach psychomotor skills. Another resolved to apply lesson-planning skills after practice when he realized he could do the same with his students.


프로그램 설계는 요구사정으로부터 시작한다.

Thus, begin designing a transfer-oriented faculty development program by conducting a needs assessment of faculty participants (Grant 2002). For example, program planners may investigate what potential participants do to meet clinical and academic expectations. Planners may search for the competencies that participants need to be successful in those academic roles, and, especially the competencies they lack. Fortunately, several researchers have provided, as a head start, lists of essential faculty competencies to consider (Bland et al. 1990; Harris et al. 2007; Srinivasan et al. 2011).


'요구되는 역량'이 프로그램의 목표가 된다.

Needed competencies become program goals: the statements that learners will use to judge personal relevance, and that program staff will interpret to design transfer-oriented, learning experiences. In addition, program planners can take into account the work conditions and constraints they find that are likely to affect participants’ attempts to transfer new skills after the program.


요구조사를 위해 활용할 수 있는 방법

Investigative strategies include direct observation, surveys, focus groups, and interviews. For example, one may ask participants on a survey to assess their current level of competence for each academic medical skill, as well as their interest and need to learn more. Supervisors may add their observations as well.



프로그램을 지원하면서 어떤 기대를 하고 왔는지 알아보기

Tip 2  Communicate the expectation of application

참가자들은 학습한 내용을 성공적으로 활용한 근거를 제시해야 한다.

To foster transfer, convey to participants that they are to apply at work what they learn from the program. Broadcast this message at every possible opportunity: improvement of academic medicine requires application of knowledge, skill and attitude; and application takes time, hard work, and a little help from friends. Specifically, state that session attendance or participation alone is not acceptable. Participants must provide evidence of the successful application of learning.


모든 세션을 시작할 때 실제 상황과 관련될 수 있는 학습목표를 언급하면서 시작하는 것이 좋다.

For instance, program staff may remind participants of the need to apply, by starting every session with specific objectives that are related to real world roles. They may communicate expectations of transfer in their exposition as: “Here’s something you can use when presenting at noon conferences as I did when…” Staff may continue by conducting simulation exercises of that performance. Further, to account for differences in participants’ duties and work environments, one may convey, by statement and example, permission to adapt methods to their specific circumstances.



적용시에 필요한 지원을 해줄 것을 약속하기

Tip 3 Secure support for application

Support의 의미

The term support, in the context of transfer, refers to the encouragement and the time and physical resources given to participants to motivate and enable them to apply what they learn. Researchers identify support as a crucial factor in promoting transfer, both in the short and the long run (Baldwin & Ford 1988; Broad & Newstrom 1992; Sleight & Reznich 2006; Grossman & Salas 2011; Yelon et al. 2004, 2013). Those participating in a faculty development program need the support of their colleagues and especially of their supervisors.


프로그램에 참가하는 사람들은 자신의 일상업무를 벗어나서 상당한 시간을 할애하게 되며, 동료로부터의 저항에 부딪칠 수도 있다. 따라서 프로그램을 시작하기 전에 참가자와 참가자의 상관, 프로그램 관리자로부터 공식적 동의(시간 허용, 새로운 접근법의 활용 등에 대한 동의)를 받아두는 것이 좋다.

Participants in lengthy programs must spend considerable time away from their everyday duties. Thus, participants may encounter resistance from colleagues, and they may become discouraged from spending time applying what they have learned. Therefore, before the onset of the program, gain formal agreement from supervisors and administrators for released time and for allowing attempts at perfecting new approaches, both during and after the program. Consider a phone or live conversation about needed support between a participant, a supervisor and a program staff member, followed by a signed document attesting to the aid promised. As to support from coworkers, teach participants how to gain and maintain help and encouragement from colleagues within and outside their own institutions. Monitor adherence to the agreement by inquiring and intervening if needed.



교수자가 현장전이에 대해서 가르칠 준비가 되어있어야 한다.

Tip 4 Prepare instructors to teach for transfer

전이에 영향을 주는 두 가지 주요한 요소를 고려해야 한다.

To prepare to teach for application, instructors in a faculty development program have to take into account two major factors influencing transfer, that is, participants’ personal characteristics and work environments (Baldwin & Ford 1988). Program instructors also must be able to design a program to create instruction that learners need, will be able to use and will accept – the third major factor influencing transfer.


청자가 무엇을 원하는지, 무슨 의무를 지고 있는지, 근무환경은 어떤지 알아야 한다.

First, instructors must know their audience’s needs, duties and work conditions. To gain that knowledge, instructors can study the results of their program’s needs assessment. To collect specific information relevant to their instruction, instructors may contribute questions to the assessment.


참가자가 그러한 조건에서 활용할 수 있는 방법이 무엇인지 알아야 한다.

Second, instructors must know methods that their participants could use, given their needs and work context. Hence, based on their research and experience, instructors have to know an assortment of practical, effective methods that can be broadly applied or specifically adapted.


참가자는 교수자가 신뢰할 만 하고, 그래서 교수자가 제시한 방법을 받아들일만 하다고 인식할 수 있어야 한다.

Third, participants have to perceive their program instructors as believable so as to accept the methods they propose. As a case in point, MSU fellows reported that they decided to apply ideas taught because they believed the program faculty when they said the methods would be effective (Yelon et al. 2004). To create believability, instructors could, for example, reveal their relevant professional experience and accomplishments when introducing themselves and using personal examples and cases. Further, to show their extensive knowledge of a topic, instructors could simplify what might otherwise be complex phenomena.



원칙과 방법을 모두 가르쳐야 한다.

Tip 5 Teach principles and methods

방법과 원칙의 차이

Methods are the ways of doing something, while principles explain how or why something works or happens. For example, at the start of a lesson, an instructor may use the motivational method of making a statement or presenting a case to show participants when they will use the lesson’s content and what they will accomplish. In contrast, the principle of meaningfulness explains why and how the motivational method works: to motivate students to learn, relate lesson content to the learners’ experiences, interests and aspirations (Yelon 1996).


원칙을 배움으로써, 방법이 작동할 것임을 확신할 수 있고, 방법의 절차를 익혀서 현장에서 적용할 준비를 할 수 있다.

Yelon et al. (1997) reported that before transfer, fellows in the MSU program engaged in two processes: (1) deciding to use a method and (2) preparing to use it. By learning principles of instruction, fellows were convinced that methods would work. By learning the methods’ steps, fellows were preparing to transfer.


원칙을 먼저 가르치고, 이를 바탕으로 논리적으로 방법을 선택할 수 있게 할 것을 권한다.

We recommend teaching principles first so participants will make logical choices of methods. 

  • Accordingly, program planners select and define principles that explain how or why the methods to be taught should work. 
  • Program instructors explain how using those principles will be of benefit: to justify a method, adapt the approach, trouble-shoot unsuccessful attempts, and create new techniques. Instructors illustrate each principle using cases set in familiar work contexts, and in each case, clearly accentuate the cause, relationship, and effect. After an explanation of each principle, instructors demonstrate an application and ask participants to explain how the principles were operating.
  • Then, instructors teach methods that fulfill needed competencies, such as how to create a motivational attention-getter according to the meaningfulness principle. After justifying each method’s relevance and utility, instructors describe and demonstrate its steps, and provide practice and feedback.



적용에 대한 동기를 부여하기

Tip 6 Motivate to apply

실용적이고, 효과적이고, 필요성을 느껴야 한다.

Yelon et al. (2004) reported that fellows in the MSU program decided to apply what they learned about teaching when they perceived the content as practical, effective, and needed. Accordingly, learners will decide to use an approach when they believe: “I can employ this method”, “I believe this method will work” and “I must use this method to get what I need” (Yelon et al. 2004, 2013). For example, learners might decide immediately to use the One Minute Preceptor approach if they see it as easy to use, likely to work, and as likely to fulfill an important clinical teaching need.


가르칠 때 근거중심의, 충분한 이유가 있는 기법을 가르쳐야 하고, 적용 사례를 제시해야 한다.

To produce perceptions of credibility, practicality and need, program faculty must describe evidence-based and meaningful reasons for use of methods taught and must provide examples of application. Faculty must demonstrate methods fluently and clearly, present convincing research evidence of efficacy and efficiency, and provide realistic, challenging, active practice leading to success. For example, one technique to promote application is to show where, when, and how learners are likely to make use of the methods to be learned. Another is to show what the rewards will be for proper use and what the unfortunate consequences will be for non-use or improper use.



배운 내용을 상기시키고 적용할 때 필요한 도구를 제공하기

Tip 7 Provide tools to aid recall and application

실제로 적용할 때 까지는 오랜 시간이 걸릴 수도 있다.

Yelon et al. (1997, 2004, 2013) found that participants in the MSU program applied new ideas immediately, and weeks, months, and even years later. Fellows spoke of using instructional aids that converted to job aids, to provide reminders and offer specific guidance to apply. Fellows used program session notes, slides, checklists, decision aids, charts, lists of principles or skill steps, diagrams of processes, annotated models, and mnemonics.


For example, consider how the following combination of a novel name, a clear definition, a diagram, a poem, an outline of a plan, all on a card, served to help fellows remember and apply what they learned. In teaching goal-oriented instructional design, an instructor whispered that he was about to reveal the secret of instruction design. Projecting a definition and diagram, he gradually revealed each element of a consistent instructional system. He illustrated each part, demonstrated application, and then asked learners to apply it. He included the diagram and an outline of an instructional plan on a wallet-sized card. Later he added this poem:


  • Real-world performance is the goal.
  • The objective describes the test.
  • If all the parts are consistent,
  • your instruction will be the best.


참가자들이 직접 교육 설계를 하게될 때, 교육전략과 도구를 적절히 혼합해서 사용함으로써 원칙이 무엇인지 기억할 수 있고, 아이디어를 재구성할 수 있으며, 카드를 활용하여 계획을 짤 때 필요한 단서를 연결시킬 수 있다.

When fellows needed to design instruction, the combination of instructional strategies and transfer tools helped them remember the name of the principle, reconstruct the idea itself, associate certain cues that led them to the card, which they used to plan. For example, working at home, one fellow was planning to teach other physicians how to be successful on foreign medical missions. As she was thinking about what she wanted to teach, she remembered, “Real world performance is the goal!” Then she remembered the card, retrieved it from her home office, and applied the secret of instructional design to guide her creation of a coherent and effective session.



어떻게 적용할 수 있는가를 직접 보여주기

Tip 8  Demonstrate application

Yelon et al. (2004, 2013) found that MSU fellows made up their minds to apply methods when observing demonstrations and subsequently applied the methods that faculty showed them. Those results correspond to research showing that behavior modeling is a potent factor in producing transfer (Grossman & Salas 2011). To practice efficiently and to be able to apply at work, participants must see demonstrations of desired methods.


단순히 어떻게 하는지 보여주는 의미 뿐 아니라 다른 사람이 하는 것을 관찰함으로써 학습자들은 좀 더 집중할 수 있고, 다른 사람의 시연에서 가장 중요한 지점이 어디인지 집중할 수 있고, 행동을 따르기 위한 정신틀(mental template)를 형성할 수 있다.

However, an effective demonstration is more than merely showing participants how to perform. According to Bandura (1977), to learn and transfer through observing others, learners have to be motivated to pay attention, have to be focused on the most critical aspects of the behavior shown, and have to form a mental template to guide action. 

  • "곧 활용하게 될 것입니다"라고 언급함으로써 동기부여 Thus, in demonstrations, motivate learners by stating that they will practice the procedures shortly, and will also use the procedures at work. 
  • 보여주기 전에 어디에 집중해야 하는지 전체 단계의 절차를 알려줌 Next, focus attention on listed steps by telling learners what to look at and look for before the demonstration. 
  • 시연하는 동안 참가자의 관심을 중요한 부분으로 집중시킴 Then, as demonstrating, direct viewers’ attention to the method’s important features. 
  • 직접 해보도록 하기 전에 학생들로하여금 기억해야 할 단계를 수행해보도록 함 Finally, before providing practice, ask students to commit the steps to memory (Yelon & Maddocks 1987).



실습 기회 제공하기

Tip 9 Provide authentic practice

학습자들이 '이걸 사용할 수 있겠어' 라고 말할 수 있어야 한다. 

In studying the dynamics of transfer from a faculty development program, Yelon et al. (2004) reported that, to transfer, graduates need to be able to say, “I know I can use this notion”. The researchers noted, “Fellows gained their knowledge from workshop explanations and demonstrations, but were most affected by practice” (Yelon et al. 1997).


전체 시간 중 1/4~3/4 정도는 실제 연습에 할애해야 한다.

Thus, it is imperative to arrange time for practice opportunities. As a rule-of-thumb, practice should account for a quarter to as much as three quarters of instructional time, allotting more time as learning progresses.


한 가지 기본 원칙은 - 전이를 향상시키기 위해서는 - 실제 근무현장과 유사한 맥락에서 연습해봐야 한다는 것이다. 각 연습은 약간 어렵지면 궁극적으로 달성할 수 있을 정도의 난이도여야 한다.

One basic principle of transfer is – to promote transfer, learners should practice performance in contexts similar to those at work (Thorndike 1913; Grossman & Salas 2011). Thus, practice should simulate conditions at work. Each practice should be a bit more challenging, yet achievable. To prepare learners for success, precede practice by careful explanation, a complete demonstration and precise instructions and criteria.



프로젝트를 할 것을 요구하기

Tip 10 Require a project

프로젝트의 정의

Researchers reported that after the MSU program, fellows continued to develop their fellowship projects at work, such as developing a course, conducting research, or designing college policies (Yelon et al. 2004, 2013; Sleight & Reznich 2006). A project, in the context of a faculty development program, is an assignment requiring participants to apply skills learned to meet an important need at their home institution. The project is one instance of long term, development work expected of an academic physician. For example, in the MSU fellowship, participants are required to choose a significant curricular, research, or management problem at their home institution, to investigate and to design a solution, and then to implement the solution, evaluate it and report what they find.


교수개발 프로그램의 전이를 위한 완벽한 처방이다.

A project is the perfect prescription for transfer from a faculty development program. In fact, as they progress in developing their projects, participants are transferring skills learned in the program. In addition, a project incorporates several main factors affecting transfer: participant’s needs and interests, institutional needs, and a requirement that participants perform under real world conditions (Baldwin & Ford 1988). Specifically, participants choose projects of personal interest in collaboration with their home supervisor and the faculty development program staff. Together they design a feasible and useful project for their institution and perhaps the field at large.


발달과업(developmental work)는 프로그램 기간 내내, 그리고 그 이후에도 이어진다. 

The developmental work takes place over the length of the program, and it is designed to continue beyond. Just as it would in participants’ careers, the work leads to a substantial professional product. For instance, some fellows in the MSU program produced a course manual including a justification of the need for a course documented with a literature review, followed by instructional plans, materials, a report of a pilot test, and plans for revision and continued development. In addition, fellows wrote a paper in publishable form, created and presented a poster, and summarized their work at a conference attended by work supervisors.


그러나 단순히 프로젝트 수행을 요구하는 것 만으로는 부족하다. 참가자들은 자기평가, 지속적이고 광범위한 가이드와 피드백이 필요하다. 이를 위해서는 3~5명의  참가자를 프로젝트 그룹으로 묶거나, 한두명의 프로그램 스테프가 멘토 역할을 해주는 방법도 있다.

But, merely requiring a project does not insure successful accomplishment. To complete a project successfully, participants need frequent opportunities for self-assessment, and continuous, extensive guidance and feedback from others at every step of the project. That form of systematic supervision is made possible by project groups consisting of three to five participants and one or two program staff, who act as mentors. The purpose of project groups is to continuously promote, monitor, and support successful project development.


MSU의 멘토들은 자주, 그렇지만 타당한 데드라인을 정해준다. 

MSU mentors set frequent, but reasonable, deadlines for reviewing work. They encouraged participants to help each other succeed in transfer. Both mentors and group members provided feedback to improve, encouraged participants to advance, pointed out roadblocks to transfer and provided strategies to overcome the obstacles in work conditions. Participants provided support and pressure as they affirmed proper application and pinpointed errors. When the group formed a consensus about a participants’ work, it had a profound effect on that participant’s plans.




피드백 사이클을 만들라

Tip 11 Establish the feedback cycle

Yelon et al. (1997, 2013) described a continuous cycle of learning from transfer. Through practice and subsequent feedback in the MSU program, participants became willing and competent enough to try new methods at work. At home, they observed and analyzed the consequences of their attempts, were encouraged to continue to use successful methods, to improve unsatisfactory performance, and to try again.


이 사이클을 만들기 위해서는 참가자들에게 어떻게 유용하면서, 서로를 존중하면서, 솔직하면서, 긍정적 피드백을 줄 수 있을지를 가르쳐야 한다. 또한 어떻게 피드백을 찾고, 모아서, 받아들이고, 활용할 수 있는지도 가르쳐야 한다.

To begin to establish the continuous cycle of learning from transfer, teach participants how to provide useful, respectful, frank, and positive feedback to their own medical students and to each other. Then, for each practice in the program, ask learners to assess their own work and to check peers’ work before program staff makes their analyses. Next, teach how to seek, gather, accept and use feedback to improve themselves at home, as they will and must do the rest of their careers.


시작단계에서는 루틴한 그룹 피드백을 진행하는 것이 좋다. 그 다음으로 유사한 코멘트를 동료와 교수들로부터 얻도록 한다. 마지막으로 무엇을 들었고, 어떻게 할 것인지 보고서를 제출하게 하라.

  • As a first step, establish a group feedback routine. Specifically, immediately after completing a task, ask the participant performers themselves to state what they did well and what they would change. 
  • Next call for similar comments from peers and faculty. If performers become defensive, remind them to listen and attend to what they should continue to do and what they need to do differently to meet the criteria. 
  • Finally, ask performers to report what they heard and what they would do the next practice round.


Subsequently, provide opportunities for participants to apply what they have learned about giving, listening to and accepting feedback. When practicing new skills or when presenting portions of their projects they need to listen to peers and staff in the program, colleagues and supervisors at home, and critics and experts outside their institution.




전이를 평가하라

Tip 12 Evaluate transfer

Over the years MSU fellows mentioned that they had used what they had learned. Faculty became curious about what, when, how, and why fellows had transferred what they learned. Consequently, MSU program faculty set out to evaluate transfer. Their purpose was to generate hypotheses about what had transferred and why, so as to improve the program and to inform colleagues about transfer. In the three studies mentioned (Yelon et al. 1997, 2004, 2013), Yelon et al. asked fellows to tell stories about their applications. From the stories faculty gained considerable food for thought about specific aspects of the program, and about transfer in general. One outcome was the tips you have been reading.


교수개발 프로그램을 개발하는 사람들이 전이를 촉진시키고 싶다면, 일부의 시간은 현장적용을 평가하기 위해 남겨두어야 한다. 온라인 설문이나, critical incident report를 제출하도록 할 수 있다. 

Thus, if faculty development program developers design a program oriented for transfer, they should consider allocating some time and effort to evaluate application. Evaluators can use qualitative research approaches calling for open-ended responses as recommended by Ford et al. (2011) to gain insight into the process of transfer. They can also use online questionnaires and surveys or critical incident reports using a social media site.





Conclusion

배운 내용을 적용하기 위해서는 (1)배운 내용을 수행할 능력이 있어야 하고 (2)시도해보고자 하는 의지가 있어야 하고 (3)자신의 시도가 지지받는다는 기분을 느낄 수 있어야 한다.

For faculty development participants to be likely to apply the methods they learn, they must: (1) be able to perform, (2) be willing to try and (3) feel supported (Mager & Pipe 1997). In our 12 tips, we account for each of these prerequisites to transfer. 


  • First, to create the ability to transfer, participants learn needed competencies, as knowledgeable faculty guide them via relevant content, aids, demonstration, practices and feedback. 
  • Second, to create willingness to apply, participants learn to adhere to a norm of applying the practical, needed approaches taught. As they achieve success and notice the effectiveness of their new skills, they want to try again. 
  • Third, to produce support for application at work, participants learn to arrange for the physical resources, time, and opportunities to transfer. 


추가적으로 참가자들이 자신들의 새로운 시도의 효과에 대해서 건설적 피드백을 찾고, 모으고, 활용함으로서 스스로를 도울 수 있다면 더 안전함을 느낄 것이다. 또한 이를 위해서 이 12개의 팁은 하나의 시스템으로 활용되어야 한다.

Further, when participants realize that they can take care of themselves by seeking, gathering and using constructive feedback about the effects of their attempts, they feel secure. Because all three outcomes are necessary to influence transfer, the tips are to be used as a system. Clearly, designing a faculty development program to produce able, willing and secure medical educators is a demanding task, but well worth the effort.





 2014 Nov;36(11):945-50. doi: 10.3109/0142159X.2014.929098. Epub 2014 Jul 2.

Twelve tips for increasing transfer of training from faculty development programs.

Author information

  • 1Michigan State University , USA.

Abstract

Physicians serving as faculty in medical schools are taught medical skill and knowledge, but are usually not taught how to be competent teachers, researchers and leaders. Medical schools can provide the appropriate training for academic faculty by providing faculty development. However, to accomplish the purpose of producing competent teachers, researchers and leaders, faculty development programs must be designed to foster transfer of training, the use on the job of what is learned in instruction. Based on experience and empirical research, we provide tips as to how to design and conduct faculty development programs that will enable and motivate medical school faculty to use the skills and knowledge they learn as academic physicians.

PMID:

 

24984563

 

[PubMed - in process]








Harvard Macy Institute Helps Physicians Become Better Educators and Change Agents

M. J. Friedrich





Boston—In spring as the weather warms up and the semester winds down on college campuses, students' thoughts often stray beyond the classroom. But for the physicians who returned in May to the Harvard Macy Institute's program for medical educators, getting back to course work was a number one priority.


미국과 그 외 국가에서 온 67명의 physician-scholar

Eager to pick up where they left off at the end of the January session, 67 physician-scholars from the United States and other countries returned to Cambridge to build on knowledge and skills imparted a few months earlier, refine specific educational projects they had been working on, and consolidate their connection with a community of people who share their commitment to medical education.


더 나은 선생님이 되고자 하는, 그리고 자신의 기관 발전을 효과적으로 이루고자 하는 사람들이 매력을 느낄 것임.

The program attracts medical educators who not only desire to become better teachers but who want to learn how to effectively bring about improvements in education at their institutions, said Elizabeth Armstrong, PhD, codirector of the program, director of education programs at Harvard Medical International (JAMA. 2001;286:659-661), and associate professor of pediatrics (medical education) at Harvard Medical School.


1994년 설립되었음 : Josiah Macy Jr Foundation, 하버드의과대학, 하버드 교육대학원, 하버드 Business School의 협동.

Established in 1994 through a grant from the Josiah Macy Jr Foundation, the Harvard Macy Institute is a collaborative effort of Harvard Medical School, Harvard Graduate School of Education, and Harvard Business School. The medical school works with the graduate school of education to develop the program for physician educators. It also collaborates with the business school to produce a second program—not highlighted in this article—for leaders in medical education, such as deans and chairs of curriculum committees, that focuses on institutional change.


프로그램의 목적 : 

(1)최고의 교육에 숨겨진 원칙을 가르침으로서 의학교육을 향상시키는 것, 프로젝트의 설계와 도입을 통한 변화를 이끄는 것.

(2) Organizational learning을 달성하는 것.

The main purpose of the physician educator program, said Armstrong, is to improve medical education by helping individuals learn about the principles that are embodied in the best educational practices and to bring about change in educational activities through special projects they design and implement. Another goal is to have those projects influence the institution to bring about "organizational learning."


"교수개발 프로그램이 개개인에게 새로운 지식/기술을 가르쳐 주지만, 그 개인이 일하는 조직의 변화를 가져오는데는 한계를 보이고 있다. 더 나은 교사, 더 나은 교육자가 되기 위해서는 어떻게 변화를 주도하고, 어떻게 그 변화를 측정하고, 어떻게 변화를 설계하는지 알아야 하며, 그 변화를 주도할 수 있어야 한다."

"Too often faculty development programs have been good at helping an individual learn a new skill, but they don't have a significant impact in actually changing the organization within which the person works," Armstrong said. "My feeling is that if you are going to become a better teacher and a better educator you need to think about how to lead that change, how to measure that change, how to create or design the change, and to have it driven by the core values we represent."




PROGRAM FEATURES


다섯 개의 주제

The classes and exercises offered in the physician educator program revolve around five main themes

      • teaching and learning, 
      • assessment, 
      • curriculum development, 
      • leadership, and 
      • information technology. 

상호작용을 강조한 수업

An interactive class in strategic performance, for example, combines theater skills with leadership development training to help scholars improve their ability to communicate, negotiate, and make presentations.


비디오테이프 녹화 등과 같은 다양한 simulated teaching situation이 제공되었음.

The program offers numerous simulated teaching situations that help scholars practice new strategies and methods of teaching. 

Participants are videotaped so that they can evaluate their teaching styles. One such exercise involving a patient simulator—a computer-driven mannequin that mimics physiological changes and can be programmed to replicate various clinical scenarios—provides physicians the opportunity to practice teaching with this new tool that is gaining popularity in many medical schools.


특징적 요소 : 하버드 교육대학원의 참여

A number of unique features set the Macy program apart from other continuing education programs for medical educators, said Robert Kegan, PhD, codirector of the physician educator program and professor of adult learning and professional development at Harvard Graduate School of Education.


Two-session structure의 특징 : 한 번 보고 끝나는 것이 아니다. 

One novel aspect is the program's two-session structure. Most education improvement efforts are one-time events that present a lot of stimulating information, said Kegan, "but then they say good-bye and never see you again." In contrast, the design of the Macy program offers participants the opportunity to acquire a basis in educational theory in January, which they can begin to apply to teaching and administrative work when they return to their home institutions.


5월에 있는 두 번째 미팅에서는 자신의 기관에서 추진하고 있는 프로젝트에 대한 논의를 함. 

During the second meeting in May, with sessions designed specifically to help participants consider ways in which they can effectively influence organizational change, the participating educator-scholars can reflect on the impact their new ideas in education have had on their institutions. They meet again with colleagues to discuss the approaches that worked and those that did not—to explore their experiences and revisit their assumptions. Many scholars have noted in evaluations that this is one of the most important program features.





PROJECT PROPOSALS


프로그램에 지원하기 위해서는 프로젝트 제안서를 제출해야 함. 또한 그 프로젝트는 지원자의 기관에서는 다음의 것들을 인정해줘야 하는데 (1)acceptable해야하며, (2)그 대학의 철학에 맞아야 하고, (3)지원자가 그것을 할 수 있는 위치에 있어야 함.

Another innovative feature is the project component, said Kegan. To apply to the program, scholars submit a proposal for a project that is designed to reform a component of medical education in their institution. For an application to be considered, the scholar's institution must acknowledge that this project is acceptable and fits into the school's philosophy and that the scholar is in a position to make the proposed change. The Macy program provides a laboratory of sorts in which the project can be developed, honed, and tested. Having come to the Macy program with support from their dean or a similar figure in their institution, physicians can return to implement this educational project.


여러 사람을 보낸 대학도 있다.

Armstrong said that some institutions that have sent a number of people to the Macy program, such as the Mayo Clinic in Rochester, Minn, help physicians who are interested in applying to the program define and shape projects that are consistent with changes the institution would like to carry out the following year.


프로젝트는 의학교육의 여러 분야를 포괄하고 있다.

    • Case Western Reserve School of Medicine에서 온 Terry Wolpaw의 프로젝트 소개 : 

Projects focus on a wide range of issues in medical education. Terry Wolpaw, MD, associate professor of medicine at Case Western Reserve School of Medicine, Cleveland, Ohio, who attended the program this year, developed a project that sought to change the way students and residents are taught in an office setting. Traditionally, once a patient has assented to being examined by a student or resident, the student examines the patient, takes a history, and then goes into the hall to report to the instructor. The instructor takes over at this point, interpreting the student's observations. Wolpaw's idea is to engage students more fully in the learning process so they do more than just report details. Instead, they become actively engaged in presenting their thoughts about the patient to the preceptor while the preceptor becomes a facilitator who guides the student's thinking.


    • 이러한 새로운 접근법을 교육하기 위해서 Wolpaw는 Macy group의 도움을 받아서 새로운 모델을 개발하였음.

To teach this new approach to students and faculty, Wolpaw developed a model, which her Macy group helped her refine, that allows learners and teachers to act out their roles in traditional and novel learning scenarios while being videotaped for later comparison.


하버드 의과대학의 Kitt Shaffer가 개발한 프로그램

  • A project developed by Kitt Shaffer, MD, PhD, associate professor of radiology at Harvard Medical School, focused on changes occurring in radiology—namely, the conversion from film-based to digital imaging with its attendant work flow and clinical implications. As a Macy scholar in 1999, Shaffer sought to find a means educators could use to revise teaching methods in radiology to reflect this shift. She developed surveys to gather information about "filmless" education methods in use around the country.
  • As a result of this work, Shaffer has incorporated digital teaching methods into her clerkship and has designed computerized digital examinations for her students. In addition, instructors at Harvard are now completely revising the teaching of radiology in classes on anatomy this year, converting to a "filmless" teaching program that uses images on the Web to replace prior tutorials using films.




커뮤니티 구축

BUILDING COMMUNITY


프로그램의 중요한 강조점 중 하나는 전 세계 의학교육자들의 커뮤니티를 만드는 것이다.

An important emphasis of the Macy program, Armstrong said, is building a community of medical educators around the world. Educators often feel lonely in their home institutions, she said. "The medical schools have been great at getting communities of researchers and communities of clinicians together, but where do physicians go when they want to talk about how to build a course in medical education?"


이를 위해서 여러 노력을 했음.

To address this need, Armstrong and other Macy faculty have worked to foster an ongoing community that provides advice, support, and encouragement to physician-educators who are committed to bringing about improvements. The idea is that once someone has taken this course—and there are now more than 700 alumni—they will have many ways to remain in contact with program colleagues, from on-line mechanisms and newsletters to a standing invitation to return to the Macy program as a leader of a small group to work with and mentor a new group of physician educators.


젖은 강아지 효과("wet dog" effect)를 노리는데, 이는 젖은 강아지처럼 신나서 온 열정을 다해 몸을 터는 것을 말한다. 자신의 기관에 있는 사람들에게 영향을 주는 것을 노리는 것이다. 또한 이 프로그램은 기존에 참가자를 보낸 기관에 우선권을 준다.

Kegan said the Macy program, like many other continuing professional educational programs, can create a "wet dog" effect, in which one person from an institution attends a program and comes back "like a wet dog, excited and shaking with enthusiasm," an exuberance that can be off-putting to stay-at-home colleagues. This effect is mitigated by inviting several people from an institution instead of one individual at a time, he said. The program also gives priority to applicants from institutions that have already sent participants, to encourage building a team over time.


어떤 alumni는 Macy program에서 교육을 하고 있다.

Some alumni scholars, such as Paul O'Neill, MD, professor of medical education at the University of Manchester, England, now teach in the Macy program. O'Neill said he comes back every year not just to instruct but also to sit in on the courses. "Each year is different, each year a new group of scholars attends and new sessions are introduced," he said. O'Neill has also attended the Macy program for leaders in medical education, and he is running a leadership course in medical education—a sort of "spin-off for British educators"—this summer in the United Kingdom.





성찰, 연결

REFLECTION, RECONNECTION


Alumni scholar Lindsey Henson, MD, PhD, senior associate dean for medical education at University of Rochester Medical Center, NY, who plans to teach at the United Kingdom meeting, also teaches in the Macy program. She said she values the opportunity to return each year to Boston because it offers time for reflection as well as a place to reconnect with friends and interact with experts who can help her learn to resolve issues and move things forward at her institution.


"Almost anyone who's been through the program," said Henson, "will say that it gets your brain moving in ways it didn't move before." She noted that the wide range of material presented can initially be a bit overwhelming, but as time goes by physician-educators find it a ready reference for new situations they may face in the years ahead.


Such enthusiasm and dedication to the goals of the program are gratifying to the codirectors. Armstrong said, "I'm pleased with the fact that we've not only offered new information to these people, but also have engendered this spirit that one can accomplish more as a team." And Kegan noted the privilege he feels to be working with "some of the best people in medicine, people with big hearts who are still trying to stay connected with the original ideals that brought them into medicine in the first place and to preserve those ideals in their students."









 2002 Jun 26;287(24):3197-9.

Harvard Macy Institute helps physicians become better educators and change agents.

PMID:

 

12076200

 

[PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]


Mentoring Cambodian and Lao health professionals in tobacco control leadership and research skills

L Hyder Ferry, J Job, S Knutsen, S Montgomery, F Petersen, E Rudatsikira, P Singh




Abstract

Design

The aim of the programme was to ultimately affect public health practice and policy in the Kingdom of Cambodia and Lao People’s Democratic Republic (Lao PDR) by training key health professionals to conduct tobacco control research.


Setting:

Encouraged by the World Health Organization’s Framework Convention on Tobacco Control, a global partnership formed to build effective leadership to develop and guide national tobacco control agendas. The partners were the Ministries of Health (Cambodia and Lao PDR), non-government organisations (Adventist Development and Relief Agency in Cambodia and Laos) and an academic institution (Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, California, USA).


Subjects

16 health professionals, 10 from Cambodia and 6 from Lao PDR, were selected by local advisory committees to enter a two-year, intensive tobacco research graduate certificate and research training programme.


Intervention

We developed a “Global Tobacco Control Methods” (GTCM) 28 unit certificate programme that was offered in five sessions from September 2003 to September 2005 at the National Institute of Public Health, Phnom Penh, Cambodia. As part of their coursework, the 16 trainees actively participated in the development and implementation of two research projects. 


In the first project, “Healthy Doc Healthy Patient” (HDHP), trainees adapted an existing, self-administered questionnaire designed to assess health practices and beliefs of medical students in Cambodia and Lao PDR. 


The second project involved the design of a national prevalence of tobacco use and health beliefs study in Cambodia using a multi-stage, cluster sample method. Trainees were sponsored to attend and present at international tobacco control conferences to enhance their awareness of the tobacco epidemic.


Results

As of September 2005, 14 trainees (8 from Cambodia and 6 from Lao PDR) completed the courses in the GTCM certificate programme. The HDHP study sampled four medical school classes (years 3, 4, 5 and 6) in both Cambodia (n  =  330, 71.1% response rate) and Lao PDR (n  =  386, 87.3% response rate). As part of the Cambodian adult tobacco prevalence study in Cambodia, 13 988 adults (ages ⩾ 18 years) were interviewed from all 22 provinces during the summer of 2005. 

Over the two years, more than half of the trainees participated substantially in local and regional tobacco control and research activities. Programme challenges included the trainees’ limited English language and computer proficiency skills, both of which improved during the two years.


Conclusions

With the successful completion of the certificate programme, the remaining two years of the grant will be used to prepare the trainees for positions of leadership within their Ministries of Health and other agencies to implement effective tobacco control policies based on locally-derived research findings.





Capacity building and mentoring plans

The selection of Cambodian and Lao trainees

After forming local Steering Committees, the members selected the most suitable candidates from government and non-government organisations (NGOs) who would most likely utilise the mentoring and training to improve the tobacco control agenda in their respective countries. 

The candidates had to: 

(1) apply for graduate training at Loma Linda University School of Public Health (LLU SPH), 

(2) demonstrate English proficiency, and 

(3) obtain permission from their employers to participate in a 28 unit graduate level certificate programme from LLU on a part-time basis (2003–2005).


Sixteen positions were made available for full scholarship in the mentoring programme. Ten trainees from Cambodia and six trainees from Lao PDR were accepted into the newly designed “Global Tobacco Control Methods” certificate programme.



Global Tobacco Control Methods certificate programme

The LLU SPH application process required the Asian students to meet US graduate application standards. 

모든 수업자료는 영어로 제공됨.

All course materials and lectures in Asia were given in English for two reasons

to improve communication skills of trainees with international English speaking colleagues, and 

to reduce the burden of having to translate into two languages simultaneously (Khmer for Cambodians and Lao’s national language).




RESULTS

Trainee participation

The evaluations by the trainees indicated that they had never been trained to this level of sophistication in the courses we provided, especially in the ethics of medical research. They stated that they were able to use the skills immediately in their work situations and that it enhanced their career performance. Many were challenged by their limited English skills initially, but developed progressive proficiency with each intensive teaching session.


After the second teaching session, three of the Cambodian trainees discontinued the programme. 

One trainee declined because she received a full scholarship to complete an MPH in Australia. 

The other two discontinued because of lack of support from the employee’s supervisors to release them to attend the sessions. Three other candidates were recruited to fill these positions and they remained until the completion of the certificate programme.


Three of our Cambodian trainees work in the office of tobacco control in the National Center for Health Promotion. There is no centralised equivalent of the Office of Smoking or Heath in Lao PDR, but two of our trainees are responsible for policy and anti-tobacco mass communication topics.



Challenges and limitations

Our initial pioneering partnership of government, non-government agencies and academic institutions required frequent communication and negotiation to establish effective working relationships. Clearly each entity had to balance the differences in their agendas, but the results have demonstrated how working together for a common goal can create synergy. The expertise, support and authority required to produce quality tobacco control research leadership is a shared responsibility.


Few of the candidates scored above the minimum required English language proficiency scores at the onset of the training. This constraint was minimised in the classroom by ready access to dictionaries, and frequent clarification of idioms or western concepts.


Computer knowledge, typing skills and internet skills among trainees was not uniform. None of the trainees had reliable electronic mail access, except at work, where often it was shared with several other employees. We purchased internet accounts for the trainees in some cases so they would be able to submit assignments by email to the course instructors, and stay in touch with the ADRA course coordinator.









 2006 Jun;15 Suppl 1:i42-7.

Mentoring Cambodian and Lao health professionals in tobacco control leadership and research skills.

Abstract

DESIGN:

The aim of the programme was to ultimately affect public health practice and policy in the Kingdom of Cambodia and Lao People's Democratic Republic (Lao PDR) by training key health professionals to conduct tobacco control research.

SETTING:

Encouraged by the World Health Organization's Framework Convention on Tobacco Control, a global partnership formed to build effectiveleadership to develop and guide national tobacco control agendas. The partners were the Ministries of Health (Cambodia and Lao PDR), non-government organisations (Adventist Development and Relief Agency in Cambodia and Laos) and an academic institution (Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, California, USA).

SUBJECTS:

16 health professionals, 10 from Cambodia and 6 from Lao PDR, were selected by local advisory committees to enter a two-year, intensive tobacco research graduate certificate and research training programme.

INTERVENTION:

We developed a "Global Tobacco Control Methods" (GTCM) 28 unit certificate programme that was offered in five sessions from September 2003 to September 2005 at the National Institute of Public Health, Phnom Penh, Cambodia. As part of their coursework, the 16 trainees actively participated in the development and implementation of two research projects. In the first project, "Healthy Doc Healthy Patient" (HDHP), trainees adapted an existing, self-administered questionnaire designed to assess health practices and beliefs of medical students in Cambodia andLao PDR. The second project involved the design of a national prevalence of tobacco use and health beliefs study in Cambodia using a multi-stage, cluster sample method. Trainees were sponsored to attend and present at international tobacco control conferences to enhance their awareness of the tobacco epidemic.

RESULTS:

As of September 2005, 14 trainees (8 from Cambodia and 6 from Lao PDR) completed the courses in the GTCM certificate programme. The HDHP study sampled four medical school classes (years 3, 4, 5 and 6) in both Cambodia (n = 330, 71.1% response rate) and Lao PDR (n = 386, 87.3% response rate). As part of the Cambodian adult tobacco prevalence study in Cambodia, 13,988 adults (ages > or = 18 years) were interviewed from all 22 provinces during the summer of 2005. Over the two years, more than half of the trainees participated substantially in local and regionaltobacco control and research activities. Programme challenges included the trainees' limited English language and computer proficiency skills, both of which improved during the two years.

CONCLUSIONS:

With the successful completion of the certificate programme, the remaining two years of the grant will be used to prepare the trainees for positions of leadership within their Ministries of Health and other agencies to implement effective tobacco control policies based on locally-derived research findings.

PMID:
 
16723675
 
[PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE] 
PMCID:
 
PMC2563552
 

Free PMC Article



Faculty development through international exchange: The IMEX initiative

OLLE TEN CATE1, KAREN MANN2, PETER MCCRORIE3, SARI PONZER4, LINDA SNELL5 & YVONNE STEINERT5

1University Medical Center Utrecht, the Netherlands, 2Dalhousie University, Canada, 3University of London, UK, 4Karolinska Institutet, Sweden, and 5McGill University, Canada



배경

Introduction

교수개발이란 academic personnel에게 교육, 연구, 행정 업무에 필요한 기술을 지원하는 다양한 활동을 말한다. 대부분의 교수개발은 교수법에 집중되어 있다. 의과대학의 교수들이 다만 그 분야의 전문지식을 가지고 있고, '가르침을 받은'적이 있기 때문에 가르칠 수 있는 능력이 있을 것이라고 '추측'하는 것 뿐이지, 제대로 교수법에 대한 교육을 받은 적은 없기 때문에 이는 그다지 놀라운 일은 아니다. 지난 30년간 의학교육은 수많은 계기를 통해 진화해왔고, 그 중에는 보건의료 양상의 변화, 새로운 기술의 영향, 교육이론의 발달 등이 잇다. 그 결과, 교수들은 자신들이 배웠던 방식으로 행동하지 않게 되었다. 많은 의과대학에서는 교수법 훈련 프로그램을 제공할 뿐만 아니라 '요건화'하고 있는 경우도 있다. 지난 20년간 의학교육분야에서 최소 하나 이상의 새로운 책이 출판되고 있으며, 컨퍼런스, 논문, 학회지 등 역시 다른 여러 영역을 능가하는 속도로 빠르게 성장하고 있다.

Faculty development refers to the range of activities designed to support academic personnel in developing the skills necessary for conducting their teaching, research or administrative tasks (Steinert et al. 2006). Most initiatives focus on faculty development in teaching (Leslie et al. 2013). This is not surprising, as teachers in medical schools traditionally were not trained to teach but were assumed to have that ability because of their content knowledge and their own experience of being taught. Medical education has evolved in the past 30 years for a number of reasons, including changes in the pattern of healthcare, the impact of new technologies and advances in educational theory. As a result, teachers cannot just act like the teachers by whom they were taught. Many medical schools now offer or even require teachers to take training in teaching skills. In the past two decades, at least one new book has appeared each year on teaching in medical education, and conferences, journals and publications on medical education have shown a growth rate that exceeds many other domains (Lee et al. 2013).


교수개발 프로그램은 다양한 종류가 있을 수 있다. 또한 많은 의학교육학술지, 심포지엄, 컨퍼런스, 저널클럽 등 역시 새로운 insight와 methodology를 경험할 수 있는 기회를 제공하고 있다. 초창기에는 교수법에 대한 교수개발이 '가르치는 것'그 자체에 집중되었으나, 점차 그 목표가 넓어져서 이제는 교육과정 개발, 변화관리, 교육분야의 연구에까지 확장되었다.

The range of available faculty development initiatives includes one-on-one training consultations, local, national and international workshops and courses, certificate programs and programs leading to an academic degree (Steinert 2010; Wilkerson & Doyle 2011). In parallel, the many medical education journals, symposia, conferences and journal clubs offer a plethora of opportunities to become acquainted with new insights and methodologies in teaching and learning. While initially faculty development in teaching focused on the practice of teaching, the objectives have expanded to include wider educational functions such as curriculum development, change management and educational research (Bligh 2005; Molenaar et al. 2009; Jaarsma et al. 2013).


다양한 세팅, 문화, 대학과 접촉하면서 교수개발의 관점을 확장되었고, 한 곳에서 다른 곳으로 자리를 옮긴 교수는 스스로의 관점을 더 넓힐 수 있는 기회를 갖게 된다. 그러나 이러한 경험은 한 국가에서는 두 곳, 또는 세 곳을 넘지 않는다. 생의학 연구에 있어서 국제적 협력은 매우 권장되고 있는데, 교육 프로그램과 교수개발의 질을 높이기 위해서 국제적 협력을 못할 것도 없지 않을까? 의학교육연구의 국제적 협력은 여러 문헌에서 점차 늘어나고 있으나, 혁신과 개발에 대한 교류는 아직 그렇게 많지 않다.

The type of experiences that widen perspectives in the field should ideally involve acquaintance with different settings, cultures and schools. Faculty members who have moved from one location to a different one have the benefit of broadening their perspective, but these experiences are usually limited to two or sometimes three places within one country. International collaboration is recommended for biomedical research (Radda 2013), so why should international collaboration not similarly enhance the quality of education programs and faculty development? While international collaboration in medical education research is seen in the growing literature (Rotgans 2012), international collaboration and exchange on innovation and development is less visible.


2006년, 의학교육 연구와 개발에 적극적으로 기여하고 있는 다섯 개의 의과대학이 그들의 교수들에게 국제적 경험을 통해 더 많은 발전의 기회를 주기 위해서 공식적 협력을 시작하였다. 개개인의 교수들은 서로 다른 국가로 옮겨 다니며, 여러 국가에서 취직을 하여 international medical educator가 될 수도 있고, Harvard Macy Program이나 FAIMER program과 같이 international course들도 있지만, 우리가 아는 한 서로 다른 기관에서 교육활동이나 교수 경험 기회를 쌓으면서 international experience를 하는 프로그램은 없다. 

In 2006, five medical schools, well known for their active contributions to medical education research and development, decided to initiate a formalized collaboration to broaden the opportunities for development of their own faculty members with a significant international experience. While individual faculty members may cross borders and take up employment in a different country, thereby becoming international medical educators (McLean 2013), and international courses such as the Harvard Macy program and the FAIMER program recruit participants from across the globe (Armstrong et al. 2003; Burdick et al 2006), we know of no programs that specifically focus on the acquisition of international experiences at a variety of locations with opportunities to participate in educational activities or teach at different institutions.



방법

Method

2006년, Dalhousie University, Karolinska Institutet, McGill University, St George’s University of London and University Medical Center Utrecht는 IMEX initiative를 설립하였다.(International Medical Educators Exchange)

In 2006, Dalhousie University, Karolinska Institutet, McGill University, St George’s University of London and University Medical Center Utrecht, decided to establish the International Medical Educators Exchange (IMEX) initiative.


프로그램의 목적 : 캐나다와 유럽의 여러 의과대학에서 직접 교육에 참여함으로서 높은 수준의 교수개발을 달성하는 것.

The aim of the program is to stimulate high-level faculty development by providing an international orientation beyond the attendance at conferences and creating a network of global colleagues to broaden the understanding of medical education on a more global level. In particular, we aim to...

provide participants with a concrete experience in medical education at a number of medical schools in Canada and Europe and to 

generate exchange of ideas, discussions and 

seeds for collaboration

We hope the program will have an impact on personal careers and institutional development.


프로그램 규모 및 대상자

Every six months, a site visit of one week at one of the participating schools is offered to a group of six to 13 faculty, made up of one to three mostly mid-career scholars from each of the five schools, who have signed up for multiple visits over a period of two to four years. The IMEX website (www.imexchange.eu) shows a roster of site visits. We specifically target senior clinical and non-clinical teachers and curriculum developers at each of the five institutions, with an annual enrollment of one to three faculty(ies) per institution per year into the IMEX program. 


참가자 선발

All interested faculty members apply formally with a CV, a personal application letter, a letter of recommendation from their Head of the Department and a description of topics of interest they would like to explore during the week. The IMEX Board, with representatives of all five schools, approves each application. The successful applicant is then called an IMEX Scholar. Scholars must enroll for at least three site visits. 


비용

The fee for a site visit includes hotel accommodation, a social program, catering during the day, incidental expenditures and all scholarly program activities. One of the five institutions manages the central organization (financial handling, processing of applications, maintaining a website and preparing for the annual Board meetings).


프로그램 구성

A week’s IMEX program can vary somewhat, depending on the location, the special interests or activities of the institution, and the desired pursuits of the participants. However, at a minimum, it includes the following:

      • an explanation of the local medical curriculum (undergraduate and/or postgraduate) and the local medical education system
      • presentations on selected topics of interest by local experts
      • observation of local educational activities in practice
      • active observation of, or participation in, teaching
      • one-on-one meetings of IMEX scholars with local colleagues who share similar disciplines or interests
      • group discussions with reflections on the program of the day, exchange of experiences and presentations of personal projects to the IMEX group.
      • a social event with dinner, which, among other things, serves as a team building activity

In addition, inter-scholar collaboration between IMEX site visits is encouraged but is not mandatory. In many cases IMEX scholars stay in touch and may collaborate between visits.


평가

Every site visit concludes with a short oral and written evaluation of the week, and after three site visits, each IMEX scholar is sent a more global evaluation and reflective electronic survey, including questions on the impact of the IMEX experience on personal competence as a teacher and educator, daily work, career, international collaborations, the scholar’s own institution and participant satisfaction with the general program format, with space to expand their answers. This report summarizes the results of the general IMEX survey, conducted in 2012 and 2013, including all scholars who had participated in the program to date (August 2013).




결과

Results

From the autumn of 2006 to the summer of 2013, IMEX organized 14 site visits (three in Utrecht, three in Montreal, three in London, three in Halifax and two in Stockholm). One Stockholm visit did not take place due to a late cancellation of some scholars for personal reasons and consequently the agreed minimum number of participants (6) was not reached. In that same period, 31 scholars had participated in at least one site visit, for a total of 121 IMEX individual visits; five scholars visited fewer than three sites and have not yet finished the program, nine went to three sites, 12 went to four sites and eight went to five sites. The group size varied from 6 (the very first week in Utrecht) to 13 (Utrecht, spring 2012).


All 29 who had completed at least three site visits were sent the anonymous overall IMEX survey. We received 22 responses (76%), six of whom had not checked the box to allow their data to be used in a publication. This report is therefore based on 16 responses (55%).


Impact of IMEX

Table 1 shows the respondents’ answers regarding the impact of IMEX on their perceptions of their career and competence. IMEX was viewed as having an impact on personal competence, career and international orientation and collaboration; less impact was reported on daily work or the respondent’s institution.




A typical comment regarding the impact on personal competence was: 


“IMEX has definitely influenced my personal competence, but it is not so easy to pinpoint it on specific knowledge or skills. It broadens your scope, makes you realize differences and similarities between (educational) cultures, realize that your own (local, national) problems and frustrations are sometimes more general and it [teaches] you a lot about other solutions and approaches. It also gives you an opportunity to learn about aspects of medical education in which you are less involved in daily practice.”


Impact on daily work was explained with comments such as the following:


“I can now speak to colleagues and other faculty with some authority about values and solutions in other countries. This is not limited to medical education but extends to health care delivery.” and “I now incorporate ideas and issues I have learned internationally into my daily work as a teacher and academic. IMEX was a very important trigger for the research I have newly embarked on which was a direct result of my first IMEX visit to Utrecht.”


The impact of the IMEX program on career is less apparent. We have noticed in our institutions that IMEX alumni often take major steps in an education career, such as accepting responsibilities as program director of undergraduate or postgraduate education, but a direct causal link with IMEX, if present, cannot easily be established. Participant comments included: 

“Somewhat useful, but limited in a formal way. However, a distinguished part of my pedagogic CV” and “I have written about my IMEX experience as part of my application for promotion to […] and it has been an important element of this application.” One respondent mentioned, “Since my involvement in the IMEX program, I have been selected as the Associate Dean for CME at [my] University. I bring a broader perspective than many of my peers to the table in discussions of issues in medical education and to my work in CME”.


International collaborations have happened to variable degrees; it does, however, seem to occur for some and it appears that there are external factors that influence the degree to which these collaborations can develop. 

“We all seem to have very busy careers at home and trans-border academic work has not happened to a substantial extent yet” and “It has been given me a new network”; however, one scholar mentioned, “I now have a regular working relationship with colleagues at X medical school and was invited to present work at a professional day they were running for staff”.


IMEX’s impact on the home institution of the scholars was explored in terms of how a hosted IMEX visit affected a much larger part of the local institutional community. 

“When you are the host for a IMEX site visit you influence and engage a lot of people around you” and “As a participant institution of IMEX we have benefited from two IMEX visits”. 

In a more general sense, 

“At X, all 5 participants have so far had a substantial impact on the faculty, as all of us still are in more or less leading positions on the medical programme”.



IMEX scholars’ views of the program features of IMEX

Table 2 shows how almost all defining features of IMEX were valued as very important and successful.



Taking an active part in local educational activities scored lowest of all features. It was not always possible to engage scholars in local teaching, which may have caused this view among the participants, but it may not be an essential outcome of the course. 

“While exposure to education is important, I feel the real value is in working with interested colleagues. Learning is after all a contextual and social activity.”


Observing education may be sufficient. “Just the possibility to see and hear teaching outside our own “bubble” was eye-opening to all the possibilities and knowledge/experience that is out there” even if the observed education is not perfect. 

“It does not have to be the successful educational sessions to observe to make them valuable, it is equally important to observe things that [give] you ideas about how to improve” and “Being in a different country changed the way I thought about my own subject and ‘made it strange' - something that is very difficult to achieve in day-to-day life. It also highlighted to me the strengths of my own curriculum which are sometimes difficult to see when you are so close to them.”


Leaving one’s own institution to have a week of protected time to reflect on education with similarly interested colleagues was highly valued.

 “The one week modules are a guarantee for putting everyday work aside” … “The most important aspect of IMEX was to allow time for reflection. It allowed [me] as well to interact with like-minded colleagues and to make friends” … “Observing education and talking to experts one-on-one are the two most important things with IMEX”.


Suggested improvements and overall view

Suggestions for improvement of the program included an addition of a US medical school to the consortium, better coordination of follow-up activities, and better organization of responsibilities for the visit at the local IMEX site, avoiding too much of an organizational burden on local IMEX participants, as at many sites, domestic IMEX scholars take responsibilities in the organization of the week.


Most participants would recommend IMEX to colleagues: 

“The IMEX experience is amazing. I would recommend it to any academic looking to expand their horizons, particularly in mid-career. The space it gave me to reflect and think about wider issues was invaluable and the unexpected spin-off was that it sparked new research ideas. A thousand thanks for this IMEX”.



논의

Discussion

Based on the past seven years of IMEX implementation and the evaluation by scholars who have completed three site visits, we believe that IMEX has lived up to its expectations. The objectives intended by the founders of the program appear to have been attained. It has been possible to sustain the organization over time and IMEX scholars are almost invariably satisfied with most site visits and most features of IMEX. We believe that we have contributed to the quality of the educational culture in the five institutions, even though we have not rigorously measured this, nor could we easily establish a causal relationship with IMEX; a more rigorous approach is needed (Armstrong & Barsion 2006). We have no doubt, however, that IMEX fits very well into a medical educator’s scholarly career development (Fincher et al. 2000; Simpson et al. 2007). 

참가자 반응

Participants spoke consistently...

of personal development, 

of broader views of medical education in other contexts, and 

of more balanced views of their own institutions


They also described the value of meeting and developing relationships with new international colleagues, thus enlarging their personal networks. Increasingly, the faculty development literature reports personal and professional development as an outcome of longitudinal faculty development experiences (Armstrong & Barsion 2006; Branch et al. 2009). This seems to be perceived by the IMEX scholar after some time has elapsed since their participation, suggesting that the personal development benefits reported may continue into the future.


Our initiative may also serve as an example for other schools. We have discussed the possibility of expanding IMEX to include more schools, but the inevitable consequence would be that groups would be larger or would have to split, and the current formula of having groups of scholars meet again at a next site would not be sustainable. Given logistical limitations, we cannot guarantee that the groups stay together, but almost all scholars meet their colleagues and friends again on at least one other IMEX site visit.


One regular and continuing challenge is the financing of applicants. On top of the IMEX site visit fee, scholars must travel to the site and possibly give up clinical and other income. Interested faculty members have sometimes not been able to organize the funding. One of the five institutions has generously covered travel costs for foreign scholars visiting their school and home scholars visiting other institutions. Other schools have supported IMEX scholars in various other ways. On one occasion, a scholar from a non-consortium institution requested to attend and filled a vacant slot. We have declined requests to participate by medical educators from other countries so as not to dilute the institutional collaboration. However, we recognize that broader involvement may support the sustainability of the program.


Our data collection has limitations. Not all alumni responded and not all questions were answered. As our survey was anonymous, we could not follow the initial request with a targeted reminder. Moreover, as mentioned previously, we did not attempt to validate the perceived impact on personal career development, but believe that the personal feelings of IMEX alumni about this have worth in themselves.


IMEX has clearly shown its added value as a new component to the portfolio of faculty development activities. An international dimension in the development of medical educators broadens their perspective on medical education in way that adds to most regular faculty development programs.








 2014 May 2. [Epub ahead of print]

Faculty development through international exchange: The IMEX initiative.

Abstract

Abstract Background: Faculty development is often local and international experiences are usually limited to conferences and courses. In 2006, five schools across the globe decided to enhance international faculty experiences through an exciting new collaboration: the International Medical Educators Exchange (IMEXinitiative. Method: Twice a year, one of the five schools in the Netherlands, Canada, Sweden and the UK organizes a week of faculty development activities for experienced medical educators from each school, including group discussions, short presentations, observations and active engagement in local education, one-on-one meetings with local faculty members, and many opportunities for in-depth discussion. We administered a survey to evaluate the impact of this international exchange. Results: By August 2013, 31 IMEX scholars had attended at least one of the 14 site visits held; most of them (29) had attended 3-5 site visits. Responding IMEX alumni (55%, N = 16) felt that their experiences impacted their personal competence and international orientation, and to some extent their career, their daily work and their institution. Most features of the IMEX program were valued as highly important and highly successful. Discussion: IMEX has established itself as an important additional faculty development opportunity for those medical educators who wish to develop and pursue a career in education.

PMID:

 

24787528

 

[PubMed - as supplied by publisher]


A model for linkage between health professions education and health: FAIMER international faculty development initiatives

WILLIAM BURDICK1, ELIANA AMARAL2, HENRY CAMPOS3 & JOHN NORCINI1

1FAIMER, USA, 2State University of Campinas/UNICAMP, Brazil, 3Universidade Federal do Ceara´ , Brazil







도입

Introduction

교수개발과 지역사회 보건증진을 연결시키는 것이 보건의료인력교육자와 연구자 모두에게 중요하다. 개개인 차원, 조직 차원에서 보건의료인력 교육을 통한 보건증진이 가능할 수 있겠지만, 이런 것을 서로 연결시켜주는 문헌은 제한적이다. 한편으로는 건강결정인자로 교육 외에도 영양, 물 안전, 위생과 같은 더 강력한 요인들이 있기 때문일 것이다. 

Linking faculty development to improvement of community health is of particular interest to health professions educators and researchers (Burdick et al. 2007; Haan et al. 2008). While individuals and institutions engaged in health professions education have the potential to improve health (Boelen 1999; Frenk et al. 2010), limited literature connects capacity building in education with improvements in health (Burdick et al. 2007). In part, this is because there are many stronger determinants of health, such as nutrition, water safety, and sanitation (Wilkinson & Marmot 2003), than the education of doctors and nurses. Understanding the mechanism by which faculty development may promote development of socially accountable institutions and improve health can be useful for improving this connection and evaluating program effectiveness. In this article, we present a testable model for the link between faculty development and improvement in health, and offer an example of that model.



개개인 차원의 역량 강화를 위해서는 의미있는 학습 경험을 통해 새로운 지식을 얻고, 새로운 분야에 접근할 수 있는 기회가 있어야 한다. 시스템 차원의 역량 강화는 개개인의 역량 강화를 넘어서는 것이며, 이들간의 네트워크를 강화하는 것이 중요하다. 이를 위해서는 다음과 같은 것이 필요하다.

Individual capacity building requires participation in a meaningful learning experience, opportunity to apply new knowledge, and opportunities for advancement in the new field (Nchinda 2002). System capacity building goes beyond development of the individual to strengthening collaborating organizations and the web that connects them. It requires...

    • strengthening domain knowledge and communication skills of members of the system, 
    • plus interactive, or relational, skills such as creating a shared vision, 
    • organizational capacity such as leadership, and management, and 
    • programmatic capacity such as the ability to develop projects aligned with community needs (Foster-Fishman et al. 2001). 

개개인의 역량을 강화하는 데 있어서 '프로젝트'를 하는 것은 중요한데, 이는 새롭게 배운 리더십/관리 기술 등을 실제로 적용시킬 수 있는 기회이기 때문이다.

Projects are an important part of the individual capacity model since they provide the opportunity for authentic application of new skills, particularly leadership and management skills. (Gusic et al. 2010; Burdick et al. (in press)).


사회적 네트워크를 개발하고 활용하는 것은 시스템 차원의 역량 강화에 중요한 것이다. 또한 교육 기관의 사회적 책무를 강화하는 쪽으로 이끄는 역할을 하는데 중요하다. community of health professions educator를 만든다는 중간단계 목표는 장기적 목표인 'field leadership'을 강화하는데 필요하다. 협동, 지식확산과 같은 Field leadership은 보건의료인력교육 영역을 더욱 강화할 것이다. 교육 분야의 다양한 영역이 이에 기여할 수 있다.

Development and use of social networks is a key element of system capacity building (Culbertson 1981; Bolam et al. 2005; Cross et al. 2006; Moses et al. 2009) and represents an important link in the mechanism leading to enhanced social accountability of education institutions. This intermediate goal of developing a community of health professions educators is a precursor to achieving the longer term goal of building “field leadership” (Mouradian & Huebner 2007). Field leadership skills like collaboration and knowledge diffusion strengthen the health professions education field. A dynamic field of education then can contribute to improvement of the health of communities through...

    • robust peer review, 
    • high quality research to ascertain health needs, 
    • implementation of effective learning and assessment methods, 
    • advocacy for academic promotion criteria attuned to scholarship in education and community health, and 
    • promotion of rigorous accreditation systems that consider social accountability (Boelen 2004).

FAIMER Institute는 미국에 자리를 잡고 있으며, 전 세계에서 연수생을 받는다. 5개의 FAIMER Regional Institute가 있어서, 세 개는 인도에 있고, 한 개는 남아프리카게, 다른 하나는 브라질에 있다. US기반 프로그램은 2001년에 시작하였고, 나머지는 2005년에서 2008년 사이에 시작하였다.

The FAIMER Institute is based in the United States, with an international distribution of Fellows. There are five FAIMER Regional Institutes: three based in India, serving mainly Indian faculty with a small number from surrounding countries; one in South Africa, serving southern Africa; and one in Brazil, conducted in Portuguese and serving Brazilian faculty. The US-based program was started in 2001; the others in 2005–2008 (Burdick et al. 2006, 2010).


FAIMER 교육 프로그램은 여러 국가를 아우르는 접근법을 활용한다는 점이 독특하며, 개발도상국의 다양한 보건의료인력 교육을 강조하고 있다. 또한 리더십을 키우고, 보건의료인력교육자의 커뮤니티를 만들기 위해 노력하고 있다. 이러한 노력은, 대부분의 국제적 보건의료에 대한 자원투자가 질병 예방과 치료 프로그램에 집중되어 있는 것에 상보적인 것이라 할 수 있으며, 보건시스템의 의료인력 양성에 힘을 쏟아야 한다는 여러 저자들의 의견과도 부합하는 것이다.

The FAIMER education program is unusual in its transnational approach and its emphasis on a mix of health professions faculty from resource limited countries, with an explicit goal of improving leadership skills and creating a global community of health professions educators. This emphasis is complementary to the approach of most current international health resource investments, which are devoted to priority disease prevention and treatment programs, and consistent with an increasing number of authors recommending funding focused specifically on capacity building of human resources in the health system (Drager et al. 2006; McCourt & Awases 2007; Awofeso et al. 2008; Global Health Workforce Alliance 2008).


의과대학과 다른 보건의료인력을 양성하는 대학이 갖는 사회적 책무성은 점차 더 커지고 있으며, 사회적 요구에 따라서 교육 시스템을 개선시킬 필요가 있다. 

There is greater recognition of the social responsibility of medical schools and other health professions schools to re-orient and improve their education systems to more directly address societal needs (Boelen & Woollard 2010). We describe a model for faculty development in health professions education with individual and system capacity building that has the potential to lead to improvements in health, and provide a case study of the Brazil FAIMER Regional Institute (FRI) in its application.



모델

The model

우리의 교수개발 모델의 핵심 목표는 다음과 같다.

In our model of faculty development, key goals are ....

(1) enhanced knowledge of education methods, 

(2) strengthened leadership and management skills, and 

(3) creation of a network of educators, leading to a strengthened field of health professions education. 

An additional element, demonstrated by the example of the Brazil FRI, is the engagement of the public sector (Figure 1).


여러 주제별 워크숍을 통한 교육방법에 대한 지식과 리더십 스킬은 각 연수생 본국의 조직에서 역량 강화를 위한 혁신 프로젝트에 적용하도록 했다. 개인과 조직의 역량을 강화하기 위해서는 개개인의 네트워크가 필요하고, 조직간 정보를 공유하고 협력하는 것이 필요하다. 이 네트워크의 중요한 특징은...

Knowledge of education methods, developed through topical workshops, and leadership skills applied to the development of an education innovation project, lead to individual and institutional capacity building. Leveraging individual and institutional capacity building requires a network of individuals and institutions sharing information and collaborating. An important and codified manifestation of this network is...

a strong field of health professions education, with robust peer review of new knowledge, collaborative research, shared advocacy, and mentorship and support for individuals. 


In addition to the people who form the network,...

a field has its own language, values, and norms, projected in the form of a membership organization, 

periodic plenary meetings, and 

often a standardized tool for communication, such as a journal and website (Fraser & Greenhalgh 2001; Mouradian & Huebner 2007).



공공부문의 협조 

Public sector engagement

Engagement of the public sector is a critical element in the success of health improvement initiatives (Levine 2007). The capacity to scale up these interventions has many enabling features, but strengthening the health system is one in which government can play a key role (Mangham & Hanson 2010). Aligning faculty development efforts with public initiatives is therefore an important concept in leveraging improvements in education.


An important element of our approach has been to try to involve relevant government agencies. In India, the Medical Council of India has coordinated faculty development plans by building upon existing FRI and using a database of FAIMER Fellows in the country. In Brazil, (Appendix) the Secretariat of Labor Management and Health Education (SGTES – Secretaria de Gestão do Ensino e Trabalho e Educação em Saúde) participated in the initial planning meetings for the Brazil FRI, and provides the majority of the funding.


사회적 네트워크 구축

Social network development

The design of FAIMER education programs is highly interactive to enhance learning (Michael 2006), and intentionally creates and reinforces the bonds between Fellows by a variety of high-engagement methods. These include...

        • team building and group dynamics exercises, 
        • intensive interaction and dialog during the residential sessions, 
        • evening “learning circles” during which personal stories are shared (Baldwin 1998; Danzig 1999; Wheatley 2002), 
        • continuous emphasis on development of a “safe” learning environment, 
        • creation of online discussion leader teams, 
        • telephone contact every several weeks during the non-residential sessions, and 
        • encouragement of “social presence” on the listserv (Kreijns et al. 2004).


Our model proposes that an active community of educators can lead to several outcomes that can then lead to a field of health professions education with greater social accountability. The potential outcomes of a network of educators include a robust system for peer review and dissemination of new discoveries, personal and professional mentoring, collaboration, and policy advocacy for improved accreditation systems. The resulting field could be characterized by educators responsive to local needs through aligned curricula, health worker training, and community education. Other indicators could be a path for promotion for work in education, schools with high-quality research, and application of new knowledge and skills to education and healthcare practice.


FAIMER Fellows from other programs reported that the impact of their project on their institution was significant. 

        • More than half of the 49 responding Fellows from the Philadelphia FAIMER Institute identified changes related to increased quality of teaching and collaboration in education when asked to identify changes in their schools or communities resulting from their projects. 
        • In addition, 41% responded that there is more faculty interest in research in education. Other frequent changes cited by one-third or more of respondents included improvements in assessment and student performance. 
        • One-third noted that the curriculum is better aligned with community health needs. 
        • By contrast, only one-tenth to one-fifth reported increases in knowledge in rural healthcare, working in community settings, training of community health workers or community service among students. 
        • Only 4% responded that their project resulted in better health (Burdick et al. (in press)).


리더십과 관리기술 향상

Enhanced leadership and management skills

Leadership skills are developed through conceptual discussions that are then applied to Fellows’ projects. Myers–Briggs Temperament Index (MBTI) is used as a way for Fellows to better understand their natural tendencies in professional interactions and leadership situations. A group exercise of “crossing the river” tangibly demonstrates leadership and group decision-making dynamics. Conflict management and change management concepts are presented using authentic role plays gleaned from previous Fellows’ experiences. A strong emphasis is placed on “appreciative leadership” values, and involvement of stakeholders.


Evidence from the first 5 years of the Philadelphia FAIMER Institute indicates that ..

        • our education intervention is achieving its short-term goal of enhanced leadership and management skills. 
        • When asked in an interview to describe if and how they had applied concepts and skills learned at the FAIMER Institute to their work, 98% of the Fellows mentioned at least one leadership skill or method, making this the most frequently mentioned category of skill used. 
        • Within the leadership/management domain, the specific skills or tools mentioned included appreciative inquiry and/or appreciative leadership by 49%, conflict management and team building/group process each by 40%, use of the Myers–Briggs Type Indicator for understanding one's own leadership style and Gantt charting each by 38%, and project management tools in general by 29% (Burdick et al. 2010).


교육과 평가 능력 향상

Improved teaching and assessment

Workshops on large group, small group, and individual teaching discuss basic concepts of adult learning, and then ask Fellows to apply them to examples from their own teaching experiences. Additional sessions on student assessment, performance assessment, and standard setting reinforce the connection between teaching and assessment.


In a study from the Philadelphia FAIMER Institute, there were significant increases between Fellows’ reported “before and after” data about perceptions of the importance of, and their own competence in, all eight curriculum theme areas in Session 1 and all five curriculum theme areas in Session 3. In all cases, the effect sizes ranged between 1.3 and 2.7 (p < 0.0001) (Burdick et al. 2010).



사회적 네트워크 구축

Social network development

The program begins with a series of structured exercises intended to create bonds between participants. Fellows interview several others, asking for one answer each time to inquire about their profession role, a personal aim for the program, and one personal fact. They then introduce each other to the group. After MBTI assessment, and “crossing the river,” they debrief with observers on the interpersonal and group dynamics that led to successes and frustrations in completing the task. In addition to extensive interaction during the daytime portion of the residential component, Fellows meet in the evening several times during the program in “learning circles,” in which the social bonds are strengthened through shared personal stories (Baldwin 1998; Danzig 1999; Wheatley 2002). During the online intersession period, Fellows interact with each other and the faculty advisors through e-learning modules, periodic conference calls with a mentoring group, and social exchanges on a Listserv. When Fellows return for the second residential session, a structured process is used to introduce them to the first-year Fellows.



Discussion

The FAIMER faculty development model of building a social network, strengthening leadership and management skills through an authentic project, enhancing knowledge of education methods, and engagement of the public sector has potential to change education in ways that lead to improved health. The Brazil FRI represents an example of how that model is implemented.


The model is a manifestation of a theory of change, or program theory, and as such can provide a framework for evaluation (Sridharan & Nakaima 2011). Demonstrating gains in health as a result in education improvement is difficult due to the long lead time and myriad of other social variables. Short-term and intermediate outcomes in the model, however, may be just as important to identify. Evidence for this model suggests that an effective learning environment has been created, with significant gains in self-reported knowledge and skill. Improved teaching and assessment methods, as well as the skills to diffuse this knowledge to others through the network of educators, should lead to stronger health professions units in institutions. This may, in turn, lead to more robust quality improvement systems such as feedback collection, and curriculum evaluation, and has the potential to improve education throughout the institution.


Evidence from the Brazil FRI and other FAIMER Institutes also suggests that locally authentic education innovation projects are being completed, and that a portion of them have potential to show direct effects on health. Some projects may directly lead to improvements in health when they include student or faculty led patient education initiatives, health surveillance projects, or community-based education interventions that increase access to care. Achievement of short-term outcomes may provide necessary (but not sufficient) support for validity of the model.


Intermediate outcomes provide further evidence. Reports from Fellows suggest that a strong, meaningful network of educators is being created locally and globally. It is used by Fellows for diffusion of knowledge and resources, and as a source of professional and personal support. In addition to the volume of intra-network communication, the growth and development of regional organizations dedicated to health professions education is an indicator for the successful growth of health professions networks, one of the central intermediate outcomes of the model (Sood 2008).


FAIMER education programs address a demand for pro-active engagement of academic institutions in building sustainable health systems that arises from several factors. 

        • First, academic institutions play a vital role in production and maintenance of the skilled workforce expected to meet the needs of the population (Boelen 2000; WHO 2006). 
        • Second, global focus on strengthening health systems, efforts to reinforce policies supporting primary healthcare, and increasing demand for universal coverage of health systems highlight the need to develop effective leadership to promote successful and sustainable innovation in academic institutions (WHO 2008, 2010; Reich & Takemi 2009). 
        • Finally, “third generation” education reforms that use transformative learning and leadership development to produce enlightened change agents require formidable innovations in the education pipeline (Frenk et al. 2010). Individual faculty and the education systems in which they work must be equipped through high-quality faculty development to be able to initiate and sustain these innovations.


As more faculty are oriented to the social mission, the culture of the school is changed (Langdon & Wiik 2010), with values, norms, language, and practices that create a learning environment that emphasizes the community as well as the individual patient. Explicit development of a theory of change for how their innovation project may result in a long-term outcome of improved community health is one way to help align faculty and their school with the social mission of health professions education. The resulting socially oriented learning environment may help create a new professional, highly qualified, aware, and knowledgeable of the social determinants of health, accepting their role as health advocate, and helping to reduce the gap between health needs and the care provided.


Our model of faculty development, with emphasis on active learning, leadership, use of projects, social network development, and engagement with the public sector, may provide a testable framework for connecting improvement in health professions education with improvement in health.







 2011;33(8):632-7. doi: 10.3109/0142159X.2011.590250.

model for linkage between health professions education and healthFAIMER international faculty developmentinitiatives.

Abstract

Linking faculty development to improvement of community health is of particular interest to health professions educators and researchers. While individuals and institutions engaged in health professions education have the potential to improve health, limited literature connects capacity building in education with improvements in health. Understanding the mechanism by which faculty development may promote development of socially accountable institutions and improve health can be useful for improving this connection and evaluating program effectiveness.

PMID:

 

21774649

 

[PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]


The FAIMER Institute: creating international networks of medical educators

JOHN NORCINI, WILLIAM BURDICK & PAGE MORAHAN

Foundation for Advancement of International Medical Education and Research, Philadelphia, USA




(http://dohwan.tistory.com/443 와 거의 유사)


Description of the FAIMER Institute

Eligibility and application


Selection process


Curriculum

Session one

Intersession

Session two


Faculty


Educational resources


Formal evaluation of the FAIMER Institute


Plans for the future



 2005 May;27(3):214-8.

The FAIMER Institutecreating international networks of medical educators.

Abstract

One of the many products of Miriam's career was an international network of medical educators. She knew we would learn from each other and gain access to the perspectives, resources, and experiences that such a community brings. More importantly, Miriam understood the need for shared values, support, encouragement, and a sense of global citizenship that can come only from an international network of colleagues and friends. TheFAIMER Institute, described in this paper, is a formalization and extension of Miriam's work and we hope it will be as successful as she was. 


TheFAIMER Institute is a two-year fellowship program designed for medical school faculty from developing countries who have the potential to improvemedical education. The first year consists of two residential sessions in the US before and after an intersession of distance learning and implementation of an educational project at the participant's home institution. The second year, completed from the Fellow's home country, involves co-mentoring a new Fellow and active engagement in the Institute's Internet discussion group. The program is designed to teach educational methods and leadership skills, as well as to develop strong professional bonds with other medical educators around the world. Preliminary data concerning the efficacy of the program have been encouraging. Fellows' perceptions of their knowledge, skills and attitudes show significant improvement. These self-assessments are supported by the outcomes, which indicate considerable scholarship as well as academic and administrative advancement. There have also been changes in the nature of the professional networks of these medical educators, which enhance their ability to undertake more complex projects in an innovative fashion. Finally, plans for the future focus on conducting regional Institutes in South Asia, sub-Saharan Africa and South America with the goal of fostering the creation of networks of medical educators. The current model will be modified to meet local needs, FAIMER will coordinate its other programs to support development in the regions, and partners will be sought to support and expand this effort.

PMID:

 

16011944

 

[PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]


Slowing the brain drain: FAIMER education programs

WILLIAM P. BURDICK, PAGE S. MORAHAN & JOHN J. NORCINI 

Foundation for Advancement of International Medical Education and Research, Philadelphia, USA






Introduction

- 개발도상국에서 의사인력의 유출(migration)은 세계 곳곳에서 심각한 의료인력부족을 낳고 있음.

- Migration의 충격 : 교육받은 시민의 손실, 의료공금자의 손실, BME, GME에서 연구역량과 교사의 손실

- 두뇌유출을 늦추는 것은 복잡한 노력이 필요하나 다양한 노력을 통해서 줄여나갈 수 있다.

- 양질의 미국 의학교육은 GME단계에서 많은 인력을 끌어당기고 있다. 그리고 이들은 수련을 마친 후에도 미국에 남는 경우가 많다.

- FAIMER는 ECFMG(Educational Commission for Foreign Medical Graduates)의 supporting corporation으로서 지난 5년간 교수개발 프로그램을 만들어서 해외 의학교육을 강화시키고, 진로발전을 도움으로써 의료인력이 부족한 국가의 공급을 늘리는데 기여하고자 했다.

Migration of physicians from developing countries has created serious shortages of medical manpower in many parts of the world (Marchal & Kegels, 2003; Mullan, 2005). The impact of migration on donor countries includes loss of educated citizens, healthcare service providers, research capacity and teachers at the undergraduate and postgraduate medical level (Aluwihare, 2005). Slowing the brain drain is a complex endeavor but developing skills, creating professional networks and enhancing opportunities for career advancement of physicians may be an important element in diminishing out-migration. The attraction of high-quality US medical education, and especially graduate medical education, has drawn thousands of foreign physicians to postgraduate training programs in the US (Whelan, 2002). After training is complete, many of these individuals are granted visa waivers by federal or state agencies and stay to practice medicine in the US. The Foundation for Advancement of International Medical Education and Research (FAIMER), a supporting corporation of the Educational Commission for Foreign Medical Graduates, has created faculty development programs over the past five years to strengthen medical education and career advancement for medical educators overseas, thus supporting the expanded production of physicians in those countries where there is an undersupply.


- FAIMER의 교육 프로그램은 세 부분으로 이루어져 있다. 

FAIMER's education program has three components. 

  • The FAIMER Institute, started in 2001, awards a two-year fellowship focused on educational leadership and methodology. It consists of two brief residential experiences in the US integrated with distance learning (Norcini et al., 2005). 
  • The International Fellowships in Medical Education (IFME) program is an advanced-level fellowship that funds selected graduates of the Institute to obtain a master's in medical education at academic institutions around the world. 
  • Most recently, FAIMER has begun to develop regional institutes in other parts of the world based on the principles embedded in the original FAIMER Institute. The purpose of this paper is to present the goals of the program, describe the components in detail, present data concerning their efficacy and outline plans for the future.



Goal

- FAIMER프로그램의 최종 목적은 개발도상국에 지속가능한 의학교육Discipline을 구축하여 해당 국가의 의학교육을 가능하게 하는 것이다. 

- 강력한 의학교육 시스템의 효과는 몇 가지로 나눠볼 수 있다. (BME, GME, CPD)

The overarching goal of the FAIMER education program is to strengthen medical education and help build a sustainable discipline of medical education in developing countries. The effects of a stronger medical education system are several. 

    • At the undergraduate medical education level, there is the possibility that it may attract higher quality students to the field and improve their rate of retention; increased attraction and retention has been shown in US medical schools (Milbank, 2005). 
    • The development of local high-quality postgraduate education will enhance opportunities for completing medical training in their home country. 
    • Strong systems for undergraduate and postgraduate education are likely to create an impetus for continuous professional development, further increasing the attractiveness of practicing medicine in their home country. 


- 개발도상국에게 의학교육 원칙(discipline of medical education)을 확립하게 하는 전략으로는 다음과 같은 것이 있으며, 최종적인 효과는 양질의 의사를 양성하여 그 지역 인구의 건강을 증진하는 것이다.

Strategies for facilitating development of the discipline of medical education in developing countries include: 

    • creating a critical mass of educators and supporting the interaction of these individuals, 
    • providing access to educational resources
    • developing leaders in medical education, and 
    • encouraging and facilitating scholarly work in this domain. 


The net effect of these efforts should be to increase the production of high-quality physicians likely to serve populations in their country of training, thereby improving the health of the population.


- FAIMER의 교육 프로그램은 남아시아, 아프리카, 남아메리카를 주요 대상으로 하며, 이들 대상이 선정된 주요 근거는 다음과 같다. 그러나 이들 지역 외 지역에서도 매년 지원자가 있다.

FAIMER's educational programs currently focus on South Asia, Africa and South America. These regions were chosen based on 

    • (1) need, 
    • (2) stability and accessibility, 
    • (3) the capacity to use and sustain the resources FAIMER contributes and 
    • (4) the number of former Fellows in the area. 

Applications from other regions, however, are accepted each year.




FAIMER education programs

FAIMER Institute

FAIMER Institute는 gateway 프로그램으로서, 여기에 지원하는 사람들은 영어를 유창하게 할 수 있어야 하며, 지원 시점, 합격 시점, Fellowship진행 과정 동안 본국에서 거주하며 근무중이어야 한다. 이 지원의 핵심 요소는 교육과정혁신프로젝트(Curriculum innovation project)이며, 지원자가 이 프로젝트를 작성하면 단/장기 적으로 평가받게 된다.

The FAIMER Institute is the gateway program for education activities. Applicants for the Institute, who are required to speak English at a high level of proficiency, must reside and work in their home countries at the time of application, acceptance and duration of the Fellowship award. Central to the application is a curriculum innovation project in which the applicant describes the purpose of the innovation, how the change would be implemented, and how the success of the project would be evaluated in the short and long term. The curriculum innovation project becomes the vehicle for learning about concepts of leadership and education methodology.


2년짜리 프로그램인 FAIMER Institute는 매년 16명의 참가자가 있으며 4세션으로 진행된다. 두 세션은 미국에 머물며 진행되고 두 세션은 원거리 학습을 한다.

The two-year program, with 16 participants each year, includes four sessions—two residential in the United States and two distance learning. 

세션1 : 첫 번째 세션은 세 가지 주제로 구성되어 있다.

During Session 1, a three-week residential component, there are three curriculum strands

Fellows acquire basic skills in medical education, including large-group teaching, problem-based learning, student assessment and program evaluation. 

Fellows also gain skills in leadership and management. 

These include: assessment and understanding of their own leadership style and how to use that insight when working with others, project management tools, managing change processes, handling conflict, understanding group dynamics, the nature of high performance teams, and appreciative leadership (Dorsey, 2000; Bushe, 2001; Burns, 2003). 

The third strand encompasses building a strong community of practice (Wenger et al., 2002). Fellows are involved in a variety of methods to create community, including sharing their professional ‘stories’ (Wheatley, 2005) learning about the concept of social capital and how communities of practice are built and maintained (Baker, 2000; Abrahamson, 2004) and experiencing the role of co-mentoring. To make learning concrete and meaningful, the Fellow's project is the focus of special attention throughout the session. Individual, small-group and large-group discussions are used, as is feedback from peers and experts. The goal is for the Fellows to refine their projects and be ready to implement them on their return home.


세션2 : 첫 번째 미국내 세션이 끝나면, 연수생들은 본국으로 돌아가서 프로젝트를 수행하면서 두 번째 세션에 참가하는데 이 때는 인터넷을 활용한 멘토링과 원거리 학습 프로그램이 이용된다.

After the first residential session, the Fellows return home to conduct their projects and participate in Session 2, a mentoring and distance-learning program on the Internet (Mentoring and Learning Web, or ML-Web). During Session 2, they are co-mentored by a second-year fellow and a Global Faculty Adviser (selected from previous graduates). 


세션3 : 1년차의 마지막 2주를 다시 미국으로 돌아와서 advanced 과정을 밟고 co-mentoring을 진행할 새로운 1년차 연수생과 연결된다.

The Fellows return to the US for approximately two weeks at the end of the first year for workshops on advanced leadership, management and education issues, and to connect with the first year Fellows they will be co-mentoring (Session 3). 


세션4 : 세션2의 ML-Web을 다시 활용하게 되며 학술업적을 이뤄야 한다.

In Session 4, second-year Fellows participate in the ML-Web, developing required scholarly output and co-mentoring a first-year Fellow.




FAIMER Regional Institutes

FAIMER Institute의 참가자들이 residential session 기간동안에 미국에 와야 하는 것과 달리 FAIMER RI는 개발도상국의 의과대학에서 진행되며 주변 지역에서 참가자들이 온다. 

While participants in the FAIMER Institute come to the US for residential sessions, the FAIMER Regional Institutes are conducted at medical schools in developing countries for participants from the surrounding area, using principles embedded in the FAIMER Institute. 


지난 3년간 다양한 지역 프로그램(local initiative)가 있었다. 하나는 2005년 7월에 시작했고, 다른 하나는 2006년 1월에 시작하였으며, 나머지 두 개는 현재 개발중이다.

A variety of local initiatives have been conducted over the past three years. One Regional Institute started in July 2005, another began in January 2006, and two others are currently in development. The experimental and iterative growth process involves: 

(1) full respectful partnership with the local organizers, 

(2) co-creation of a curriculum that fits the local context and needs, 

(3) local capacity regarding resources for all logistical issues, 

(4) commitment by local organizer to facilitate FAIMER networking in the region through participation of FAIMER Institute graduates as faculty, and 

(5) dual learning by FAIMER and the local organizing entity that informs future efforts (Plsek, 2001).



RI는 FAIMER Institute 교재를 활용하며, 미국에서 FAIMER Institute를 성공적으로 이수한 해당 지역의 교수의 리더십에 따라 진행된다. 교수진(faculty member)은 주로 그 지역에서 오며, 여기에 추가로 일부 해외 교수진이 추가된다. 첫 몇 년간은 자금을 지원해주며 그 이후는 해당 지역 참가자와 의과대학이 비용을 부담할 것으로 기대한다.

Regional institutes are created using FAIMER Institute materials, with leadership by local faculty who have completed and excelled in the Institute in the US. Faculty members are predominantly from the region, with addition of some international faculty. Funding is provided for the first several years of operation, with the expectation that local participants and their medical schools will provide ongoing funding in subsequent years.



Other regional initiatives have ranged from co-creation of medical education skill-building workshops for clinical skills assessment to co-creation of medical educator leadership and project-management workshops. These involved partnership with FAIMER faculty for curriculum design, and travel of FAIMER faculty to participate in the workshops. FAIMER faculty have also facilitated individual and collaborative medical education scholarship development through on-site consultation.


The first regional institute was started in July 2005 in Mumbai, India

Seth Gordhandas Sunderdas Medical College (GSMC) was selected because of the presence of an existing faculty development program, the involvement of an Institute graduate, the support of the medical school leadership, and the institution's outstanding reputation. The GSMC-FAIMER Regional Institute is being created from the existing faculty development program, which was approximately three days in duration. The first iteration of the regional institute transformed it into a two-year program with two five-day residential sessions, a curriculum innovation project and a distance learning component. Because of geographic proximity, several brief interim meetings, as well as on-site consultations, have been possible. The residential components will be lengthened gradually until they are each about 10 days in duration.


Education methodology workshop topics during Session 1 of the GSMC-FAIMER Regional Institute in 2006 have included the teaching and learning process, group dynamics, writing objectives, small- and large-group teaching, use of audiovisual tools and student assessment, as well as multiple-choice question formulation. Leadership and management topics have included team building, networking and change management. Significant time has been allocated to project management and educational project design, especially as related to participants’ curriculum innovation projects.


The Regional Institute in Ludhiana, India began January, 2006 at Christian Medical College—Ludhiana (CMCL). 

CMCL-FAIMER Regional Institute is under the leadership of a former Institute fellow, and includes participants from the Punjab, but also from the New Delhi, Mumbai and Bangalore areas. Faculty are from the home institution, the South Asia region, as well as from other international institutions. Development discussions are underway for additional regional institutes in Brazil and South Africa, as well as other parts of South Asia and Africa.



International Fellowships in Medical Education

승진에 필요한 연구와 학문을 위해서 뿐만 아니라 더 깊은 지식을 위해서도 고급학위(advanced degree)가 중요하다. 그러나 교육 관련 고급학위(advanced degree)가 없는 경우에 실험 또는 역학 연구 학위를 받아야 하고, 이로 인해 애초에 교육에 관심이 있었던 사람들이 멀어지게 된다.

Advanced degrees are useful for developing in-depth knowledge as well as skills in research and scholarship, which are essential for promoting a cadre of professionals in any field. In medical schools around the world, an advanced degree beyond the initial clinical medicine degree is often a prerequisite for faculty promotion. If advanced degrees in education are not available, aspiring faculty seeking promotion must pursue academic work in other areas such as bench research or epidemiology, distracting them from a possible career in medical education.


FAIMER Institute 와 Regional Institute의 졸업생은 IFME에 지원할 수 있으며, 세계 어디에서든 입학하여 원격교육을 통해 석사학위를 받을 수 있다. 연수생들은 advanced standing을 받을 수 있으며, 학위를 받을 때 까지는 3년이 걸린다. 모든 프로그램은 약간의 residential component가 있다.

Institute and regional institute graduates are eligible to apply for an International Fellowship in Medical Education award, which supports matriculation at an approved master's in education program anywhere in the world using a distance-learning format. Fellows receive slightly advanced standing for their work at the Institute, and they have three years to complete the degree. All programs have a modest residential component so that participants can create better connections with their fellow students and faculty.



Evaluation of the FAIMER education programs

FAIMER 교육 프로그램의 평가는 프로그램 평가의 logic model과 Kirkpatrick의 모델을 이용하여 정량적, 정성적 접근을 같이 하였다. 즉각적 반응은 각 워크숍 직후에 설문을 통해 평가하였으며, 지식과 태도의 변화는 'retrospective pre-methodology'를 사용하엿다. 행동의 변화는 세션3 이후 주기적으로 심층 면접을 시행하여 평가하였다. 

Evaluation of the FAIMER education programs combines qualitative and quantitative approaches, and is organized using the logic model of program evaluation (WF Kellogg) and Kirkpatrick's levels of impact (Kirkpatrick, 1994). Immediate reaction to sessions is assessed through detailed questions concerning the quality of each workshop. Change in knowledge and attitudes is assessed using ‘retrospective pre-methodology’ (Skeff, 1992). Change in behavior, as well as knowledge and attitudes, is assessed through in-depth interviews at the end of Session 3 and periodically after the conclusion of the program. Data are collected and analysed by an independent team from the University of New Mexico Office of Program Evaluation, Assessment and Research.


retrospective pre-data의 분석으로부터 모든 여덟 개 의학교육 분야에 대해서 통계적으로 유의미한 효과가 있었음을 확인하였고, 여섯 개의 리더십과 경영 분야에서 통계적으로 유의미한 효과가 있음을 확인하였다. 

Analysis of the retrospective pre-data from the first three classes has shown large, statistically significant effects in all eight areas of medical education (international medical education, educational methods, assessment of student performance, educational program evaluation, educational projects, international medical education day, distance education, qualitative evaluation methods) and all six areas of leadership and management (change theory and management, personal professional development, project management, advanced leadership, whole systems models to sustain change, electronic learning and management). These indicate the impact on Fellows’ perceptions of the importance of the areas, as well as on their self-ratings of growth in knowledge, skills and attitudes before and after the Institute.


의학교육과 리더십의 지식과 술기 향상 외에도, Institute의 주요 목적 중 하나는 개발도상국에서 의학교육의 교수개발이 중요한 원칙(recognized discipline)이 되도록 하는 것이었다. 

In addition to increasing knowledge and skills in medical education and educational leadership, a major goal of the Institute is to facilitate development of medical education as a recognized discipline in developing countries. 

Fellows are developing both individual and collaborative scholarship. In addition to an almost 100% rate of return and retention for Institute Fellows (45/46 from the first four Institute classes), they are growing professionally at their institutions

    • Of the 45 Fellows who have completed the program, 
      • 16 have made a total of 31 presentations at international meetings; 
      • six have produced 15 peer-reviewed publications; and 
      • 13 grants and 15 awards in medical education have been obtained. 
      • Two Fellows have obtained an advanced education degree, and 
    • 14 have received an academic or administrative promotion to associate or full professor, department chair, sub-dean or dean.


Institute의 또 다른 주요 목표는 지역 수준, 국제적 수준에서 의학교육자들의 네트워크를 구축하는 것이었다.

Another major goal of the Institute is to foster development of close regional and international networks of medical educators—a cohesive international community of medical education practice. Analysis of their networks prior to the Institute has shown that the classes of 2001 to 2004 had professional networks that were initially small in number, dense (most members of their networks knew each other) and near by geographically. After the Institute, the Fellows’ professional networks had become larger, less dense and more diverse geographically.



Future plans, implications for slowing the brain drain


Our experience emphasizes that development of an international program with high-quality regional medical educational leadership institutes must take place slowly and deliberately, and be adaptable to emerging opportunities (Baker, 2000; Buchanan & Booker, 2004). Starting with an existing faculty development program, the lead time for development of a new regional institute is approximately 1–2 years. Evaluation data from the first regional institutes will need to be collected for several years before meaningful inferences can be made and used for improved development, implementation, model distribution and evaluation of other regional institutes. We anticipate that several more regional institutes and initiatives may be developed each year.


As regional institutes become stronger, we anticipate a shift in the emphasis of the FAIMER Institute. The program in the US may become more of a faculty-development leadership institute, emphasizing the skills necessary to design and manage faculty development programs, and regional institutes in particular. The central program may increasingly facilitate collaborative scholarly endeavors with Fellows around the world, using the extensive FAIMER research expertise for research design, data collection and analysis.


The field of medical education in developing countries will mature as a critical mass of skilled, internationally recognized medical educators evolves through initiatives such as FAIMER's faculty-development opportunities and facilitation of scholarly output. Increased feasibility and attractiveness of developing as a medical educator in one's home country may help slow the medical faculty brain drain.







 2006 Nov;28(7):631-4.

Slowing the brain drain: FAIMER education programs.

Abstract

Migration of physicians has produced serious shortages in many developing countries. The Foundation for Advancement of International Medical Education and Research (FAIMER) is attempting to show this international brain drain through creation of faculty development programs for medical school faculty from developing countries in order to strengthen medical education and help build a sustainable discipline of medical education. The goals of these programs are to allow Fellows to acquire basic skills in medical education, skills in leadership and management, and build a strong community of practice. Acquisition of these skills will improve medical education in their home country, stimulate growth of the field of medical education, and improve opportunities for professional advancement. Three programs currently exist: the FAIMER Institute, a two year fellowship with residential and distance learning components; International Fellowships in Medical Education, which funds selected Institute alumni to obtain masters degrees in medical education; and FAIMER regional institutes, which use the principles and structure embedded in the FAIMER Institute to build faculty development programs overseas. Evaluation of FAIMER programs indicates approximately one-third of Fellows have been promoted, and that a community of medical educators is being created in many developing countries which may promote retention of these physicians.

PMID:

 

17594555

 

[PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]



Measuring the effects of an international health professions faculty development fellowship: the FAIMER Institute

W. P. BURDICK1, D. DISERENS1, S. R. FRIEDMAN1, P. S. MORAHAN1, S. KALISHMAN2, M. A. EKLUND2,

S. MENNIN3 & J. J. NORCINI1


1FAIMER, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA, 2Undergraduate Medical Education and PEAR, University of New Mexico SOM,

Albuquerque, USA, 3Mennin Consulting & Associates Inc., Sao Paulo, Brazil


교수개발 프로그램의 평가에 대해서 많은 예들이 있지만, 초국가적인(transnational) 프로그램에 대한 평가는 제한적이다. 우리는 여기서 국제보건전문직 교육 프로그램인 FAIMER Institute의 효과성 평가를 다루고자 한다. 이 프로그램은 교육과 관련된 것 뿐만 아니라 리더십과 경영에 대한 내용도 다루고 있으며, 교육자들의 지속가능한 커뮤니티를 개발하고자 했다. 

While there are many examples of evaluations of faculty development programs in resource rich countries, evaluation of transnational programs for faculty from developing countries is limited. We describe evaluation of the effects of the FAIMER Institute, an international health professions education fellowship that incorporates not only education content, but also leadership and management topics and, in addition, strives to develop a sustained community of educators. 


데이터는 후향적 사전/사후 설문조사와 인터뷰를 활용하여 수집하였다. 결과를 살펴보면 이 프로그램에 참여함으로서 교육리더십의 지식과 기술, 방법론을 향상시킬 수 있었으며, 그 지식을 본국의 기관에 적용할 수 있었다고 응답했다. 참가자들은 스스로 모든 교육과정 주제에 대한 역량이 향상되었다고 평가하였으며 인터뷰를 통해서 최소 하나 이상의 리더십 기술을 습득했음을 확인할 수 있었다. 

Data were obtained via retrospective pre/post surveys, as well as interviews. Results indicate that participating health professions faculty from developing countries are augmenting their knowledge and skills in education leadership, management, and methodology, and applying that knowledge at their home institutions. Fellows’ perceptions of importance of, and their own competence in, all curriculum theme areas increased. Interviews confirmed a nearly universal gain of at least one leadership skill. 


이러한 결과는 FAIMER 모델이 제공한 고관여(high engagement)경험이 변화를 이루는데 필요한 교육과 리더십/경영을 통합했음을 보여주며, 여러 문화권과 국가적 맥락을 넘어서는 지식과 기술을 제공하였고, 지지적/세계적/전문가의 네트워크 구축을 이루었음을 보여준다.

Findings suggest that the high engagement experience of the FAIMER model offering integration of education and leadership/management tools necessary to implement change, provides knowledge and skills which are useful across cultural and national contexts and results in the development of a supportive, global, professional network.






Background


보건전문직 교육과 관련한 교수개발에 있어서 리더십과 경영에 대한 것은 중요한 요소 중 하나로 지적되어왔다.

Leadership and management development has been recognized as a critical component of faculty development in health professions education, along with teaching skills (Gruppen et al. 2003; Steinert et al. 2003; Steinert et al. 2003; Souba 2004; Dwyer et al. 2006; Robins et al. 2006; Mouradian & Huebner 2007).


교수개발과 교육리더십 프로그램의 방법, 내용, 평가는 주로 고소득국가(resource rich)에서 이루어져왔고, 저소득국가(resource limited)에서는 연구가 제한적이었다. 우리는 국제 보건전문직 교수개발 프로그램에 대해 평가해보고자 한다.

The methods, content and evaluation of faculty development and education leadership programs have been widely addressed in resource rich countries (Rubeck & Witzke 1998; Hewson et al. 2001; Armstrong et al. 2003; Searle et al. 2006). However, they have been less well studied in resource limited regions (Svab et al. 1999; Yolsal et al. 2003; Dwyer et al. 2006; Wong & Agisheva 2007), where studies have focused on changes in management systems and processes, or improvements in work climate (Perry et al. 2005; LeMay & Ellis 2008) with little attention to the usefulness and relevance of curriculum content in diverse contexts. To address these questions we evaluated the effects of an international faculty development program in health professions education methods and leadership.


문헌에서 주로 다뤄지고 있는 교육리더십과 경영의 개념/방법은 마찬가지로 고소득국가에 집중되어 있고, 다른 국가들에는 적용가능하지 않을 수도 있다.

The methods and concepts of educational leadership and management commonly espoused in the literature are oriented to institutions in relatively resource rich regions and may not apply in other parts of the world (Sapre 2000; House et al. 2004; Mendelek et al. 2006; Morahan et al. 2006).


이러한 개념을 가르칠 때는 맥락(context)를 인지하고 민감하게 반응할 수 있어야 한다. 리더십에 중요하게 작용하는 위계/협력/상호작용/혁신 등의 요소들이 문화적 가치와 사회적 규범에 들어가 있기 때문이다.

Teaching these concepts, however, requires awareness and sensitivity to context, with particular attention to authentic local application since hierarchy, collaboration, interaction, innovation and other factors important to leadership are embedded in cultural values and social norms (Sapre 2000; House et al. 2004; Mendelek et al. 2006; Morahan et al. 2006).


교육자들의 국제적 네트워크를 개발하는 것은 리더십개발에 있어서 중요한 요소로 지적되어왔다. 그러나 이러한 개념은 저소득국가의 환경에서는 잘 작동하지 않으며, 국소적/지역적인 교수개발 프로그램이 보건전문직 교육자들을 집중시킬 수 있을지는 몰라도 교육자들간의 전문직 네트워크를 이루는 데에는 관심이 부족하다.

Development of international networks of educators has been cited as an important component of leadership development for over a quarter of a century (Culbertson 1981; Bolam et al. 2005; Cross et al. 2006). However, this concept rarely has been operationalized for educators from resource limited environments. Local and regional faculty development programs may result in concentrations of health professions educators, but there appears to be little intentional encouragement of professional networks for educators (Gruppen et al. 2006; MacLeod et al. 2007; Moses et al. in press).


2001년 FAIMER institute는 라틴아메리카, 아프리카, 아시아 등에서 개발도상국의 중견급 교수들을 대상으로하여 펠로우십 프로그램을 시작하였다. FAIMER institute의 목적은 교육리더십/경영/방법론적 기술을 강화하여 보건전문직 교육자들의 커뮤니티를 형성하는 것이었다.

In 2001, the Foundation for Advancement of International Medical Education and Research (FAIMER) initiated the FAIMER Institute, a fellowship program for mid-career faculty members from health professions schools in developing countries in Latin America, Africa, and Asia (Norcini et al. 2005; Burdick et al. 2006). The goals of the FAIMER Institute are to strengthen education leadership, management, and methodology skills, and develop a community of health professions educators


FAIMER 프로그램은 초국가적 접근법을 취했다는 점, 저소득국가의 보건전문직에 대한 강조를 했다는 점, 리더십 스킬과 전세계적 커뮤니티 형성을 목적으로 했다는 특징이 있다. 이러한 강조는 지금 이뤄지고 있는 국제적 보건자원 투자를 보완하는 역할을 한다고 할 수 있다. 또한 점차 많은 사람들이 보건시스템의 인력양성과 Capacity building에 집중할 것을 권고하고 있기도 하다.

The FAIMER program is unusual in its transnational approach and its emphasis on a mix of health professions faculty from resource limited countries, with an explicit goal of improving leadership skills and creating a global community of health professions educators. This emphasis is complementary to the approach of most current international health resource investments, which are devoted to priority disease prevention and treatment programs, and consistent with an increasing number of authors recommending funding focused specifically on capacity building of human resources in the health system (Drager et al. 2006; McCourt & Awases 2007; Awofeso et al. 2008; Global Health Workforce Alliance 2008).


FAIMER Institute model은 자신의 기관에서 교육혁신프로젝트를 집중적으로 진행하는 2년의 파트타임 fellowship으로 되어 있다.

The FAIMER Institute model consists of a two-year parttime fellowship that focuses on an education innovation project in the Fellow’s own institution, supported by the institution’s leadership.


Fellow들은 첫 해에 3주간 본 기관에 상주하다가, 1년간의 원거리 학습 세션을 가진 후, 두 번째 상주 시간을 갖고, 마지막으로 남은 두 번째 해에 원거리 학습을 하게 된다.

Fellows are in residence at the beginning of the first year for three weeks (Session 1), followed by a year-long distance learning session (Session 2), culminating in a second residential session lasting two weeks (Session 3), with a final distance learning curriculum for the remainder of the second year (Session 4).


이 모델은 다양한 고관여(high-engagement methods) 방법을 사용하여 의도적으로 fellow간 유대를 만들고 강화시킨다. 여기에는 다음과 같은 방법이 포함된다.

The Institute model intentionally creates and reinforces the bonds between Fellows by a variety of high-engagement methods. These include...

    • team building and group dynamics exercises, 
    • intensive interaction and dialogue during the residential sessions, evening ‘‘learning circles’’ during which personal stories are shared (Baldwin 1998; Danzig 1999; Wheatley 2002), 
    • continuous emphasis on development of a ‘‘safe’’ learning environment, 
    • creation of on-line discussion leader teams, 
    • telephone contact every several weeks during the non-residential sessions, 
    • and encouragement of ‘‘social presence’’ on the listserv (Kreijns et al. 2004).

목적

Aims

The purpose of this paper is to present participants’ perceptions of the utility and personal impact of the FAIMER Institute fellowship


방법

Method

University of New Mexico School of Medicine Office of Program Evaluation, Education and Research 에서 평가팀이 와서 프로그램 평가, 자료 수집, 데이터 분석을 수행하였다.

An external evaluation team from the University of New Mexico School of Medicine Office of Program Evaluation, Education and Research has conducted the program evaluation, collected data, and performed initial data analysis (Mennin et al. 2003; Kalishman et al. 2004; Kalishman et al. 2005; Mennin et al. 2006; Mennin et al. 2007; Office of Program Evaluation, Education, and Research 2008).



연구 대상 Study population


척도 Measures

자기평가지 사용

We used self-ratings of knowledge and importance of curriculum topics and open-ended responses to a structured interview to study the effects of the Institute fellowship on Fellows’ knowledge, skills, networks, and leadership.


후향적 설문조사 Retrospective Pre/Post Survey

Fellows completed a retrospective-pre/post questionnaire (Lamb & Tschillard 2005), at the end of each of the two face-to-face residential sessions (Sessions 1 and 3). The first part of the survey asked respondents to ‘‘rate the importance to you’’ of a series of FAIMER curriculum topics on a scale from 1 (none) to 7 (very high), with separate rating scales for ‘‘before FAIMER’’ (retrospective pre-test) and ‘‘today’’ (posttest). The second portion of the survey asked respondents to ‘‘rate your skills, knowledge or competence to address’’ each of the same topics on a scale from 1 (none or no skill) to 7 (expert, teach others), also for ‘‘before FAIMER’’ (retrospective pre-test) and ‘‘today’’ ( post-test). The issues and topics for the retrospective pre/post survey were chosen to be reflective of the learning emphases and goals of the FAIMER Institute.


구조화된 면접 Structured interview

An individual structured 1–2 hour interview was conducted with each Fellow by two members of the external evaluation team (SK and MAE) at the end of their second residential session (Session 3).


분석 Analyses

Mean topic sub-scale scores were created for each Fellow by adding the ratings across items within each sub-scale and dividing by the number of items. Means, standard deviations and effect size were then calculated for each pre/post topic subscale for both importance and knowledge/skills. Effect size, the standard mean difference between paired postparticipation and pre-participation ratings, was calculated by using the mean paired difference between post-participation and pre-participation ratings as the numerator and the standard deviation of the paired differences as the denominator (Cohen 1988).


Internal consistency of responses for both pre and post responses within each topic sub-scale of the retrospective pre/post survey, based on five years of data, was calculated via Cronbach’s alpha for topics containing more than two items and via Pearson correlation coefficients for topics with two items. Cronbach’s alpha was calculated separately for years with different numbers of items. 

The internal consistency coefficients for Session 1 ratings of Importance varied from .61 to .95 with a mean of .83, and for Session 3 varied from .48 to .85 with a mean of .71. The internal consistency coefficients for rating of Knowledge for Session 1 varied from .64 to .96 with a mean of .86, and for Session 3 varied from .54 to .89 with a mean of .74.


Interviews were recorded and transcribed, and responses sorted into general categories of Useful Knowledge, Skills and Tools, Network, and Leadership by the external evaluation team, (SK, MAE). A qualitative content analysis approach (Hsieh & Shannon 2005) was used by two of the authors (WPB, DD) to independently code the interview response data and identify sub-themes within each major category. The two coders refined coding subcategories by consensus. The number of responses related to each category was tabulated independently, followed by review and reconciliation of discrepant counts.



결과 Results

fellow들의 코멘트는 크게 세 카테고리로 분류되었다.

Fellows’ comments about the social network among their FAIMER colleagues fell into three general categories: 

    • the network’s qualities, 
    • the network’s utility or value to them, 
    • and the nature of the work done with FAIMER colleagues.

결론
Conclusions

구조화된 후향적 설문조사에서 fellow들은 지식과 awareness가 유의미하게 향상되었다고 응답하였다. 

In a structured retrospective pre/post survey, Fellows reported significant increases in their knowledge and awareness of concepts in education methods and leadership/management. In addition, nearly all Fellows mentioned using at least one leadership skill or tool, suggesting that these tools can be successfully adapted to non-Western and resource-limited cultural, institutional and national contexts (Sapre 2000; House et al. 2004; Mendelek et al. 2006; Morahan et al. 2006). 

특히 appreciative inquiry와 리더십이 유용하다고 대답하였다. 자기가 지역에서 담당하고 있는 프로젝트에서 적용하도록 강조한 것이 transferability에 도움이 되었다고 말했다. 또한 스스로의 리더십 스타일이 변화했으며, 자신감, 자기효용감에도 영향을 주었다고 했다.

Fellows particularly identified appreciative inquiry and leadership as useful to them (Cameron et al. 2003; Stavros & Torres 2005). The emphasis on application of concepts to an authentic local project may be partly responsible for the transferability of these concepts to the Fellows’ home systems (Vicere & Fulmer 1998; Nchinda 2002). In addition, a majority of Fellows reported a change in their own leadership style. This change included increased self-confidence, a fundamental component of self-efficacy (Sloma-Williams et al. 2009, in press).


저개발국가에서 이루어지는 대부분의 교수개발은 교육스킬의 향상에만 집중하고, 리더십이나 관리기술에는 덜 집중하는 편이다. 또한 교육자들간의 국제적 네트워크를 형성하는 것에 목적을 두는 프로그램은 거의 없다.

Most of faculty development in health professions education in resource-limited areas, when it exists, focuses on improvement of teaching skills with less, if any, emphasis on development of leadership and management skills (Yolsal et al. 2003; Beier-Holgersen et al. 2004; Anonymous 2007; Bansal & Supe 2007). Few programs explicitly aim to create an international social network of educators (Mouradian & Huebner 2007).


5년간의 FAIMER fellow들에 대한 조사와 면접으로부터 대부분의 fellow가 리더십이나 경영에 대한 교육이 도움이 되었다고 응답하였으며, 국제적 네트워크가 상당한 가치가 있다고 말했다.

Survey and interview data from five years of FAIMER Fellows provide convergent evidence that the majority of Fellows find the concepts and methods of education leadership and management useful and applicable in their professional settings and that the international network of colleagues created is both valuable and supportive.


대부분의 fellow들이 교육방법이나 개념에 비해서 리더십/경영 방법과 개념에 대해서 많이 언급했다.

In the present study, data from the retrospective pre/post surveys about education, leadership and management topics illuminates data from qualitative analysis of interviews. A higher percentage of Fellows mentioned leadership/management methods and concepts compared to education methods and concepts when interviewed about what they had applied in their work that they had learned at the FAIMER Institute. 


한 가지 가능한 설명은 리더십/경영에 대한 주제가 그들에게 비교적 새로운 것이라는 점이다. 후향적 사전조사가 이것을 설명해준다. 사전 지식 수준은 변화관리나 경영 등에 대해서 거의 제일 낮았으나 이들 영역이 효과크기의 증가가 가장 컸다.

One possible explanation is that leadership/management topics were newer to most of them. Data from the retrospective pre survey supports this explanation; ‘‘pre’’ levels of importance and knowledge were lowest for change theory and management, personal professional development, program evaluation, project management, advanced leadership, and whole systems models to sustain change and these areas had the largest increase in effect size. 


우리는 교수개발 프로그램은 리더십이나 경영 기술까지 다루어야 한다고 주장해왔는데, 이는 모든 교육과정개혁은 반드시 '관리되어야 하는 조직의 변화'를 수반하기 때문이다. 

Our thesis has been that faculty development programs need to be expanded to include leadership or management skills in addition to education methods, because any curriculum innovation inevitably involves organizational change that needs to be led and managed. The evaluation data presented here, both quantitative and qualitative, suggest that FAIMER Fellows appreciated, learned and used these skills. 


교육방법, 학생평가, 국제적 의학교육 등은 작은 효과크기를 보였으며, 이는 fellow들이 이미 그 전에 지식과 개념을 많이 가지고 있음을 말한다. 그럼에도 불구하고 질적/양적 연구결과 모두 fellow들이 교육영역의 지식과 기술 역시 많이 사용하고 있음을 확인해주었다.

The topics education methods, student assessment, and international medical education showed slightly smaller effect sizes, which may be reflective of Fellows’ higher pre-intervention appreciation and knowledge of education methods compared to leadership and management concepts. Nevertheless, the significant increases reported in the quantitative assessment are also consistent with the qualitative data showing that a majority of Fellows reported using knowledge or skills gained in the education domain.


교수개발 프로그램의 평가는 언제나 쉬운 일은 아니지만, 여기에서는 데이터의 의미있는 해석에 양적/질적 데이터를 병합하는 것의 가치를 보여주고 있다.

Evaluation of faculty development programs in health professions education continues to present a challenge (Jayawickramarajah 1992; Irby & Hekelman 1997; Amin et al. 2004); the data here illustrate the value of qualitative and quantitative data in converging on a meaningful interpretation of the data (Greene & Caracelli 1997; Reinelt & Russon 2003; Grove et al. 2006; Westhues et al. 2008).


연구의 한계는 자기보고식이며, 개개 참가자들의 reflection에 기반하였다는 것이다. 여러 상황에 의해서 응답이 bias되어있을 수 있다. 우리는 외부 평가팀에게 의뢰하여 이러한 것을 최소화하려고 했다. 후향적 방법이 bias를 줄이기 위하여, 그리고 robust한 response rate를 위하여 사용되었지만 이것도 한계가 없는 것은 아니다. 향후에 institutional case study나 survey를 해야 할 필요가 있다.

A limitation of this study is that the source of all the effects data is self-report and reflection by individual participants. Responses may be biased by respondents’ appreciation of sponsorship and hesitancy to criticize a source of funding, or social desirability of an affirmative response. We sought to minimize this by having an external evaluation team conduct the interviews. (Mennin & Kalishman 2002). In addition, while, the retrospective pre/post-test methodology was chosen to ensure a robust response rate as well as to avoid the response bias of a traditional pre-test as reported by some researchers (Lamb & Tschillard 2005), this methodology is not without limitations (Hill & Betz 2005). In future research, institutional case studies and surveys of school leaders may be a means to assess further the impact of FAIMER Fellows as agents of change in their schools (Dannels et al. 2009).


저소득 국가에서의 교수개발 프로그램은 고소득 국가에서보다 더 제한적인데, 이는 이 분야가 덜 성숙되어있을 뿐만 아니라, 분야가 성장할 기회가 적기 때문일 수 있다. 시간과 돈이 부족한 것도 주요한 제한점이다.

Faculty development programs in health professions education in resource poor countries are more limited than those in resource rich countries, probably due to limited maturation of the field of health professions education and few opportunities for advancement in that domain (Nchinda 2002; Morahan & Fleetwood 2008). Lack of time and money are also major impediments to faculty development (Amin et al. 2005; Supe & Burdick 2006).


FAIMER institute의 효과에 대한 평가는 개발도상국의 교수들도 교육리더십, 경영, 방법론 등을 학습하고 이것을 적용할 수 있음을 보여준다. 지식을 축적하고 적절한 도구가 있고, 지지적 전문직 네트워크가 형성된다면 국제적 교수개발 프로그램으로서 효과적인 모델이 될 수 있음을 보여준다.

Evidence about the impact of the FAIMER Institute indicates that health professions faculty from developing countries are augmenting their knowledge and skills in education leadership, management, and methodology, and applying that knowledge at their home institutions. Integration of knowledge acquisition with the tools necessary to implement change, coupled with a supportive professional network, appears to be an effective model for an international faculty development program for participants from diverse developing regions.















 2010;32(5):414-21. doi: 10.3109/01421590903394587.

Measuring the effects of an international health professions faculty development fellowship: the FAIMER Institute.

Abstract

While there are many examples of evaluations of faculty development programs in resource rich countries, evaluation of transnational programs forfaculty from developing countries is limited. We describe evaluation of the effects of the FAIMER Institute, an international health professionseducation fellowship that incorporates not only education content, but also leadership and management topics and, in addition, strives to develop a sustained community of educators. Data were obtained via retrospective pre/post surveys, as well as interviews. Results indicate that participatinghealth professions faculty from developing countries are augmenting their knowledge and skills in education leadership, management, and methodology, and applying that knowledge at their home institutions. Fellows' perceptions of importance of, and their own competence in, all curriculum theme areas increased. Interviews confirmed a nearly universal gain of at least one leadership skill. Findings suggest that the high-engagement experience of the FAIMER model offering integration of education and leadership/management tools necessary to implement change, provides knowledge and skills which are useful across cultural and national contexts and results in the development of a supportive, global, professional network.








AMEE GUIDE NO 36

Faculty development: Yesterday, today and tomorrow

MICHELLE MCLEAN1, FRANCOIS CILLIERS2 & JACQUELINE M. VAN WYK3

1University of the United Arab Emirates, 2University of Stellenbosch, South Africa, 3University of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa


Abstract

의학교육은 그 자체가 하나의 학문으로서 진호하였다. Medical faculty에게 요구되는 사회적 책무와 함께 가르치는 일에 대해서도 professionalization의 압박이 커지고 있다. 프로페셔널하고 역량있는 선생, 교육자, 연구자, 리더를 키우기 위해서는 교수개발(faculty development, FD)가 필요하다. 그러나 FD는 쉬운 일이 아디나. 조직 차원에서의 지지가 필요하고, 적절한 자원의 배분과 우수한 교육자를 인정해주는 것이 필요하다.

Medical education has evolved to become a discipline in its own right. With demands on medical faculties to be socially responsible and accountable, there is now increasing pressure for the professionalisation of teaching practice. Developing a cadre of professional and competent teachers, educators, researchers and leaders for their new roles and responsibilities in medical education requires faculty development. Faculty development is, however, not an easy task. It requires supportive institutional leadership, appropriate resource allocation and recognition for teaching excellence.


이 가이드는 의학분야 뿐만 아니라 관련된 보건분야를 막라하여 교육에 대한 교수의 새로운 역할을 위한 FD를 담당하고 있는 사람들을 위해 만들어졌다. FD 개발의 역사적 관점을 보여주고 FD 프로그램을 만들기 위해서 도움이 될 만한 프레임워크를 제공하고자 했다. 이 프레임워크는 FD 담당자들이 계획을 세우고, 도입하고, 평가하는데 도움을 줄 것이다.

This guide is designed to assist those charged with preparing faculty for their many new roles in teaching and education in both medical and allied health science education. It provides a historical perspective of faculty development and draws on the medical, health science and higher education literature to provide a number of frameworks that may be useful for designing tailored faculty development programmes. These frameworks can be used by faculty developers to systematically plan, implement and evaluate their staff development programmes.


마지막으로 이 가이드는 미래 FD를 이끌어나갈 주요 트렌드와 원동력을 짚어보았다.

This guide concludes with some of the major trends and driving forces in medical education that we believe will shape future faculty development.








교수개발의 미래

Future directions for faculty development


의학과 의학교육의 미래를 예측한 많은 논문들이 있다.

An extensive literature exists which attempts to predict the future of medicine and medical education (Alkan 2000; Benor 2000; Harden 2000, 2006; Rennie 2000; Gorman et al. 2000; Karle 2006).


'혁명적' 관점이 아닌 '진화적' 관점에서 보았을 때, 의학교육에서 현재 일어나고 있는 세 개의 발전을 볼 필요가 있다.

From an ‘evolutionary’ rather than a ‘revolutionary’ perspective (Harden 2000), we are of the opinion that three current but related developments in medical education warrant discussion.



디지털 시대, 세계화, 상업화

The digital age, globalization and the commercialisation of medical education


정보기술, 시뮬레이션, 가상현실은 이미 의학과 의학교육에서 중요한 부분이 되었고 앞으로도 계속 진보할 것이다. Gorman 등은 외과 분야의 미래에 대해서 '더 이상의 피와 위장은 없고 비트와 바이트가 있을 것이다' 라고 했다.

Information technology, simulation and virtual reality, already an integral part of medicine and medical education, will continue to advance medical practice in the 21st century (Benor 2000; Harden 2000, 2006; Gorman et al. 2000). Gorman et al. (2000) see the future of their discipline (surgery) as ‘no longer blood and guts, but bits and bytes’ (Box 6).




Ronald Harden의 노력으로 IVIMEDS가 생겼다.

Through the labours of Ronald Harden, the International Virtual Medical School (IVIMEDS) was born (Harden & Hart 2002).


의학교육도 빠르게 사업의 영역이 되고 있다. 외국에서 온 학생들은 영국 의대생의 15%, 일부 호주 의대에서는 40%까지를 차지하고 있다.

Like health care, medical education is fast becoming a business. Foreign fee-paying learners may now account for up to 15% of medical students at UK universities and as many as 40% at some Australian universities (Hawthorne et al. 2004).


의학교육관련 문헌에서 'global'이나 'international'이라는 단어는 점차 'transnational'이란 단어로 바뀌어가고 있다. Harden에 따르면 Transnational education의 정의는 ‘the intersection of international students, international teachers, and an international curriculum customized to local needs’이며, 'transnational competence'는 'medical training that addresses health in the context of global migration'이다.

In the medical education literature, the terms ‘global’ and ‘international’ are now being replaced by ‘transnational’. Transnational education is defined as ‘the intersection of international students, international teachers, and an international curriculum customized to local needs’ (Harden 2006), while ‘transnational competence’ refers to the medical training that addresses health in the context of global migration (Koehn & Swick 2006).


의학교육을 하는 사람들이 점차 세분화되면서 의학교육에도 국제표준이 적용되고 있다. 표준 교육과정을 다운로드 받을 수 잇다.

Global standards should also apply to medical educators (Purcell & Lloyd-Jones 2003), as medical education staff become increasingly specialized (e.g. in assessment, curriculum development or research) (Benor 2000; Davis et al. 2005). One can download a draft version of curriculum standards for educational professionals from the website of the recently established Academic of Medical Educators (http://medicaleducators.org).


Purcell과 Lloyd-Jones는 두 개의 모델을 제시했는데 하나는 competency 모델이고 다른 하나는 scholarship 모델이다.

Purcell and Lloyd-Jones (2003) have evaluated two possible models regarding standards for medical educators – a competency model (Harden et al. 1999; Hesketh et al. 2001) and a scholarship model (Fincher et al. 2000).


2000년에 Benor는 2020년에 의과대학에 대해서 세 부류의 교수를 예상했다. Content experts, Assessors, Moral guide. 그리고 이것이 옳은 것으로 드러나고 있다.

In a 2020 medical school, Benor (2000) envisaged three types of medical teachers: content experts, assessors and moral guides. Have his predictions materialized almost a decade later? (Table 9). In many respects, Benor (2000) was correct.


의대생들에게 2020년의 의학교육에 대해서 물은 뒤, Rennie는 의학교육은 언제나 caring/sensitive practitioner를 양성하기 위해 노력할 것이라고 믿었다.

When asked to comment on medical students and medical education in 2020, Rennie (2000) believed that medical education would always strive to produce caring, sensitive practitioners.


Compassion에 대한 기풍은 언제나 health care의 한가운데 자리잡고 있었지만, 의학교육에서 항상 그래왔던 것은 아니다.

While an ethos of compassion has always been advocated as the central theme of health care, it has not always been at the core of medical education. 





이것이 교수들에게 시사하는 바는 무엇인가?

What does this mean for medical faculties?


의과대학의 질에 영향을 주는 요소는 Accountability, accreditation, technological advances, globalization and commercialization등이 있다. FD의 주된 과제는 행정가들의 요구, 학계의 요구, 사회의 요구를 관리하는 것이다.

Accountability, accreditation, technological advances, globalization and commercialization are some of the factors that will drive quality academic medicine. The challenge for faculty developers is to find better ways of managing the perceived needs of administrators, the expressed needs of academics and the real health care needs of society.


성공과 지속가능성은 다양한 이해관계자들이 교육의 가치를 어떻게 평가하느냐에 달렸다. Williams등은 최근 교육에 대해 인정해주지 않고 보상해주지 않는 오래된 문제를 어떻게 극복할 것인가에 대해서 '가장 큰 문제는 좋은 교육과 수익간에는 간접적인 관계만 있는 것이다. 따라서 좋은 교육을 유도하고 지속시키기 위한 대안적 모델이 필요하다. 두 가지 모델이 가능한데 하나는  regulatory model이고, 다른 하나는 quality model이다. Regulatory model은 마치 임상술기와 같이 교육스킬이 정기적으로 업데이트되는 것이다.Quality model은 교육의 질에 기반해서 지원자를 놓고 경쟁하는 것이다' 라고 했다. 

Success and sustainability will, however, depend on the value ascribed to teaching by various stakeholders. Williams et al. (2007) recently offered suggestions to overcome the ageold hiatus of recognizing and rewarding teaching ‘. . . the difficulty in sustaining the effects of faculty development programs relates to the fact that good teaching is only indirectly related to revenue, unlike clinical or research activities. Because it is unlikely that good teaching will be directly related to institutional revenue in the foreseeable future, alternative models for improving and maintaining good teaching should be sought. Two such models are a regulatory model, in which teaching skills are regularly updated, analogous to clinical skills improvement through continuing medical education, and a quality model, in which teaching institutions compete for applicants based on valid measures of teaching quality in their programs. These and other models should be examined and tested in future faculty development programs’.


결국 문제는 이것이다. 의학 선생님, 의학 교육자에게 최소요구조건 또는 최소기준이 있어야 하는가?

All of this begs a question: Should there be minimum requirements and standards of practice for medical teachers and educators? 


우리의 관점에서 최소한의 기준은 아래와 같다.

From our perspective, minimum requirements for professionalising teaching practice might then include the following:

.FD가 모든 의과대학의 미션에 핵심적으로 있어야 하고,

.조직 문화가 교육을 인정해주고 보상해야 하며

.학생을 가르치려는 사람은 일정한 공식적인 준비과정을 거쳐야 한다.

. faculty development for academics should be integral to the mission of every medical school, such that deans and administrators cannot ignore issues of quality assurance and social accountability;

. the institutional culture must recognize and reward teaching excellence and scholarship equally with research and clinical service;

. there should be formal preparation for anyone who teaches our students. For appointments and for promotion along the educator track, a teaching qualification should be mandatory. Provision should be made for initial and ongoing professional development for all faculty members and teachers.


Tomorrow's Doctor를 다시 인용하자면, '우리가 할 수 있는 것은 의사들이 적응하고 변화할 수 있도록, 새로운 아이디어와 기술의 발전을 포용할 수 있도록, 전문직으로서의 평생에 걸친 학습태도를 지속할 수 있도록 가르치는 것 뿐이다.'라는 문구는 미래의 의사들을 유연성을 갖춘 평생학습자로 길러야 한다는 것을 강조한다. 

Reiterating an extract from Tomorrow’s Doctor (GMC 1993): ‘. . . we can best strive to educate doctors capable of adaptation and change, with minds that can encompass new ideas and developments and with attitudes to learning that inspire the continuation of the educational process throughout professional life’, reminds us of the need to train tomorrow’s practitioners to be flexible, life-long learners. 


Carl Rogers는 30년도 전에 이렇게 말한 바 있다. 

한 사람이 '교육받았다' 라고 할 수 있으려면, '어떻게 배우는가'를 배운 사람이어야 한다. 그리고 어떻게 변화에 적응해야하고 어떻게 변화해야 하는지를 배운 사람이어야 한다. 지식은 만고불변한 것이 아니며, 변하지 않는 것은 '지식을 찾아나가는 과정'임을 깨달은 사람이어야 한다.

Carl Rogers (1969) expressed these very sentiments more than 30 years ago: ‘The only person who is educated is the person who has learned how to learn; the person who has learnt how to adapt and change; the person who has realized that no knowledge is secure, that only the process of seeking knowledge gives a basis for security’.


결론은 무엇인가?

What conclusions can we draw about faculty development?


우리가 교육 프로그램에 대해 다루고 있지만, Gibbs는 FD에 대해서 했던 코멘트를 다시 새겨볼 필요가 있다. 있는 것을 계속 새로 만들려고 노력할 수는 없으며, 가지고 있는 것을 실제 환경의 다이나믹한 변화에 적용가능하도록 바꾸어야 한다. 얼마나 안정적으로 만들 것이냐를 기준으로 프로그램을 만들지 말고, 변화에 얼마나 적응하여 지속가능한가를 기준으로 만들어야 한다.

Although referring to educational programmes, Gibbs’ (2006) comments ring true for faculty development ‘We cannot afford to keep ‘re-inventing the wheel’; we need to make the wheel adaptable to the dynamically changing and real-world environment. We need to design programmes that are not dependent on stability, but are sustainable by adapting to change’.


요약하자면 FD의 현재와 미래는 다음과 같다.

In summary, faculty development today and tomorrow should:

. be systematically planned and implemented, with realistic, achievable and measurable outcomes that are appropriate for the task. This requires developing objectives and measurable performance criteria early in the planning process.

. include practitioners in various clinical settings, such as the community and other health care professions.

. be task-oriented, with immediate application. 

. be tailored to suit the needs of the institution, disciplines and individual teachers, including educational scholars and leaders. These needs may become more specialised (e.g. international assessors) as medical education becoming more global or transnational.

. promote both professional and personal developmentwhich requires continuous and long-term intervention.

. include multidisciplinary and group training, to promote collegiality and to create communities of practice in teaching, medical education research and administration.

. be underpinned by theories and principles of learning (e.g. self-directed; interactive; authentic; contextually relevant).

. be adaptable to meet the changing health care requirements and innovations in medical education (e.g. web-based learning and digital technology). . take cognisance of globalization and the need for international standards and core competencies (even amongst medical school academics and medical educators).

. involve collaboration with disciplines beyond the boundaries of medical education. With the growing emphasis on multidisciplinary team work, interprofessional faculty development is likely to become a future imperative.



가르침과 교육이 연구나 진료만큼 보상받지 못하는 기관에서는 FD에 대한 참여를 유도하기 위해서는 인센티브가 필요하다. 참여를 유도하기 위한 성공적인 전략은 학생들의 요구를 하나의 목표로 삼음으로서 교수들의 moral responsibility에 호소하는 방법이 있다.

In institutions where teaching and educational scholarship is not afforded the same reward as research or clinical care, participation in faculty development may require incentives. Successful strategies for participation include appealing to faculty’s moral responsibility by promoting student needs as an objective (Hill & Stephens 2004) or awarding CME credits (Williams et al. 2007).


마지막으로 우리는 Brown이 '고등교육에서의 교육은 알아서 변하도록 놔두기에는 너무나도 중요한 것이다'라는 말에 전적으로 동의한다.

Finally, we agree wholeheartedly with Brown (2000) that teaching in higher education is too important to be left to chance’. Medical education is at a point where faculty development that promotes the professionalisation of teaching must be an integral aspect of the life of every medical school.








 2008;30(6):555-84. doi: 10.1080/01421590802109834.

Faculty developmentyesterdaytoday and tomorrow.

Abstract

Medical education has evolved to become a discipline in its own right. With demands on medical faculties to be socially responsible and accountable, there is now increasing pressure for the professionalisation of teaching practice. Developing a cadre of professional and competent teachers, educators, researchers and leaders for their new roles and responsibilities in medical education requires faculty developmentFaculty development is, however, not an easy task. It requires supportive institutional leadership, appropriate resource allocation and recognition for teaching excellence. This guide is designed to assist those charged with preparing faculty for their many new roles in teaching and education in both medical and allied health science education. It provides a historical perspective of faculty development and draws on the medical, health science and higher education literature to provide a number of frameworks that may be useful for designing tailored faculty development programmes. These frameworks can be used byfaculty developers to systematically plan, implement and evaluate their staff development programmes. This guide concludes with some of the major trends and driving forces in medical education that we believe will shape future faculty development.

PMID:
 
18677659
 
[PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]


AMEE GUIDE NO 36

Faculty development: Yesterday, today and tomorrow

MICHELLE MCLEAN1, FRANCOIS CILLIERS2 & JACQUELINE M. VAN WYK3

1University of the United Arab Emirates, 2University of Stellenbosch, South Africa, 3University of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa


Abstract

의학교육은 그 자체가 하나의 학문으로서 진호하였다. Medical faculty에게 요구되는 사회적 책무와 함께 가르치는 일에 대해서도 professionalization의 압박이 커지고 있다. 프로페셔널하고 역량있는 선생, 교육자, 연구자, 리더를 키우기 위해서는 교수개발(faculty development, FD)가 필요하다. 그러나 FD는 쉬운 일이 아디나. 조직 차원에서의 지지가 필요하고, 적절한 자원의 배분과 우수한 교육자를 인정해주는 것이 필요하다.

Medical education has evolved to become a discipline in its own right. With demands on medical faculties to be socially responsible and accountable, there is now increasing pressure for the professionalisation of teaching practice. Developing a cadre of professional and competent teachers, educators, researchers and leaders for their new roles and responsibilities in medical education requires faculty development. Faculty development is, however, not an easy task. It requires supportive institutional leadership, appropriate resource allocation and recognition for teaching excellence.


이 가이드는 의학분야 뿐만 아니라 관련된 보건분야를 막라하여 교육에 대한 교수의 새로운 역할을 위한 FD를 담당하고 있는 사람들을 위해 만들어졌다. FD 개발의 역사적 관점을 보여주고 FD 프로그램을 만들기 위해서 도움이 될 만한 프레임워크를 제공하고자 했다. 이 프레임워크는 FD 담당자들이 계획을 세우고, 도입하고, 평가하는데 도움을 줄 것이다.

This guide is designed to assist those charged with preparing faculty for their many new roles in teaching and education in both medical and allied health science education. It provides a historical perspective of faculty development and draws on the medical, health science and higher education literature to provide a number of frameworks that may be useful for designing tailored faculty development programmes. These frameworks can be used by faculty developers to systematically plan, implement and evaluate their staff development programmes.


마지막으로 이 가이드는 미래 FD를 이끌어나갈 주요 트렌드와 원동력을 짚어보았다.

This guide concludes with some of the major trends and driving forces in medical education that we believe will shape future faculty development.









FD의 계획과 도입

Planning and implementing faculty development


장기적 또는 의미있는 성과의 보고가 적다는 것이 '아기를 물가에 내놓아도 된다'라는 뜻은 아니다.

The general lack of reported long-term or meaningful outcomes of faculty development programmes does not mean, however, that we should ‘throw the baby out with the bath water’


비유를 들자면 FD를 여행가는 것에 비교할 수 있다. 사람들은 모두 다른 이유로 여행을 떠난다. 잘 알려지지 않은 목적지 또는 적절하지 않은 목적지로 여행을 떠나는 사람은 거의 없을 것이다. 중간에 목적지가 바뀐다면 일부는 떨어져나갈것이다. 모든 여행자를 이끌기 위해서는 그들이 누구고, 어디로 가고 싶고, 왜 그 여행을 떠났는지를 알아야 한다.

Perhaps a useful analogy at this stage would be a comparison between a faculty development programme and a journey. Passengers embark on a journey for many different reasons (Fullan 1993). If the destination is not advertised or is not suitable, few passengers will start the journey. If the destination changes en route, some will disembark along the way. To cater for all travellers, it is important to know who they are, where they want to go and why they are taking this particular excursion.



FD의 여섯 단계

A six-step approach to faculty development (adapted from Kern et al. 1998)


Kern의 여섯 단계를 세 단계로 구분하고자 한다.

For simplicity, we have divided Kern et al’s (1998) six steps into three phases:

A. planning (Steps 1–3);

B. implementation (Steps 4–5) and, finally;

C. evaluation and feedback (Step 6).


A. 계획 단계

A. Planning faculty development (Steps 1–3)


1. 문제를 명확히하고, 일반적 요구 조사

1. Problem identification and general needs assessment


Table 6의 질문을 해야 한다.

Critical questions at this stage might include (Table 6):


원동력이 주로 외부에 있다면, 그리고 개개인의 동기부여가 잘 되어있지 않다면 개별 교수들은 왜 참여해야하는지 의문을 가질 것이다.

If the driving forces are largely external and if there is little personal motivation to improve teaching, then individual faculty members will want to know why they should participate (Carroll 1993).


2. 대상자에 대한 요구조사

2. Needs assessment of target participants


FD프로그램의 일반적 요구조사가 되었다면, 개별 교수들, 학문영역, 조직 수준의 요구가 조사되어야 한다.

Having agreed on the general purpose of the faculty development programme, the needs of individual faculty members, disciplines and the institution should be identified


3. 적절한 목표와 성과 설정

3. Appropriate goals and specific measurable outcomes


Table 6에 있는 질문을 생각해보아야 한다.

Questions at this point may include:


task는 궁극적인 목적과 성과를 달성하도록 해야 하고, 인지적/정동적/운동적 부분을 다 포괄해야 한다.

The task at hand will dictate the overarching goal and specific outcomes, which may range from cognitive or affective to psychomotor.


현실적이고 측정가능한 성과는 다음을 포함해야 한다.

Realistic and measurable outcomes may then include

.인지/정동/운동 발달을 포함하는 역량

.학습 '프로세스'

.교육적/임상적 효과(이득)

. Individual competencies in terms of cognitive (knowledge), affective (attitudinal) and psychomotor (skills and performance) development.

. The learning ‘process’ (e.g. small group facilitation; reflective teaching).

. Educational (e.g. better student assessment) or clinical (e.g. improved communication with patients) benefits.



B. 도입

B. Implementation (Steps 4 & 5)


4. 교육 전략

4. Educational strategies


FD프로그램에 사용되는 교육 전략은 학습 성과와 일치해야 한다.

Educational strategies used in the faculty development programme should be aligned with the learning outcomes


FD가 학습향상에 대한 관점을 통한 교육의 변화를 추구한다면, 하나 혹은 그 이상의 이론적 모델에 기반해야 한다.

If faculty development is about changing practice with the view to improving student learning, then it should be underpinned by one or more theoretical models (Box 5).





고등교육에서의 많은 연구는 conceptual change model을 student learning model과 연결시켜왔기 때문에, Faculty developer는 주로 복합적인 접근법을 사용해왔다. 이러한 좋은 예는 아래와 같은 것이 있으며, 교수들이 좀 더 transformative conception을 적용할 수 있다면 학생의 deep learning을 촉진할 수 있음을 보여준다.

Much of the research in higher education has linked conceptual change models with student learning models and so faculty developers have tended to use a hybrid approach (Trigwell 1995; Kember 1997; Prosser & Trigwell 1997; Prebble et al. 2004; Richardson 2005). Good examples of this combination include the studies of Ho et al. (2001) and Gibbs & Coffey (2004). Gibbs and Coffey (2004) suggest that if teachers can adopt more transformative conceptions of learning, their more student-centred teaching practice should foster deep learning.



따라서 학습자중심의 접근법에 있어서 참여자는 아래와 같이 해야 한다.

Thus, in a learner-centred approach to faculty development, participants should be encouraged to

. negotiate their learning objectives (Knowles 1975),

. have hands-on practical experience (Kolb 1984),

. collaborate as members of a team (Bandura 1986),

. engage in self-directed learning (Knowles 1975),

. recognize the assumptions that underlie their beliefs and behaviours (Brookfield 1995),

. receive and provide feedback (Knowles 1975),

. solve problems and transfer this experience to other situations (Regehr & Norman 1996),

. reflect in- and on-action, alone (Scho¨n 1987, 1991) and with colleagues (Bandura 1986),

. engage in self-assessment (Williams et al. 1999), and

. apply what they have learnt to their practice (Knowles 1988; Regehr & Norman 1996).


Trigwell은 몇 가지 전략을 제시했다.

Trigwell (1995) has suggested some practical strategies that might be useful to engage academics with their practice during faculty development sessions. These include

.교수들의 다양한 사고방식을 인식한다.

.학습을 향상시킬 수 있는 교육 개념을 토론한다.

.이러한 개념에 맞는 전략과 수행을 묘사한다.

.향상된 교육을 보여준 교수에 대해 학생들의 긍정적인 코멘트를 활용한다.

. developing an awareness of the variation (i.e. different conceptions) in teacher thinking (e.g. through appropriate articles in journal clubs),

. discussing conceptions of teaching which are thought to lead to improved learning (e.g. in small group discussions with colleagues who have been recognized for their teaching excellence),

. illustrating strategies and practices that are consistent with these conceptions (e.g. through reviewing and reflecting on video-taped sessions),

. using positive student comments relating to teachers who have improved their teaching practice, which could be discussed in groups or through a peer mentoring programme.


5. 최종 도입

5. Final implementation

이 단계에서 해야 할 질문은 "FD가 multidisciplinary해야하는가?" "보장된 시간이 있는가?" "목적과 성과과 도달될 것인가" 이다.

Questions that need to be answered at this stage include: Should faculty development be multidisciplinary? Is there protected time? Are the goals and outcomes being met?


academic group을 교육과 관련된 복잡한 지식/태도/술기를 향상시키기에 효과적인 세팅이라고 보고한 근거들이 있다.

The evidence supports the academic group as an effective setting for developing the complex knowledge, attitudes and skills involved in teaching (Prebble et al. 2004).


이러한 팀워크는 professional inquiry의 문화를 촉진하기 위해서 필요하나, 그룹 FD는 학과별로 해야하는가 아니면 학제간으로 해야하는가? 둘 다 찬/반이 있다.

This team work should also aim to foster a culture of professional inquiry, but, should group faculty development be departmental or multidisciplinary? Both have pros and cons.


Neumann의 고등교육 관점에 따르면 학과기반의 FD는 pedagogical practice를 향상시키는 것에 장점이 있다.

From Neumann’s (2001) higher education perspective, department- based professional development is more likely to offer better opportunities for enhancing pedagogical practice than a centralised, generic teaching skills accreditation programme approach


학제간 FD는 교수들의 통합교육과정에 대비하게 하고 각각의 학문들이 어떻게 수직, 수평으로 통합되었는지에 대한 이해를 도와준다.

Interdisciplinary faculty development offers several benefits. A multidisciplinary approach, for example, to prepare faculty for reform to an integrated curriculum would certainly promote an appreciation and understanding of how individual disciplines become horizontally and vertically integrated.


Lave는 situated learning theory를 이용해서 어떻게 교수들의 새로운 교수를 socialize하는지 설명한 바 있다.

Lave’s (1988) situated learning theory explaining how interaction with professionals socialises newcomers into the institutional culture can also be drawn upon.


그룹 활동을 계획할 때에는 관계/지위/책임/평판 등을 고려해야 한다. FD는 collegiality와 collaboration이 필요하기 때문에, 어떤 그룹이 더 잘 함께할 수 있는지 알아야 한다.

When planning group activities, we should, however, take cognisance of, for example, relationships, status, responsibility and reputation (i.e. Maslow’s (1970) hierarchy of needs). Where faculty development requires collegiality and collaboration (e.g. developing skills to undertake curriculum reform), we need to recognize which faculty groups work best together.


다람쥐가 공룡이나 코알라랑 잘 하겠는가, 아니면 양이나 카멜레온과 잘 하겠는가?

Do the squirrels work best with the dinosaurs and koalas, or do they work better with the sheep and the chameleons? (Challis 2001).


C. 평가와 피드백

C. Evaluation and feedback (Step 6)


6. 프로그램 효과 평가와 피드백 제공

6. Evaluate programme effectiveness and provide feedback


비록 평가가 FD에서 중요한 부분이지만, 가장 무시되는 부분이기도 하다.

Although evaluation is an important aspect of faculty development, it is probably the most neglected (Prebble et al. 2004;

Steinert 2005; Steinert et al. 2006).  


계획 단계에서부터 중요한 질문들을 해야 한다.

Critical questions about measuring programme effectiveness need to be asked and answered during the planning stage, when the objectives are agreed upon (i.e. Stage 3 of Kern et al.’s (1998) approach) (Table 6).


장기적/의미있는 성과에 대해서 잘 기술하지 않으면, 기본적인 측정의 어려움 뿐만 아니라 부적절한 평가 도구를 사용하게 될 수도 있다.

As already alluded to, the poor documentation of long-term and meaningful outcomes may, apart from inherent difficulties of measuring higher level outcomes, relate to inappropriate evaluation tools, amongst a number of other factor.


낮은 레벨에 해당하는 참가자의 만족도는 몰라도 높은 레벨에서는 질적 척도가 필요하다.

While this may be appropriate for lower level outcomes (e.g. participant satisfaction) in Kirkpatrick’s (1994) model (Table 3), higher order outcomes require more qualitative measures (Skeff et al. 1997a; Knight et al. 2007).


다른 고등교육영역에서 사용된 validated inventories나 instruments를 활용하는 것도 한 가지 방법이다. 다음이 그 예이다.

It would be useful for faculty developers to use validated inventories and instruments from the higher education arena and Psychology for evaluating learner or faculty interventions. Prosser & Trigwell’s (1993) Approach to Teaching Inventory and instruments used by Gibbs & Coffey (2004) in their landmark study are two such examples.


의미있는/장기적 성과를 측정하기 위해 노력하고 있는 동안 Steinert는 Kirkpatrick 모델에서 만족도는 비록 낮은 단계에 있지만 중요하게 고려되어야 한다고 주장한다. 만약 참석자들이 그들이 투자한 시간과 노력이 의미있다고 생각하지 않으면, 더 이상 FD에 참여하려고 하지 않을 것이기 때문이다. 또한 우리는 교수들이 FD의 가치를 깨닫고 동료들에게 권하기를 원하기 때문이다. educational programme의 평가에 대해서 Goldie의 조언을 찾아보거나 clinical education intervention에 있어서 측정 원칙에 대해서는 Snell의 연구를 참고할 수 있다.

While we strive to measure ‘meaningful’ and ‘long-term’ outcomes of faculty development, Steinert (2005) has pointed out that despite participant satisfaction being assigned to the lowest level on Kirkpatrick’s (1994) model, it is nevertheless an important consideration in faculty development. If participants do not believe that their time and efforts were well spent, they may not sign up for further faculty development sessions, just as the travellers on the train journey. We would also certainly want faculty to recognize the value of courses and recommend them to colleagues. Readers should consult Goldie (2006) for a description of the range of tools for evaluating educational programmes and Snell et al. (2000) for a discussion of measurement principles relating to clinical educational interventions.







 2008;30(6):555-84. doi: 10.1080/01421590802109834.

Faculty developmentyesterdaytoday and tomorrow.

Abstract

Medical education has evolved to become a discipline in its own right. With demands on medical faculties to be socially responsible and accountable, there is now increasing pressure for the professionalisation of teaching practice. Developing a cadre of professional and competent teachers, educators, researchers and leaders for their new roles and responsibilities in medical education requires faculty developmentFaculty development is, however, not an easy task. It requires supportive institutional leadership, appropriate resource allocation and recognition for teaching excellence. This guide is designed to assist those charged with preparing faculty for their many new roles in teaching and education in both medical and allied health science education. It provides a historical perspective of faculty development and draws on the medical, health science and higher education literature to provide a number of frameworks that may be useful for designing tailored faculty development programmes. These frameworks can be used byfaculty developers to systematically plan, implement and evaluate their staff development programmes. This guide concludes with some of the major trends and driving forces in medical education that we believe will shape future faculty development.

PMID:
 
18677659
 
[PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]





AMEE GUIDE NO 36

Faculty development: Yesterday, today and tomorrow

MICHELLE MCLEAN1, FRANCOIS CILLIERS2 & JACQUELINE M. VAN WYK3

1University of the United Arab Emirates, 2University of Stellenbosch, South Africa, 3University of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa


Abstract

의학교육은 그 자체가 하나의 학문으로서 진호하였다. Medical faculty에게 요구되는 사회적 책무와 함께 가르치는 일에 대해서도 professionalization의 압박이 커지고 있다. 프로페셔널하고 역량있는 선생, 교육자, 연구자, 리더를 키우기 위해서는 교수개발(faculty development, FD)가 필요하다. 그러나 FD는 쉬운 일이 아디나. 조직 차원에서의 지지가 필요하고, 적절한 자원의 배분과 우수한 교육자를 인정해주는 것이 필요하다.

Medical education has evolved to become a discipline in its own right. With demands on medical faculties to be socially responsible and accountable, there is now increasing pressure for the professionalisation of teaching practice. Developing a cadre of professional and competent teachers, educators, researchers and leaders for their new roles and responsibilities in medical education requires faculty development. Faculty development is, however, not an easy task. It requires supportive institutional leadership, appropriate resource allocation and recognition for teaching excellence.


이 가이드는 의학분야 뿐만 아니라 관련된 보건분야를 막라하여 교육에 대한 교수의 새로운 역할을 위한 FD를 담당하고 있는 사람들을 위해 만들어졌다. FD 개발의 역사적 관점을 보여주고 FD 프로그램을 만들기 위해서 도움이 될 만한 프레임워크를 제공하고자 했다. 이 프레임워크는 FD 담당자들이 계획을 세우고, 도입하고, 평가하는데 도움을 줄 것이다.

This guide is designed to assist those charged with preparing faculty for their many new roles in teaching and education in both medical and allied health science education. It provides a historical perspective of faculty development and draws on the medical, health science and higher education literature to provide a number of frameworks that may be useful for designing tailored faculty development programmes. These frameworks can be used by faculty developers to systematically plan, implement and evaluate their staff development programmes.


마지막으로 이 가이드는 미래 FD를 이끌어나갈 주요 트렌드와 원동력을 짚어보았다.

This guide concludes with some of the major trends and driving forces in medical education that we believe will shape future faculty development.







효과적이고 지속가능한 FD의 구성요소는?

What constitutes ‘effective’ and sustainable faculty development?


우리는 '효과적'이라는 단어를 신중하게 사용하고자 하는데, 그 이유는 많은 프로그램들이 participation이나 satisfaction 수준만 평가할 뿐 학생의 학습에 효과가 있었다는 등의 장기적인 성과는 보고하고 있지 않기 때문이다. CME에 있어서도 비슷하게 '의미있는 성과'에 대한 보고가 부족하다.

We, however, reserve the use of the word ‘effective’ since the reported success of many programmes relates to faculty participation and satisfaction rather than long-term outcomes such as changed practice or improved student learning (Prebble et al. 2004; Steinert et al. 2006; Knight et al. 2007; Williams et al. 2007). A similar paucity of ‘‘meaningful outcomes’’ has also plagued continuing medical education programmes for the same reasons (Tian et al. 2007). 


Steinert등과 Tian등은 Kirkpatrick의 평가모델을 gold standard로 삼았다. 참여자들의 만족과 스스로 응답한 변화/향상 등이 가장 흔히 보고되는데 이것들은 모두 Kirkpatrick scale에서 낮은 레벨에 대한 것들이다. Kirkpatrick의 모델에서 intervention의 효과는 다음의 네 단계로 평가 가능하다.

In reaching their conclusions, Steinert et al. (2006) and Tian et al. (2007) used Kirkpatrick’s (1994) levels of evaluation as the gold standard for assessing the outcomes. Participant satisfaction and self-reported changes or improvements were most commonly reported, which are both lower order levels of outcomes on the Kirkpatrick (1994) scale (Table 3). In Kirkpatrick’s (1994) model, effectiveness of an intervention is considered at four levels:


(1) 반응 reaction of participants (e.g. participant satisfaction);

(2) 학습 learning (in terms of knowledge, skills and attitudes);

(3) 행동 behavioural changes (willingness to transfer learning to educational environment); and

(4) 결과 results (impact on learners, trainees, patients, organizational culture).





비록 Freeth등은 Kirkpatrick의 레벨이 위계가 있다고 보지는 않았지만, '결과'에 해당하는 성과를 측정하는 것은 대단히 어렵다. 

Although Freeth et al. (2002) do not view Kirkpatrick’s levels as hierarchical, outcomes become increasingly difficult to measure as one moves from reaction to results.


Guskey는 조직의 리더들과 Faculty developer들이 같은 찬송가를 부르기 위해서는(즉 조화를 이루기 위해서는) '효과적인' FD가 무엇인지에 대한 의견의 일치가 있어야 한다. 우리의 관점에서 효과성은 'FD프로그램의 일차적 목적' 등을 비롯한 몇 가지 요인에 따라 달라지는 것으로 보인다. 

Guskey (2003) advises us that in order for institutional leaders and faculty developers to sing from the same hymn sheet, we should agree on what constitutes ‘effective’ faculty development. In our view, effectiveness will, however, depend on a number of factors, including the primary aim of the faculty development activity or programme.


Prebble 등이 지적한 바와 같이 학생이 향상되었다는 식의 성과를 측정하기 어려운 중요한 이유 중 하나는 FD와 학생성과간에 연결이 간접적 또는 두 단계를 거치기 때문이다.

As Prebble et al. (2004) have pointed out, the difficulty in measuring improved student outcomes may stem, in part, from the fact that the link between faculty development and student outcomes is an indirect or two-step process


앞서 지적한 바와 같이, 여러 문헌들로부터 teaching practice를 향상시켜서 student learning을 향상시키는 것이 가능하다는 것이 보고되고 있고, 이는 교수들의 '학습에 대한 개념 변화'를 촉진시킴으로서 가능할 수 있다.

As alluded to earlier, the literature informs us that it is possible to promote student learning by improving teaching practice, which may be facilitated by changing teachers’ conceptions of learning (Prosser & Trigwell 1997; Prebble et al. 2004; Richardson 2005). 


그러나 어떻게 교육의 'transformative conception'을 향상시키는 FD프로그램을 만들 수 있으며, '의학교육이 그 어느 때보다도 다양해진', '의학교육이 절대로 가만히 있지 않는' 이 때에 어떻게 teaching practice를 바꿀 수 있을 것인가?

But, how do we develop faculty development programmes that promote more transformative conceptions of teaching and learning and how do we change teaching practice when ‘Medical education is probably as diverse as it has ever been’ (Pritchard 2004) and when ‘Medical education seems to be in a perpetual state of unrest’ (Cooke et al. 2006)?


크게 세 분류로 나눠서 제언을 할 수 있을 것이다. (후반부에 다뤄짐)

We have chosen to group these recommendations into three main categories: effective change management strategies, effective educational practice and accountable practice.





상주하고 있는 FD전문가 Resident faculty development experts. 

자문위원을 초청하여 단기간의 훈련 코스를 요청하거나 faculty를 다른 기관으로 보내 (종종 큰 비용을 들여) 수행하는 것은 지속가능하지 못하다. 성공적인 FD는 faculty teaching과 student learning의 장기적 성과에 달려 있다.

The once popular practice of inviting consultants to offer short training courses or sending faculty to other institutions, often at great cost, is not sustainable. Successful faculty development depends on its long-term outcomes for faculty teaching and student learning


우리가 보기에, faculty가 무엇을 필요하는지 잘 알고, 즉각적으로 자문을 해 줄 수 있는 MEU/Dept of ME의 스테프들이 필요하다. 

In our view, this necessitates a medical education unit/department staffed with appropriately trained professionals who are sensitive to the needs of faculty and readily available for consultation (Hitchcock et al. 1993, Davis et al. 2005).


또 다른 권장사항은 '교육적으로 영향력이 있는' 사람을 파견보내는 것이다. 이 사람들이 동료로부터 존경받는 사람인지 여부가 중요하다. Simpson 등은 faculty developer를 'risk-taking role model'이라고 묘사하면서, 교육적 불완전함과 실수를 다함께 공유하고, 거기서 배운 교훈을 공유하면서 교육의 진전을 이루는 사람이라 칭했다.

Also recommended is the practice of seconding ‘educationally influential’ colleagues as role models and advocates, such as those who have been rewarded for teaching (Kaufman et al. 1999; Rogers 2005; Williams et al. 2007). It is critical, however, that these individuals are respected by their colleagues (Steinert 2005). Simpson et al. (2006) have described faculty developers who are ‘risk-taking role models’, whose behaviour advances education through public sharing of educational imperfections and mistakes, through lessons learnt and as individuals who are able to modify faculty development to engage participants.


새로운 것을 만드는 것에 집착하지 말기 Avoid reinventing the wheel

새로운 프로그램을 만드는 것에 시간과 에너지를 쏟기 보다는 이미 성공이 증명된 프로그램이 사용한 전략을 도입하는 것이 좋다. 이를 위해서 Wong과 Agisheva는 지역과 기관의 맥락을 잘 파악하여 한 문화권에서 다른 문화권으로 FD프로그램을 도입시키는데 성공했다.

Rather than expending time and energy on de novo programmes, it makes sense to adopt strategies from programmes with proven success. To this end, Wong and Agisheva (2007) successfully transposed of a well designed and successful faculty programme from one culture to another, taking cognisance of local contextual and institutional factors.


의학교육 외 영역과 협동하기 Collaboration with and beyond the medical education arena.

조직의 자원은 대개 한정되어 있으므로 변화와 밀접히 관련이 된 사람들의 협동이 필요하다.

As institutional resources are generally finite, it is not surprising that ‘Co-operation has emerged a key theme amongst academics closely involved in change


지역간 협동은 매우 성과가 좋다. AMEE, ASME, AAMC 등.

Collaboration between regional institutions can be very productive (Kent & Gibbs 2004). AMEE (Association for Medical Education in Europe), ASME (Association for the Study of Medical Education) in Europe and the AAMC (Association of American Medical Colleges) in the USA have served important networking roles regionally and internationally. (Western Cape Branch of the South African Association for Health Educationists.)


국제적 수준에서 보면, FAIMER는 잘 사는 국가와 저소득 국가간 협력을 촉진하고 네트워크를 구축해서 의학교육의 리더십과 역량을 키우고자 했다.

On a global scale, FAIMER is contributing to building capacity and leadership in medical education across the globe by fostering co-operation and establishing networks between more and less developed nations (Burdick et al. 2006).


FD에서의 협동은 의학을 넘어 다른 보건의료직과 이루어져야 한다.

Collaboration in faculty development should also extend beyond medicine and the health professions.


변화의 원동력으로 FD를 활용하기 Faculty development as change. 

모든 FD프로그램은 변화를 일으키고 지속시켜야 한다.

Any faculty development programme should endeavour to initiate and sustain change


Context가 변화에 중요하기 때문에, 열린 조직문화, 학습을 조장하는(Conducive) 조직문화가 장려되어야 한다.

As context is important for change, an open, conducive organizational culture of learning should be fostered (Eckhert 2002).


만약 FD가 변화를 위한 것이라면 Farmer는 CAS를 사용하기를 권고한다. CAS이론에 따르면 강력한 변화과정을 만들어내려면 macro 전략에 집중하기보다는 micro한 수준에 더 집중해야 한다.

If faculty development is about change, then Farmer (2004) suggests using the Complex Adaptive Systems (CAS) theory to inform our practice. The CAS Theory, rather than focusing on the ‘macro’ strategic level of an organization, purports that it is at the ‘micro’ level that the most powerful change processes take place.


이러한 측면에서 네 조건이 맞아야 한다. 

변화를 위한 열망, 

무엇을 어떻게 할 것인가에 대한 지식, 

지지적 환경, 

변화를 수용하는 포상.

In this regard, four conditions need to be met: a desire to change, the knowledge of what to do and how to do it, a supportive work environment and reward for embracing change


모든 FD프로그램은 변화관리원칙에 기반한 최선의 practice를 해야 한다.

Any faculty development programme should therefore conform to best practice regarding change management principles (Kirkpatrick 1994; Gale & Grant 1997; Bascia & Hargreaves 2000; Bland et al. 2000).


적절한 태도와 행동과 롤모델을 통해서, faculty developer는 change agent로서의 역할을 할 수 있다.

Through appropriate attitudes and behaviour and role modeling, faculty developers have the potential to act as change agents.



책임있는 행동으로서 FD Faculty development as accountable practice

FD가 좀더 현실에 기반을 둔 접근법을 따르기 위해서는, 진행되고 있는 많은 프로그램들에 대한 적절한 평가와 보고가 중요하다.

If faculty development practice is to promote a more grounded approach, the myriad of initiatives underway across the globe should be appropriately evaluated and reported


평가를 더 잘 해야한다는 오래된 요구에도 불구하고, 최근의 보고를 보면 이런 측면에서의 질적 데이터가 여전히 부족하다. 시간, 자금, 인력이 부족한 것이 그 이유로 꼽힌다.

Despite long-standing calls for better evaluation of practice, recent reviews still lament a lack of quality data in this regard (Prebble et al. 2004; Steinert et al. 2006). Lack of time, money and staff have been most frequently cited as factors preventing systematic evaluation of faculty development (Kreber & Brook 2001).


이러한 측면에서 두 개의 유용한 프레임워크가 있다.

Two useful frameworks relating to accountable practice are provided by Gray and Radloff (2006) and Otto et al. (2006).

In Gray and Radloff’s (2006) framework for quality management in academic development in higher education, change is viewed as faculty development moving from remediation to transformation of practice. Quality management spans faculty development from the perspective of the academic developer to that of institutional management. Otto et al. (2006) describe the application of the programme logic model (borrowed from the Kellogg Foundation) to measure the contribution of faculty affairs and development offices to the recruitment, retention and development of a medical school’s faculty. These documents are well worth reading.



FD의 순응성 Adaptability of faculty development.

개개인의 교수들이 조직적 차원과 사회적 요구에 맞게 발전하기 위해서는 FD활동은 그에 맞춰 바뀌어야 한다.

As the roles and responsibilities of individual faculty members continue to evolve in terms of institutional and societal needs, faculty development activities must be modified accordingly.





FD를 다듬기

Tailoring faculty development


FD의 단계

Levels of faculty development

(1) 새로운 staff member를 조직 문화로 끌어들이기

(2) 조직의 중요한 사건(새로운 평가법 도입 등)에 따른 별개의 기술을 개발하기

(3) 교육의 Professionalization 

(4) Educational scholarship의 개발

(5) Educational leadership의 개발 


(1) orienting new staff members into the academic culture of the institution;

(2) developing discrete skills, which may be precipitated by a key event in the life of an institution, such as the implementation of new assessment methods or online learning; 

(3) professionalizing teaching, by enhancing and extending the educational practice of academics in different

disciplines; 

(4) developing educational scholarship, by supporting individuals who will extend the field of medical education research; and    

(5) developing educational leadership, by supporting faculty members who wish to become policy-makers, chairs of educational committees or deans of faculty.


Benor의 2020 vision으로부터 위의 레벨을 가져왔다. 

We have adapted these levels from Benor’s (2000) 2020 vision of multiphasic faculty development and teacher accreditation, in which he proposed four phases of staff development


모든 교수들은 일반적인 교육 기술을 가지고 있어야 하고, 임상 교수들은 좀 더 구체적인 기술들을 가져야 한다.

All teachers would also require a repertoire of generic teaching skills (e.g. teaching in small groups), while clinical teachers need more specific skills (e.g. teaching ethically with patients or supervising residents).


Carroll은 Levinson 등의 묘사를 활용하여 FD프로그램은 개개인의 transition point(새로 임용된, 승진을 앞둔, 테뉴어를 앞둔, 집행부를 맡은, 정년을 앞둔) 에 있는 교수들을 타겟으로 해야 한다고 제안하였다.

Using Levinson et al.’s (1978) description of life as a series of transitions and plateaus at different stages in academic life, Carroll (1993) suggested that faculty development programmes should be aimed at individual faculty members at transition points (which may be regarded as phases) in their career, such as initial appointment, promotion, tenure, assumption of supervisory or leadership duties and, finally retirement.


FD의 현 상태를 고려하면, 대부분의 교수들은 아마도 level 1이나 level 2에 해당하는 훈련만 받고 있을 것이다. 국제적 표준을 따르라는 압박이 세지고 인증기관들이 professional teaching requirement를 도입함에 따라서 모든 교수들은 최소 level 3에 도달해야 한다.

Considering the global status quo in faculty development, most faculty members probably receive Level 1 and possibly Level 2 training only (Table 5). As the pressure to implement global standards gains momentum and as accreditation bodies implement professional teaching requirements, it may come to pass that all teachers would be expected to attain Level 3 as a minimum requirement. 


일부 대학들은 의학교육을 전공하는 대학원생들을 educational researcher가 되게 하거나 leader로 키우고자 할 것이다(level 4). 그러나 개발도상국과 같이 자원이 풍족하지 않은 조직에서는 level 2를 달성하는 것 조차 어려울 수 있다. FAIMER의 역할은 아프리카, 아시아, 남아메리카에 의학교육자들의 집단을 키워내서 이 지역에 역량을 키울 수 있도록 기여하는 것이다.

Some academics may choose or be encouraged to undertake post-graduate studies in medical education to become educational researchers and perhaps leaders and administrators (Level 4). It should, however, be borne in mind that for under-resourced institutions, as is the case in many developing countries, achieving Level 2 would be difficult. FAIMER’s role in creating a cadre of medical educators in Africa, Asia and South America will contribute greatly to developing this capacity in these regions.






단기과정 vs 지속과정 

Short courses vs. ongoing faculty development


단기 코스는 행동이나 교육행동을 바꾸는데 한계가 있어 보인다.

it would appear that short training courses (e.g. one-off seminars, workshops) have a limited impact on changing teaching behaviour or practice (Prebble et al. 2004).


단기 코스는 낮은 비용으로 다수의 그룹에 정보를 알리는데 효과가 있어서 FD에서 많이 사용되어왔지만, 조직의 요구에 바로 들어맞는 '시기에 딱 맞는' 훈련을 위해서도 가치가 있다.

Short courses have been used extensively in faculty development as they are cost-effective for disseminating information to large groups. Short courses should also valuable for ‘just-in-time’ training, which may dovetail with institutional needs,


지속적인 FD가 필요하다는 연구 결과가 축적되고 있다.

While the evidence leading to such a conclusion is currently insufficient, the gradual accumulation of research data suggests that for sustainable faculty development, such interventions may be necessary (Prebble et al. 2004; Steinert et al. 2006).


지속적인 프로그램은 certification이나 accreditation과도 연관이 되어서 개인적인 요구 뿐만 아니라 학문적, 기관 차원의 요구에도 잘 맞는다.

Continuous programmes may also lead to certification or accreditation, which may meet both the personal and professional needs of individual faculty members as well as those of the discipline and the institution.








 2008;30(6):555-84. doi: 10.1080/01421590802109834.

Faculty developmentyesterdaytoday and tomorrow.

Abstract

Medical education has evolved to become a discipline in its own right. With demands on medical faculties to be socially responsible and accountable, there is now increasing pressure for the professionalisation of teaching practice. Developing a cadre of professional and competent teachers, educators, researchers and leaders for their new roles and responsibilities in medical education requires faculty developmentFaculty development is, however, not an easy task. It requires supportive institutional leadership, appropriate resource allocation and recognition for teaching excellence. This guide is designed to assist those charged with preparing faculty for their many new roles in teaching and education in both medical and allied health science education. It provides a historical perspective of faculty development and draws on the medical, health science and higher education literature to provide a number of frameworks that may be useful for designing tailored faculty development programmes. These frameworks can be used byfaculty developers to systematically plan, implement and evaluate their staff development programmes. This guide concludes with some of the major trends and driving forces in medical education that we believe will shape future faculty development.

PMID:
 
18677659
 
[PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]


AMEE GUIDE NO 36

Faculty development: Yesterday, today and tomorrow

MICHELLE MCLEAN1, FRANCOIS CILLIERS2 & JACQUELINE M. VAN WYK3

1University of the United Arab Emirates, 2University of Stellenbosch, South Africa, 3University of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa


Abstract

의학교육은 그 자체가 하나의 학문으로서 진호하였다. Medical faculty에게 요구되는 사회적 책무와 함께 가르치는 일에 대해서도 professionalization의 압박이 커지고 있다. 프로페셔널하고 역량있는 선생, 교육자, 연구자, 리더를 키우기 위해서는 교수개발(faculty development, FD)가 필요하다. 그러나 FD는 쉬운 일이 아디나. 조직 차원에서의 지지가 필요하고, 적절한 자원의 배분과 우수한 교육자를 인정해주는 것이 필요하다.

Medical education has evolved to become a discipline in its own right. With demands on medical faculties to be socially responsible and accountable, there is now increasing pressure for the professionalisation of teaching practice. Developing a cadre of professional and competent teachers, educators, researchers and leaders for their new roles and responsibilities in medical education requires faculty development. Faculty development is, however, not an easy task. It requires supportive institutional leadership, appropriate resource allocation and recognition for teaching excellence.


이 가이드는 의학분야 뿐만 아니라 관련된 보건분야를 막라하여 교육에 대한 교수의 새로운 역할을 위한 FD를 담당하고 있는 사람들을 위해 만들어졌다. FD 개발의 역사적 관점을 보여주고 FD 프로그램을 만들기 위해서 도움이 될 만한 프레임워크를 제공하고자 했다. 이 프레임워크는 FD 담당자들이 계획을 세우고, 도입하고, 평가하는데 도움을 줄 것이다.

This guide is designed to assist those charged with preparing faculty for their many new roles in teaching and education in both medical and allied health science education. It provides a historical perspective of faculty development and draws on the medical, health science and higher education literature to provide a number of frameworks that may be useful for designing tailored faculty development programmes. These frameworks can be used by faculty developers to systematically plan, implement and evaluate their staff development programmes.


마지막으로 이 가이드는 미래 FD를 이끌어나갈 주요 트렌드와 원동력을 짚어보았다.

This guide concludes with some of the major trends and driving forces in medical education that we believe will shape future faculty development.









FD를 이끄는 원동력은 무엇인가?

What drives faculty development?


Gruppen 등이 세 가지의 주된 원동력을 밝혔으며, 다른 몇 가지의 내적/외적 요인들이 있다.

While Gruppen et al. (2006) have identified three main driving forces (public accountability, the changing nature of health care delivery and the need to sustain academic vitality) of faculty development, several others, both internal and external, also warrant consideration.


내적 요인

A. Internal factors


조직 문화의 사회화 Socialization into the institutional culture.



교육을 위한 준비 Preparation for teaching


대부분의 의과대학 교수들이 교육에 대해서 훈련을 받거나 준비과정을 거친 적이 거의 없는 것이 사실이다.

It would be true to say that most medical academics have received little or no training or preparation for their teaching responsibilities.


효과적이고 모범적인 교사, 교육자가 되는 과정은 발달과정과 같다. 한 사람이 어떻게 교육에 접근하는가는 교육/학습에 어떠한 개념을 가지고 있는지를 반영한다.

We believe that becoming an effective and exemplary teacher and then an educator is a developmental process (Riley 1993; Higgs & McAllister 2007a,b). It is generally accepted that one’s approach to teaching reflects one’s conception of teaching and learning (Trigwell 1995; Kember 1997; Prosser & Trigwell 1997; Lueddeke 2003; Richardson 2005; Prebble et al. 2004).


그 개념의 범위는 'reproductive', 즉 지식을 전달하는 것으로부터 'transformative' 즉 가르친다는 것은 인지적 측면 뿐만 아니라 정서적(affective) 측면의 변화까지 일으킨다는 것 까지 넓다. 가르쳐보는 경험만으로 transformative 라는 개념을 익히게 된다는 근거는 거의 없기 때문에 교수들이 교육을 더 잘 하도록 하려면 기관적 차원에서 이러한 개념을 가르쳐주고 지원하는 것이 필요하다. 

Conceptions range from reproductive, in which teaching is perceived as knowledge transmission, to a transformative conception in which teaching is perceived as fostering not only cognitive but also affective change in learners. As there is little evidence suggesting that teaching experience alone promotes the adoption of transformative conceptions (Norton et al. 2005), it is becoming imperative that institutions invest in and support their teaching faculty in transforming their conceptions, which should then improve their teaching practice. 


'교육'과 관련한 커리어를 밟는 사람들은 다음과 같은 논리적 과정을 거치게 된다. 

"Teacher => Scholarly teacher => Educational scholar/Educational leader."

For individuals who choose a ‘teaching’ career path (i.e. personal development), this professional development can be followed through to its logical conclusion: from teacher, to scholarly teacher, to educational scholar (Cohen et al. 2005; Fincher & Work 2006) or perhaps educational leader (Eitel et al. 2000; Steinert et al. 2003; Rogers 2005; Cohen et al. 2005).


지원을 해주기 위해서는 교수들에게 조언을 해주고 피드백을 줘야 한다. 세 가지 모델이 있다.

To provide support, advice and feedback for teachers to improve their practice, Weimer and Lenze (1997) describe three models:


      • The professional service model, in which a consultant provides organizational or technical support.
      • The counselling model, in which a consultant assists teachers to seek solutions to their own problems and challenges.
      • The collegial model, in which two peers provide mutual guidance.


이 세가지 모델을 조합해서 활용하는 것이 효과적일 것이다.

It is likely that a combination of these models will be effective, as each caters for different needs.


멘토링은 professional inquiry의 문화를 만들어서 새롭게 들어온 사람들이 두려워하지 않아도 되는 환경을 조성하고, 협력적 네트워크를 조성하고, 진로개발을 도와주며, 의미있는 academic encounter를 권장해준다.

Mentoring, through the creation of a culture of professional inquiry, may foster a nonthreatening environment for socializing newcomers, promoting collaborative networks, developing career paths and encouraging meaningful academic encounters (Pololi et al. 2002; Steinert 2005; Ramani 2006).


더 국제적인 관점에서 FAIMER의 성공은 멘토링 프로그램을 통해 국제적 네트워크와 협력 고리를 만들었기 때문에 가능한 것이었기도 한다.

In a more global context, part of the success of the Foundation for the Advancement of International Medical Education and Research (FAIMER) in terms of establishing international networks and collaborative links rests with its mentoring programme (Burdick et al. 2006).



학문적 활력 유지 Sustaining academic vitality


교수들 사이에 스트레스와 burnout은 흔한 일이다.

Stress and burnout amongst medical teachers is common (Harden 1999).


academic vitality를 증진시키기 위해서는 적절한 FD프로그램이 적절한 보상/인센티브와 연계되어야 한다.

To promote academic vitality, appropriate faculty development programmes linked to rewards and incentives would assist in retaining teachers, clinicians, researchers and administrators (Bland & Stritter 1988; Hitchcock et al. 1993; Wilkerson & Irby 1998; Bligh 2005; Gruppen et al. 2006).



외적 요인

B. External factors


사회적 요구에 부응 Meeting society’s needs


의학교육의 궁극적 목표가 의료전달을 향상시키는 것이기 때문에, 사회의 보건의료에 대한 요구는 지속적으로 변화한다.

While the overarching goal of medical education is to improve health care delivery (GMC 1993, Boelen 1999), the health care needs of society are constantly changing.


GMC에서는 다음과 같이 기술하고 있다.

GMC (1993) document: 


의과학과 의학기술의 발전속도를 감안하면, 미래의 의사들은 지금은 전혀 본적도 없는 지식과 기술을 활용하게 될 것이다. 우리는 발견되지 않은 과학을 가르칠 수도 없을 뿐더러 미래를 예측할 수도 없다. 하지만 현재 의학기술과 의과학의 일부는 분명 살아남아 미래 의료의 근간을 이룰 것이다. 나머지에 대해서 우리가 할 수 있는 것은 의사들이 적응하고 변화할 수 있도록, 새로운 아이디어와 기술의 발전을 포용할 수 있도록, 전문직으로서의 평생에 걸친 학습태도를 지속할 수 있도록 가르치는 것 뿐이다.

Given the pace at which the horizons of medical science and technology expand, we can be certain that the doctors of tomorrow will be applying knowledge and deploying skills which are at present unforeseen . . . We cannot teach science that is as yet undiscovered nor can we forecast its future implications. But some of the present day art and science of medicine is fundamental to its practice and will certainly endure . . . For the rest, we can best strive to educate doctors capable of adaptation and change, with minds that can encompass new ideas and developments and with attitudes to learning that inspire the continuation of the educational process throughout professional life [p. 4].


개개 의대교수들에게는 막중한 책무와 사회적 책임이 따른다.

A considerable onus and social responsibility therefore rests with individual medical faculties



교육의 전문직화과 교육에 대한 책 Accountability and the professionalization of teaching practice


삼차 교육에 있어서 책무는 피할 수 없는 현실이다. Brown이 약 십년 전에 지적한 것처럼 '교육에 대한 책임은 대학만 가지고 있는 것은 아니며, 대학이 하는 역할 중에서 학생/직원/기타 이해관계자가 관심을 두는 가장 대중적인 역할이다.

Accountability is a fact of life in tertiary education. As Brown (2000) pointed out almost a decade ago, ‘teaching is rarely the only occupation of an academic . . .. And yet it is the most public aspect of the work, in that students, employers and other stakeholders often focus on that part of the academic’s role’.


인증에 대한 여러 문헌들에서는 '측정가능한 성과'에 대해서 교수들이 가르치는 것을 'professionalize'해야 할 필요가 있으며, 이에 대해 보상받아야 할 것을 주장하고 있다. HPCSA에서는 '의과대학은 교육의 효과성에 대한 기준을 마련해야 한다. 의학교육에 대한 qualification이 승진에 반영되어야 한다'라고 하고 있다.

Measurable outcomes in many accreditation documents increasingly refer to the need for teachers to professionalise their practice, for which they should be rewarded (e.g. World Federation for Medical Education 2003, HPCSA 2004) – ‘Medical schools should establish effectiveness-related standards of performance for all teaching staff. . .. Qualifications in medical education should be recognized for promotion’ (HPCSA 2004).


Box3에서 다루고 있는 역량은 삼차교육에 종사하는 모든 교수들이 갖추어야 할 일반적인 기술과 능력을 평가하는 좋은 시작점이다.

(Box 3). Such competencies might be a good starting point for reflecting on generic skills and abilities of all teachers in tertiary education, including medical education.





인증에 대한 압박은 국경을 넘어 확장되고 있다.

the pressure for accreditation now extends beyond a country’s borders (Hamilton 2000; Lilley & Harden 2003; Stern et al. 2003; 2005; Karle 2006).


한 예로서 WFME는 staff development의 기본 기준을 다음과 같이 말하고 있다.

As an example, the WFME (2003) requires that as a basic standard of staff development


의과대학은 교육/연구/진료 능력에 대해서 균형잡힌 정책을 가져야 하며, 칭찬할 만한 업적에 대해서는 충분히 인정해줘야 한다.

‘the medical school must have a staff policy which addresses a balance of capacity for teaching, research and service functions, and ensures recognition of meritorious academic activities, with appropriate emphasis on both research attainment and teaching qualifications.’


의과대학 학생들을 의학의 지식과 기술을 가르치는 것 외에도 의과대학 졸업생은 가르칠 수 있는 능력을 지녀야 한다.

In addition to training medical students in the art and science of medicine, our medical graduates are also expected to teach.


미국 의과대학 학생연합(AMSA)는 Mount Sinai School of Medicine과 협동을 통해서 'Training Tomorrow's Teachers Today'라는 프로그램을 만들어서 학생들의 임상교육능력과 학문적 리더십 스킬을 높이고자 했다.

The American Medical Students’ Association, recognizing this omission, has proactively, in collaboration with Mount Sinai School of Medicine, designed the ‘Training Tomorrow’s Teachers Today’ programme to enhance students’ clinical teaching and academic leadership skills.



FD의 장애물은 무엇인가?

What are the barriers to faculty development?


Skeff등은 세 가지의 주된 장애물을 언급했다.

For Skeff et al. (1997b), three major barriers impact on faculty development: lack of institutional support, misconceptions and attitudes of teachers and the relative paucity of research on what constitutes effective teaching improvement.



학교 차원의 지원 부족

Lack of institutional support for faculty development


조직의 문화 Institutional culture

조직의 문화는 FD에 담겨지는 가치에 영향을 준다. 조직 내, 학문 내의 다양한 맥락적 상황적 요소가 이러한 mismatch에 영향을 준다.

The institutional culture affects the value ascribed to faculty development. A number of contextual and situational factors (e.g. leadership; appropriate rewards) within institutions and even within different disciplines may contribute to this mismatch, including the value assigned to teaching (Healey 2000; Knight & Trowler 2000; Richardson 2005; Norton et al. 2005).


연구가 승진의 'gold standard'인 기관에서 FD에 대한 참여가 떨어지고, FD가 하향식 접근법으로 여겨지는 상황에서도 비슷한 일이 생긴다. 

At institutions where research remains the ‘gold standard’ for appointment and promotion, participation in faculty development may require negotiation. A similar situation could arise if faculty development is perceived as a political ‘top-down’ approach, with little or no personal or professional reward (Hill & Stephens 2004).


Boyer’s (1990) identification of four scholarships, followed by Glassick et al. (1997) criteria for measuring these scholarships, has provided a template for recognizing and rewarding excellence and scholarly activities in all spheres of academia.


교수들의 태도와 오해 Teachers’ attitudes and misconceptions

교수들의 태도와 오해는 FD에 참여할 가능성을 낮춘다.

Teachers’ attitudes and misconceptions about their teaching reduce the likelihood of participation in faculty development (Skeff et al. 1997b).


FD의 장기적 효과에 대한 연구 부족 Paucity of research on long-term benefits of faculty development. 

앞서 언급된 것처럼 의미있는 혹은 장기적인 효과는 연구된 바가 부족하다. 

As mentioned earlier, meaningful or longterm outcomes of faculty development have generally not been measured or documented, despite several decades of research on and reported success of faculty development programmes (Skeff et al. 1997a, b; Guskey 2003; Prebble et al. 2004; Steinert 2005; Steinert et al. 2006).




FD가 진짜로 중요한가?

Does faculty development really matter?


만약 teaching이 student learning에 영향을 준다는 교육의 기본 전데를 받아들인다면, 교육에 대한 지식/교육 업무를 향상시킴으로서 학생에게 이득이 돌아갈 것이다. FD에 관한 문헌은 많지만 teaching practice에 변화가 있었는지, student learning이 향상되었는지에 관한 의미있는 결과를 보고한 연구는 적다.

If we accept the fundamental educational premise that teaching influences student learning (Lueddeke 2003; Prebble et al. 2004), then by improving educational knowledge and teaching practice, students should benefit. Despite a wealth of literature describing faculty development programmes in medical, health sciences and higher education, few studies document meaningful outcomes such as sustained changes in teaching practice or improved student learning (Skeff et al. 1997a; Prebble et al. 2004; Steinert et al. 2006; Knight et al. 2007; Williams et al. 2007).


이러한 측면에서 Prebble 등은 FD의 틀(frame)에 영향을 주는 네 개의 주된 요소를 주장했다.

In this regard, Prebble et al. (2004) identified four guiding influences, which can be used to frame faculty development. 


These include:

(1) attributes and elements that contribute to good teaching practice,

(2) teachers’ beliefs and conceptions of teaching and learning that may positively influence student outcomes,

(3) a range of conceptual models of good teaching, and

(4) learners’ perceptions of what constitutes quality teaching.


1. 좋은 교육행동에 영향을 주는 요소들

1. Teaching elements and attributes contributing to good teaching practice

학생들의 학습을 촉진하는 교육의 특질을 나열하는 것이 가능하다.

It has been possible to identify teaching attributes (from an extensive list) that promote student learning, such as those proposed by Cohen (1981) and Ramsden et al. (1995) (Box 4).


2. 교사가 교육에 대해 가지고 있는 믿음

2. Teachers’ beliefs about teaching.
     교육과 학습에 대한 개념을 제대로 이해하고 있지 않으면, 교사들은 교육을 지식을 전달하는 것으로 보기 쉽다.

Without an awareness of their teaching and learning conceptions, teachers generally view their task as imparting knowledge.


3. 교수-학습에 대한 개념 모델

3. A conceptual model of teaching and learning. 


학생 중심의 학습 접근법을 가지고 있는 교사들은...

In their view, teachers who adopt a ‘student-centred learning approach’ to teaching

(1) 학생의 학습의 관점에서 도달하고자 하는 것이 무엇인지에 대한 일관되고 분명한 관점을 가지고 있다.

(1) develop a coherent and articulated view of what they are trying to achieve in terms of student learning, and how they can achieve this (i.e. focus on student learning). Today, learning outcomes need to reflect more than just knowledge acquisition,

(2) 학생들이 planned learning context를 인지할 수 있는 다양한 방법을 활용한다.

(2) discover the many ways in which students perceive the planned learning context (i.e. take cognisance of the learning environment), and

(3) 자신의 분명한 관점을 학생들이 이해하도록 한다.

(3) ensure that students understand the articulated view (i.e. align teaching and learning).


따라서 FD의 주된 기능은 교수들이 자신의 teaching practice를 학생의 needs와 align시키는 것이다.

A major function of faculty development should therefore be about making teachers aware of aligning their teaching practice with the needs of students.


4. 가르침에 대한 학생의 인식

4. Students’ conceptions of teaching

학생들이 자신들의 학습경험에 대해서 평가하도록 하는 것은 흔히 사용되는 방법이다. 많은 사람들이 믿는 바와 달리 학생들의 평가는 적절하게 사용되면 일반적으로 신뢰도도 높고, 편향이 적어서 피드백을 주기에 유용하다. 학생들의 평가는 FD의 좋은 시작점이다.

Asking students to assess the quality of their learning experiences is commonly used by institutions to guide faculty development. Contrary to what many academics may believe, student evaluation, provided it is used appropriately, is useful, generally reliable and is relatively unbiased in terms of providing feedback to individual faculty and administrators (Dunkin 1997). Student evaluation has been recommended as a good starting point for faculty development (Hitchcock et al. 1993; Trigwell 1995).






의학교육실(Medical Education Units Offices)이 FD에 기여한 바는 무엇인가?

What contributions have medical education units offices made to faculty development?


최조의 의학교육실(offices of medical education)은 1950년대 후반부터 1960년대 초반 사이에 세워졌다. 그들의 주된 업무는 기본적으로 의학교육 연구였다. 이후 1970년대 이후에 의학교육실/교실(medical education units/departments)들은 학부 의학교육을 지원하게 되었으나 교수들에게 새롭게 요구되기 시작한 책무에도 반응하고 있었다.

Although the first offices of medical education were set up in the late 1950s and early 1960s, their focus, according to Davis et al. (2005), was primarily medical education research. Later, in the 1970s, medical education units/departments were established to support undergraduate medical programmes, but probably also in response to the evolving responsibilities (and hence needs) of teachers (Tables 1 and 2). 


1980년대와 1990년대에 PBL이 널리 퍼지면서 활동 영역이 더넓어졌고, 지난 20년간 FD의 초점은 개개 교수로부터 학과/조직의 요구에 이르게 되었다. 의학교육학과는 많은 의과대학에서 중요한 역할을 하게 되었다. 1993년 이전에는 의과대학에서 교육 전문가들을 거의 키우지 않았지만, 이제는 사회의 변화하는 요구에 맞춰서 새로운 기술을 익히고 학문적 협회를 발달시키는 역할을 하고 있다. 

The widespread adoption of problem-based learning (PBL) in the late 1980s and 1990s then sparked a flurry of activity, resulting in education units appearing in many medical faculties. Over the past two decades, with the shift in focus of faculty development from the individual teacher to departments and institutional needs (Bland & Schmitz 1988; Benor 2000; Hill & Stephens 2004), medical education departments have become integral in a number of medical colleges. Educational specialists, a rare breed at medical schools prior to 1993 (Leinster 2003), but now highly sought after, are responsible for reskilling and developing the academic fraternity in the light of society’s changing health care needs. For a comprehensive discussion on the development and roles of a medical education unit, readers should consult AMEE Educational Guide No. 28 (Davis et al. 2005).









 2008;30(6):555-84. doi: 10.1080/01421590802109834.

Faculty developmentyesterdaytoday and tomorrow.

Abstract

Medical education has evolved to become a discipline in its own right. With demands on medical faculties to be socially responsible and accountable, there is now increasing pressure for the professionalisation of teaching practice. Developing a cadre of professional and competent teachers, educators, researchers and leaders for their new roles and responsibilities in medical education requires faculty developmentFaculty development is, however, not an easy task. It requires supportive institutional leadership, appropriate resource allocation and recognition for teaching excellence. This guide is designed to assist those charged with preparing faculty for their many new roles in teaching and education in both medical and allied health science education. It provides a historical perspective of faculty development and draws on the medical, health science and higher education literature to provide a number of frameworks that may be useful for designing tailored faculty development programmes. These frameworks can be used byfaculty developers to systematically plan, implement and evaluate their staff development programmes. This guide concludes with some of the major trends and driving forces in medical education that we believe will shape future faculty development.

PMID:
 
18677659
 
[PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]






AMEE GUIDE NO 36

Faculty development: Yesterday, today and tomorrow

MICHELLE MCLEAN1, FRANCOIS CILLIERS2 & JACQUELINE M. VAN WYK3

1University of the United Arab Emirates, 2University of Stellenbosch, South Africa, 3University of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa


Abstract

의학교육은 그 자체가 하나의 학문으로서 진호하였다. Medical faculty에게 요구되는 사회적 책무와 함께 가르치는 일에 대해서도 professionalization의 압박이 커지고 있다. 프로페셔널하고 역량있는 선생, 교육자, 연구자, 리더를 키우기 위해서는 교수개발(faculty development, FD)가 필요하다. 그러나 FD는 쉬운 일이 아디나. 조직 차원에서의 지지가 필요하고, 적절한 자원의 배분과 우수한 교육자를 인정해주는 것이 필요하다.

Medical education has evolved to become a discipline in its own right. With demands on medical faculties to be socially responsible and accountable, there is now increasing pressure for the professionalisation of teaching practice. Developing a cadre of professional and competent teachers, educators, researchers and leaders for their new roles and responsibilities in medical education requires faculty development. Faculty development is, however, not an easy task. It requires supportive institutional leadership, appropriate resource allocation and recognition for teaching excellence.


이 가이드는 의학분야 뿐만 아니라 관련된 보건분야를 막라하여 교육에 대한 교수의 새로운 역할을 위한 FD를 담당하고 있는 사람들을 위해 만들어졌다. FD 개발의 역사적 관점을 보여주고 FD 프로그램을 만들기 위해서 도움이 될 만한 프레임워크를 제공하고자 했다. 이 프레임워크는 FD 담당자들이 계획을 세우고, 도입하고, 평가하는데 도움을 줄 것이다.

This guide is designed to assist those charged with preparing faculty for their many new roles in teaching and education in both medical and allied health science education. It provides a historical perspective of faculty development and draws on the medical, health science and higher education literature to provide a number of frameworks that may be useful for designing tailored faculty development programmes. These frameworks can be used by faculty developers to systematically plan, implement and evaluate their staff development programmes.


마지막으로 이 가이드는 미래 FD를 이끌어나갈 주요 트렌드와 원동력을 짚어보았다.

This guide concludes with some of the major trends and driving forces in medical education that we believe will shape future faculty development.








Introduction


한 때, 의과대학을 졸업한 사람은 누구나 가르칠 수 있는 능력이 있다고 생각되던 때가 있었다. 그러나 점차 가르치는 것은 타고난 재능이 아님이 명백해졌고, 가르치는 내용 외에도 '가르침'이라는 것은 어떤 '과정'으로서 '기술'이 필요하고 학문적 지원이 필요함이 확실해졌다.

At one time, anyone who graduated from medical school was considered capable of teaching. It became apparent, however, that teaching was not an innate gift. Besides content, teaching also involved ‘process’, and to develop the ‘art’ of teaching, academics required support (Benor 2000).


초기의 teacher training이라는 것의 목적은 교수들의 '가르치는 능력'을 키워주기 위한 것이었다.

The purpose of this early ‘teacher training’ was generally to prepare academic faculty members for teaching,


연구와 행정이라는 반복되는 레파토리와 함께 FD의 개념은 확장되어서 한 조직의 학문적 기반을 확장하는 것이라는 의미를 담게 되었다.

As an academic’s repertoire of responsibilities evolved to include research and administration, the concept of faculty development expanded, largely to strengthen the academic base of institutions (Bland & Stritter 1988; Hitchcock et al. 1993; Wilkerson & Irby 1998; Steinert 2000, 2005; Steinert et al. 2003; Harris et al. 2007).


Sheets와 Schwenk는 FD의 정의를 다음과 같이 내렸다. "교수들로 하여금, 그들이 자기 학과나 레지던트 프로그램을 위해서 어떤 수행을 하는데 필수적이라고 여겨지는 영역의 지식과 술기를 향상시키기 위한 계획된 활동"

Sheets and Schwenk (1990) capture this in their definition of faculty development: ‘‘Any planned activity to improve an individual’s knowledge and skills in areas considered essential to the performance of a faculty member in a department or a residency programme (e.g. teaching skills, administrative skills, research skills, clinical skills)’’. 


'학생의 학습'의 근간을 이루는 이론들이 staff development가 진화하는데 중요한 역할을 했다.

The theories underpinning student learning have played a major role in the evolution of staff development (Table 2).


1970년대에는 '좋은 선생'을 목표로 하였고, 80년대와 90년대에는 좀 더 학생중심이 되어서 학습의 촉진자가 목적이었다. 21세기에는 성과바탕교육이 등장하였다.

in the 1970s, faculty development aimed to develop the attributes and competencies of the ‘good’ teacher: someone who could use various teaching aids, reinforce important concepts and communicate effectively (Wilkerson & Irby 1998). In the 80s and 90s, reform to more student-centred and self-directed learning required a metamorphosis of the teacher, from a didactic conveyer of knowledge to a facilitator of student learning (Entwistle & Ramsden 1983; Knowles 1988). To make this transition, teachers needed new skills, which required training. The dawning of the new millennium brought ‘outcomes-based education’, with competencies being identified for graduating medical students (Harden et al. 1999; Carraccio et al. 2002; Simpson et al. 2002).


FD는 의대교수들의 역할이 다양해짐에 따라서 그 영역과 정의가 더 넓어졌다.

Faculty development followed suite, and the various roles of the medical teacher, from clinical expert to mentor and role model, were further expanded and defined (Harden & Crosby 2000) (Figure 1).


Hesketh 등은 three circle model을 이용하여 좋은 임상 선생님의 지능에 대해 정의한 바 있다.

Not long afterwards, Hesketh et al. (2001), using the three circle model (Harden et al. 1999), defined the intelligences of an excellent clinical teacher


'교수의 역량'은 끊임없이 재정의된다. 개개인의 교수들이 모든 영역에서 다 뛰어날 수 없기 때문에 '노동의 분할'이라는 경향이 일부 학문 영역에서 등장하기 시작했다.

the competencies of faculty members are continuously being redefined. Acknowledging that individual faculty members cannot excel in all of the recognized responsibilities, a trend of a ‘division of labour’ has emerged in some academic disciplines (Tedesco et al. 2002; Harris et al. 2007).


FD를 재정의하는데 있어서 확장되고 있는 'faculty'라는 개념을 이해할 필요가 있다.

In redefining faculty development, cognisance should be taken of the broadening concept of ‘faculty’.


오늘날의 의대생들의 선생님은 개인병원의 의사, 지역사회의 의사, 다른 보건의료직 등을 모두 포함한다. 교육 경험과 각 선생의 수준이 다르기 때문에 FD는 의대생과 졸업후 교육을 하는 사람들을 모두 포함해야 한다.

Thus, teachers of today’s medical students may now include clinicians in private practice, community preceptors as well as practitioners from other health care professions, such as physiotherapists, nurses and social workers (Eitel et al. 2000; Steinert 2005). As their teaching experience and level of teacher training will vary (Clark et al. 2004; Houston et al. 2004), faculty development should therefore include any individual involved in teaching undergraduate medical students or supervising post-graduates.







왜 가이드가 필요한가?

Why the need for a guide?


FD의 초점은 개개인의 교사에 대한 접근에서 조직적/총체적 접근쪽으로 옮겨져갔다. 어떤 사람들이 보기에 이것은  하향식의 접근법이며 개개인의 희생을 요구하는 것이다.

As a result of some of these forces, the focus of faculty development has shifted from individual teacher development to a more institutional and systematic planning approach, which some may perceive as top-down, and at the expense of individual academics (Hill & Stephens 2004).


우리는 모든 FD프로그램은 조직의 발전과 개인의 발전을 모두 추구해야 한다고 생각한다.

we believe that any faculty development programme should address both the professional (i.e. in the interest of the institution) and the personal (i.e. benefiting the individual) development of teachers.


보건 의료분야의 고등교육에 대한 문헌들에서 다양한 FD프로그램을 다루고 있다. 하지만 모든 문헌들이 그 효과성까지 기술하고 있는 것은 아니다. 평가는 종종 자기기입식의, 스스로 생각하는 이익에 대해 보고하는 수준이며, 실제 교육 현장을 모니터하고 평가되고 있지는 않아 그 효과성을 판단하기 쉽지 않다.

The medical, health sciences and higher education literature abounds with descriptions of the many and varied faculty development programmes (Wilkerson & Irby 1998; Prebble et al. 2004; Steinert et al. 2006; Skeff et al. 2007). Not always forthcoming, however, is the effectiveness (i.e. meaningful outcomes, such as improved teaching practice) of many of these interventions (Prebble et al. 2004; Steinert 2005; Otto et al. 2006; Steinert et al. 2006). Evaluation has often relied on perceived, self-reported benefits rather than monitoring and assessment of actual teaching practice, making it difficult to judge the effectiveness of faculty development.


여기서는 무엇을 다룰 것인가?

What will be covered in this guide?


여기서는 '가르치는' 영역에 대해서만 다룰 것이다.

Direction will therefore be provided in terms of the ‘teaching’ aspect only..


누가 이 가이드를 읽어야 하는가?

Who should read this guide?


이 가이드는 Faculty developer들을 돕기 위해서 만들어졌으며 우리는 이들이 이 가이드를 유사한 영역인 interprofessional learning에까지 적용하기를 기대한다.

This guide aims to assist faculty developers who have been tasked with supporting teachers and supervisors of medical students. We hope that faculty developers in allied health professions will also find the guide useful as similar principles will apply, particularly in the light of an increasing emphasis on interprofessional learning (Parsell & Bligh 1999; Bligh et al. 2001).


이 가이드에 담겨있는 가정과 원칙은 무엇인가?

What assumptions and principles are embodied in this guide?



이 가이드에 담긴 기본 가정은 FD는 의학교육의 궁극적인 목적을 달성하기 위한 것이라는 점이다. 

The primary assumption embodied in this guide is that faculty development must ultimately serve the overarching goals of medical education i.e. improving patient and community care by training and educating quality medical practitioners.


그 외의 다른 가정들은 아래와 같다.

Several other assumptions are embodied in this guide: 

의학교육은 의학교육자와 각 전공과목 교육자들에 의해 감독받는 하나의 전문직종이다.

. Medical education is a profession in its own right, overseen by specialist educators and medical educators.

여기서 사용하는 teacher와 educator는 professional development의 서로 다른 레벨을 의미한다.

. The use of ‘teacher’ and ‘educator’ in this guide refers to different levels of professional development.

Educator는 조금 더 학문적인 것으로서 더 높은 medical education qualification의 더 높은 단계이고, 의학교육연구에도 관여하는 것을 말한다.

An ‘educator’, on the other hand, is more scholarly, and will often have a higher or medical education qualification and is involved in medical education research.

FD은 다양한 목적을 위해서 필요하기 때문에 FD는 다양한 레벨에 대해서 계획되어야 한다(개인, 부서, 조직, 지역, 국가, 국제)

. Faculty development serves many purposes, ranging from individual staff development in terms of teaching, research, administration or career opportunities, to meeting the accountability needs of an institution. Faculty development should therefore be planned at different levels: individual, departmental, institutional, regional, national or international (Skeff et al. 1997a, b).

FD프로그램은 academic staff의 개인적 발전과 전문직 발전을 모두 촉진해야 한다.

. Faculty development programmes should promote both the personal and professional development of academic staff


21세기에 기관 수준에서의 FD에 대한 더 종합적인 정의는 아래와 같다.

A more comprehensive definition of faculty development at an institutional level in the 21st century might then read something along the lines of:


"The personal and professional development of teachers, clinicians, researchers and administrators to meet the goals, vision and mission of the institution in terms of its social and moral responsibility to the communities it serves."









 2008;30(6):555-84. doi: 10.1080/01421590802109834.

Faculty developmentyesterdaytoday and tomorrow.

Abstract

Medical education has evolved to become a discipline in its own right. With demands on medical faculties to be socially responsible and accountable, there is now increasing pressure for the professionalisation of teaching practice. Developing a cadre of professional and competent teachers, educators, researchers and leaders for their new roles and responsibilities in medical education requires faculty developmentFaculty development is, however, not an easy task. It requires supportive institutional leadership, appropriate resource allocation and recognition for teaching excellence. This guide is designed to assist those charged with preparing faculty for their many new roles in teaching and education in both medical and allied health science education. It provides a historical perspective of faculty development and draws on the medical, health science and higher education literature to provide a number of frameworks that may be useful for designing tailored faculty development programmes. These frameworks can be used byfaculty developers to systematically plan, implement and evaluate their staff development programmes. This guide concludes with some of the major trends and driving forces in medical education that we believe will shape future faculty development.

PMID:
 
18677659
 
[PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]



















(출처 : http://webaccessibility.gmu.edu/barriers_DE.html)




의과대학의 교수개발 프로그램은 선생님으로서, 관리자로서, 연구자로서의 역할을 잘 할 수 있도록 돕기 위한 목적이 있다.

Faculty development programmes designed to assist faculty members to fulfil their multiple roles as teachers, administrators and researchers have developed a prominent profile in most medical schools


그러나 교수들이 교수개발 프로그램에 참여하고자 하는 동기에 대한 연구는 적다.

However, the literature on attendance and participation in these activities is scant and, to our knowledge, no one has looked at what motivates clinical teachers to participate in faculty development initiative


교수들의 교수개발 프로그램 참여와 관한 두 가지 연구 영역이 있다. 한가지는 의사들로 하여금 참석하게 만드는 요인은 무엇인가 하는 것이다.

Two areas of inquiry are pertinent to why faculty members participate in faculty development activities. The first is the broad field of continuing medical education (CME), in which several authors have examined what motivates doctors to attend formal events.

For example, McLeod and McLeod5 identified five important motivators

maintenance of professional competence; 

acquisition of new knowledge and skills; 

improvement of understanding of key concepts; 

elimination of clinical deficiencies, and reassurance that one is ‘doing it right’. 

In another study, Harrison and Hogg6 examined motivators for CME attendance and uncovered the following: 

obtaining information and updates; 

reassurance that practice behaviour lies within accepted guidelines, 

and interaction with specialist presenters.


참여의 장애물은 무엇인가에 대한 연구도 있다.

Although motivators for participation in faculty development have not been explored, several studies have looked at barriers

Skeff and colleagues7 identified the following barriers against participation in faculty development programmes focusing on teaching improvement: 

attitudes and misconceptions of teachers; 

insufficient support from the institution, 

and a lack of convincing research on the benefits of teaching improvement methods.


또 다른 연구.

(i) the clinical reality, which encompassed volume of work and a lack of (protected) time; 

(ii) logistical issues, which included the timing of sessions and the central location of organised activities, which was often viewed as ‘remote’; 

(iii) a perceived lack of financial reward and recognition for teaching, and 

(iv) a perceived lack of direction from, and connection to, the university.



이러한 연구결과를 바탕으로 이 논문에서는 다음을 보려고 한다.

'자주 참석하는 교수들'의 참석 동기는 무엇인가.

'자주 참석하는 교수들'이 생각하는 참여의 장애요인은 무엇인가

어떻게 참여를 높일 수 있을까.

Building on our previous findings, the goals of this study were: 

(i) to explore what motivates ‘frequent attendees’ to participate in centralised faculty development activities; 

(ii) to examine frequent attendees’ perceptions of the personal, professional and organisational barriers described by ‘non-attendees’ in our earlier study,8 and 

(iii) to identify strategies to enhance faculty development offerings.



임상 교수들의 인식

Clinical teachers’ perceptions of faculty development


연구 참여자들은 'teacher improvement'라고 보았다.

The focus group participants generally had a clear idea of the goals of faculty development. They saw it as linked to ‘teacher improvement’ and felt that faculty development provided support for teaching, validated the importance of teaching, and offered a venue for self-improvement as a teacher


자주 참석하는 사람들은 왜 자주 참석하는가

Reasons why some clinical teachers participate on a regular basis


개인적, 전문적 성장을 할 수 있음

Faculty development is seen as enabling personal and professional growth

‘I go to faculty development to have my batteries recharged…’

‘Yeah, it’s like a mini, not a mini-sabbatical, but like a mini-retreat...’


학습과 자기성장을 가치롭게 여기는 사람임

Learning and self-improvement are valued

‘I like to learn new things. I like to expand my horizons... I think it’s about our priorities and where our interests lie...’


워크숍 주제가 필요에 맞음

Workshop topics must be viewed as relevant to teachers’ needs

‘For me it’s topic-oriented. If I’m interested in the topic, then I go…’

‘What usually draws me in is the subject matter – if it is relevant to the work I do…’


다른 동료들과 네트워크를 이룰 수 있음

The opportunity to network with colleagues is appreciated


처음 해봤을 때의 경험이 긍정적이어서 계속 하게 됨.

Initial positive experiences promote ongoing involvement

"낚였다(getting hooked)" 

The value of early positive experiences – and the notion of ‘getting hooked’ 

‘Once they get there, they’ll stay there...’



장애요인에 대한 임상교수들의 인식 

Clinical teachers’ perceptions of barriers against participation


자주 참석하는 교수들과 참석하지 않는 교수들이 느끼는 장애요인이 유사하다는 사실을 눈여겨 볼 필요가 있다.

It is noteworthy that individuals who attended faculty development on a regular basis perceived the same barriers against participation as their colleagues who did not attend.8


또한 교수개발 프로그램의 '장소'(학교 안인가 학교 밖인가) 역시 중요한 상징적 의미를 갖는다.

Moreover, as in our previous study,8 the location of our faculty development activities had both ‘symbolic’ and practical implications



참여를 높이기 위한 방법 

Ways to increase clinical teachers’ participation


다음의 제안을 한다.

In response to the question of how we can attract individuals who do not attend on a regular basis, the following suggestions were made: 

• 사람들을 끌어모을 수 있는 "연수 친구" 시스템을 만든다. implement a buddy system to get junior faculty members ‘hooked’;

• 동료들을 대상으로 멘토 역할을 한다. mentor colleagues; 

• co-leader로서 참석할 교수를 초대한다. invite faculty members to participate as ‘co-leaders’; 

• 새로 부임한 교수를 위한 소개 프로그램을 만든다. develop an orientation programme for new faculty members, and

• 조직 문화를 바꾼다.change the ‘institutional culture’ by formally recognising and rewarding teaching and participation in faculty development.


‘We need to catch them when they’re young! We need to help them learn to navigate the hidden curriculum... the academic culture...’




'동기'이란 단어의 라틴어 어원은 '움직인다' 이다. "기대"와 "가치" (둘 다 '동기'와 관련이 된다.)의 역할에 대해 고민해볼 필요가 있다. 

The Latin root of the word ‘motivation’ means ‘to move’.16 It would be beneficial to investigate the roles played by expectancies and values (both related to motivation) in helping some clinical teachers ‘move’ out of their clinical reality to participate in faculty development activities


성공적인 community of practice과 관련된 다섯 가지 요인이 있다.

Lave and Wenger20 suggest that the success of a community of practice depends on five factors: 

the existence and sharing by the community of a common goal

the existence and use of knowledge to achieve that goal

the nature and importance of relationships formed among community members

the relationships between the community and those outside it, 

and the relationship between the work of the community and the value of the activity.

그 외에도 필요한 것들은 공동의 자원(언어, 이야기, Practice)이 있다.

community also requires a shared repertoire of common resources, including language, stories and practices.21 


많은 면에서 공동체진료의 한 구성원으로 속한다는 것은 교수개발의 중요한 촉진제 역할을 할 수 있다.

In multiple ways, belonging to a community of practice can be an important facilitator for faculty development, which in turn can lead to the creation of a community of practice.22 


의학교육자로서, 교수개발자로서, 동료들이 공동체의 가치를 생각하고, 공동체를 찾아나설 수 있게 해야한다.

As medical educators and faculty developers, we need to help our colleagues value the community of which they are a part (e.g. by celebrating its existence, members and resources) and find community (e.g. by building new networks, creating opportunities for exchange and support, and sustaining relationships). 


또한 교수개발이 '사회적 역할'이라는 인식을 가질 수 있게 해야 한다. 그래서 상황학습이 아닌 '성인학습(자)'의 원칙을 따를 수 있도록 해야 한다.

Moreover, if we begin to conceptualise faculty development as a social practice, these findings may have important implications for the design and delivery of faculty development activities which often follow principles of adult learning and instructional design, but do not explicitly consider principles of situated learning23,24 and the building of communities of practice.20,21




 2010 Sep;44(9):900-7. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2923.2010.03746.x.

Faculty development: if you build it, they will come.

Source

Faculty Development Office, Faculty of Medicine, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada. yvonne.steinert@mcgill.ca

Abstract

OBJECTIVES:

The goals of this study were three-fold: to explore the reasons why some clinical teachers regularly attend centralised faculty development activities; to compare their responses with those of colleagues who do not attend, and to learn how we can make faculty development programmes more pertinent to teachers' needs.

METHODS:

In 2008-2009, we conducted focus groups with 23 clinical teachers who had participated in faculty development activities on a regular basis in order to ascertain their perceptions of faculty development, reasons for participation, and perceived barriers against involvement. Thematic analysis and research team consensus guided the data interpretation.

RESULTS:

Reasons for regular participation included the perceptions that: faculty development enables personal and professional growth; learning and self-improvement are valued; workshop topics are viewed as relevant to teachers' needs; the opportunity to network with colleagues is appreciated, and initial positive experiences promote ongoing involvement. Barriers against participation mirrored those cited by non-attendees in an earlier study (e.g. volume of work, lack of time, logistical factors), but did not prevent participation. Suggestions for increasing participation included introducing a 'buddy system' for junior faculty members, an orientation workshop for new staff, and increased role-modelling and mentorship.

CONCLUSIONS:

The conceptualisation of faculty development as a means to achieve specific objectives and the desire for relevant programming that addresses current needs (i.e., expectancies), together with an appreciation of learning, self-improvement and networking with colleagues (i.e., values), were highlighted as reasons for participation by regular attendees. Medical educators should consider these 'lessons learned' in the design and delivery of faculty development offerings. They should also continue to explore the notion of faculty development as a social practice and the application of motivational theories that include expectancy-value constructs to personal and professional development.








(출처 : http://meded.ucsf.edu/radme/faculty-development)




교수법 향상 개입의 효과

EFFECTIVENESS OF TEACHING-IMPROVEMENT INTERVENTIONS


어떤 교수개발 모델 혹은 개입방법을 사용할 것인가를 결정할 때, 관련 연구들의 결과를 참고하는 것이 도움이 된다. 교수법 향상에 관한 최근의 연구들은 과거의 연구와 비슷한 결론을 도출하고 있다. 교수향상을 위한 개입방법의 영향에 대한 실험논문은 많지 않지만, quasi-experimental 연구를 비롯한 다른 논문들이 많이 있다.

When considering which faculty development models and interventions to use, it is helpful to base these decisions upon the results of educational research. The most recent reviews of the research on instructional-improvement interventions in medical education17,18.are in accord with prior reviews.5,39-42 While there is a paucity of experimental research on the effects of teaching-improvement interventions, there is a large and growing body of quasi-experimental and qualitative research demonstrating the efficacy of longer workshops, students' ratings coupled with individual consultation, and faculty development fellowships


Workshops


이틀 혹은 그 이상 길이의 워크숍은 한 가지 이상의 개입방법을 포함하고 있으며, 실제 수행과 피드백, Reminder가 교수자의 지식, 태도, 기술에 영향을 주는 것으로 연구되어 있다.

Workshops that are two days long or longer, involve more than one type of intervention, and are followed up with practice, feedback, and reminders have demonstrated effects on teachers' knowledge, attitudes, and skills. 21,22,37,44-56


이러한 결론은 Davis 등의 메타분석 결과와도 비슷하다.

This conclusion is similar to that reached by Davis and colleagues 57 in a meta-analysis of continuing medical education programs intended to change the practice, knowledge, attitudes, and skills of physicians


Teaching Evaluations with Consultation


학생으로 하여금 교육을 평가하게 하는 것은 교육자의 행동을 바꿀 수 있으며, 특히 개개인에 대한 자문이 더해질 경우 더욱 그렇다.

Evaluations of teaching by students can lead to changes in teaching behaviors, particularly if accompanied by individualized consultation in which the instructor is provided assistance in interpreting results and devising changes in

teaching practice in a nonthreatening environment.60


임상 교육에 대한 최근의 연구 결과에서 평가 결과를 제공할 때 개개인에 대한 조언을 함께 하는 것의 중요성이 자주 강조되고 있다. 전향적인 무작위 시험에서 개개인에 대한 피드백을 준 것이 기술 향상과 평가 전-후의 차이가 가장 컸다.

Three recent studies in clinical education reinforce the importance of individualized advice in reporting ratings. A prospective, randomized trial of the effect of feedback on clinical teaching by Schum and Yindra63 suggests that individual feedback was associated with higher ratings on four skills and larger pre-post differences among participants than among controls


Wilson은 가장 통계적으로 중요한 변화를 보인 평가 아이템들은 구체적이고, 자세하고, 행동에 관한 것(concrete, specific, behavioral) 이었다 라고 하였다.

Wilson found that rating "items on which the greatest number of faculty showed statistically important change were those for which the suggestions were most concrete, specific, and behavioral.69.


Faculty Development Fellowship Programs


교수개발 프로그램에 대한 fellowship program은 더 자세하면서 포괄적인 기전을 다루고 있으며, 비교적 최근에 등장하였다.

Faculty development fellowship programs have emerged in recent years as a more in-depth and comprehensive mechanism for strengthening the instructional skills and scholarly abilities of faculty members





A COMPREHENSIVE PROGRAM OF FACULTY DEVELOPMENT

전문가 개발 (Professional Development: Joining the Academy)

교수법 개발 (Instructional Development)

리더십 개발 (Leadership Development)

조직 수준 개발 (Organizational Development: Educational Policies and Procedures)





교수개발은 교육사업에 있어서 몇 단계에 걸쳐서 교수들을 참여시켜야 한다. 


시작 단계에서, 모든 교수들은 기본적인 교육 기술을 습득해야 하며, 그 기관의 학문적 가치, 규범, 기대에 대해 이해하고 있어야 한다.

Faculty development programs need to address the several levels of faculty involvement in the educational enterprise. 67·69 At the entry level, all faculty members should possess basic teaching skills and be oriented to the academic values, norms, and expectations of the institution


자신의 교육에 대한 성찰의 기회가 주어짐에 따라서 일부 교수들은 좀 더 교육학적 지식을 습득해야 하며 여기에는 다음과 같은 것들이 포함된다. 

With opportunities to reflect upon their teaching practices, a subset of teaching faculty will develop into teachers with more pedagogic content knowledge, 19 which integrates...

 knowledge of content, learners, 

teaching skills, context, and, in medicine, patients. 

이 단계에서 일어나는 변화의 원동력은 더 발전된 교육 경험, guided reflection, 교육 이론과 실습에 대한 광범위한 노출 등이다.

This second level occurs as a result of more advanced teaching experience, guided reflection, and broader exposure to educational theory and practice



세 번째 단계에서 교육프로그램에 리더쉽을 발휘하는 교수들이 생겨난다. 임상실습이나 레지던트 프로그램의 책임자를 맡게 되며, 교과과정 위원회의 위원장이나 교육에 관심이 있는 주니어 스텦들의 멘토로서 역할을 할 수 있다.

At a third level, there are those faculty members who provide leadership to educational programs, serving as directors of clerkship and residency programs, as chairs of course and curriculum committees, and as mentors to junior colleagues

interested in teaching


일부 소그룹의 교수들은 Teacher-scholar의 네 번째 단계에 도달하며, 교육을 가르치는 것과 교과과정의 과정과 결과(process and outcome of teaching and the curriculum)으로 인식한다.

A small group of faculty members constitutes a fourth level-teacher-scholars, who approach education with questions about the process and outcomes of teaching and the curriculum



마지막으로 학교에는 정책, 과정, 조직구조를 집행하며 의미있는 참여를 이끌어내고, 교육의 향상을 가져오는 일을 할 수 있는 일부 교수들과 집행부가 있다.

Finally, schools have a group of faculty members and administrators who are committed to and capable of creating policies, procedures, and organizational structures that encourage meaningful participation in and improvement of education.7


이러한 다양한 종류의 교육자들을 개발하고 유지하기 위해서 교수개발 프로그램은 넓은 범위의 활동을 포함해야 한다.

In order to develop and sustain the work of these various types of educators, faculty development programs should include a range of activities:6, 70- 72



Professional Development: Joining the Academy


academic community의 새로운 일원으로서, 교수는 academic profession에 대한 사회화가 되어야 한다. Benor와 Mahler는 "조직, 조직의 철학, 그리고 조직의 교육적 접근에 대한 개개 교수들의 정체성을 확립해야 한다"라고 강조했다.

As new members of the academic community, faculty members need to be socialized into the academic profession. Benor and Mahler stress the importance of "enhancing the identification of the individual teacher with the institution, its philosophy, and its educational approaches." 71


새로운 교수 구성원에 대해서 다뤄야 할 내용은 교수에게 요구되는 가치와 규범, 기대와 같은 것들이며, 특히 선생님으로서의 역할이 중요하다. 

Issues to be addressed for new faculty members include the values, norms, and expectations of the faculty, particularly as teachers; 

the skills of scholarship as defined by the institution; 

the establishment of a network of experienced and knowledgeable colleagues; 

and knowledge of the steps for academic advancement, including how to document accomplishments as a teacher.



Instructional Development


<초급 교육 기술 Initial teaching skill>


교수 개발은 교수들이 기본적인 교육 기술을 학습하는 것으로부터 시작하며, 이는 교수에게 요구되는 교육적 역할과 연결이 되어야 한다. 

Faculty development should include opportunities for all faculty members to master basic teaching skills. Such skills should be connected to the instructional roles that faculty members are asked to perform 51, 52, 54, 74 

presentation and discussion facilitation skills; 

strategies for teaching during patient care; 

instructional planning and reflection skills; 

evaluation, feedback, and grading skills; 

and information technology skills


<가르침과 배움을 연결시키기 Connecting teaching and learning.>


가르치는 것을 학습하는 것과 연결시킬 수 있어야 한다. 몇 년의 교육을 경험하고 나면 교수들은 왜 어떤 방법은 통하고 어떤 방법은 통하지 않는지에 대해 생각하게 된다. 그들은 학습자에 대해서 더 관심을 가질 수도 있고, 가르치는 사람인 본인에 대해서는 덜 신경을 쓸 수도 있다. 이 때야말로 교수-학습에 대한 것을 가르치기에 가장 좋은 때이며, 학습 이론과 교육 임무를 연계시키는 과정에 참여시킬 수 있는 기회이다. 교육수행을 되돌아보면서 교수들은 그들이 가르쳤던 경험으로부터 학습을 한다.

After several years of teaching, faculty members often begin to wonder why certain teaching methods work while others do not. They may also begin to focus more on the learners and less on themselves as teachers. This is the best time to introduce them to the literature on teaching and learning, and to engage them in the process of connecting learning theory to teaching practices. Reflective educational practices involve faculty members in learning from their experiences of teaching. 


실용적인 지식에 대한 토론과 교육에 대한 생각에 대해 이야기하고, 학습에 대한 연구를 리뷰하면서 경험이 많은 교수들은 어떻게 가르쳐야 할 것인가에 대한 자신만의 이론을 구성할 수 있다.

Through discussion of their practical knowledge and beliefs about teaching, and review of research on learning, more experienced teachers can begin to construct a personal set of principles to guide decisions76 about how to teach specific content to particular learners in distinct situations. 3,18,19,27


Leadership Development


<교과과정 개발과 리더십(Curriculum development and leadership in medical education)>


교육프로그램의 발전을 위해서는 그들이 이끌어 갈 집단의 사고체계를 Re-framing하고, 조직의 활력을 위해서는 변화를 유도하는 것이 필수적이라는 것을 일깨워 줄 수 있는 효과적인 리더가 필요하다.

Educational programs need effective leaders who are capable of reframing the thinking of those whom they guide and of encouraging change as an essential component of institutional vitality. 78


공식적이든, 비공식적이든 리더는 서로 다른 리더십 스타일을 이해하고 어떻게 사용해야 하는가를 알아야 한다.

Both types of leaders, formal and informal, need to understand different leadership styles and how to use them.



<Instructional scholarship>


교육 리더들은 teacher-scholar처럼 그들이 지휘했던 교육 프로그램의 성과와 질을 평가할 책임이 있다. 프로그램 평가를 디자인하고 수행하는 능력은 지속적인 질적 향상에 필수적이다.

Educational leaders, as teacher-scholars, are responsible for evaluating the quality and outcomes of the teaching programs that they direct. Skills in the design and implementation of program evaluation are essential to the success of continuous quality improvement.




Organizational Development: Educational Policies and Procedures


교수개발의 목적은 교수 구성원들이 교육자로서의 역할을 잘 하도록 하는 것이고, 이를 통해서 지속적 학습(continual learning)에 대해 보상을 하고 이를 장려하는 조직을 만드는 것이다. 교육 리더와 교수개발의 전문가들은 서로의 책임을 공유하고 교육적 미션과 가치를 공유하며, 교육과 관련된 의사결정과정에 교수들을 활발히 참여시켜야 한다. 

The goal of faculty development is to empower faculty members to excel in their role as educators and in so doing, to create organizations that encourage and reward continual learning. 70 Educational leaders and professional faculty developers share the responsibility for creating and promoting a shared educational mission and shared values, for actively involving the faculty in decision making related to education, for providing opportunities for teaching improvement, and for shaping the systems for evaluating and rewarding teaching.7


교수와 행정가들은 교육에 가치를 두고, 지속적 학습을 중시하는 조직의 분위기를 만들 수 있다. 

Faculty members and administrators can create an organizational climate that values education and the process of continual learning. For example, a teaching-evaluation system 80,81 with established procedures for reporting educational contributions of faculty members such as the educator's portfolio11 can carry important messages about how teaching is valued and how faculty members should allocate their time.






 1998 Apr;73(4):387-96.

Strategies for improving teaching practices: a comprehensive approach to faculty development.

Source

Department of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles 90095-1722, USA. lwilk@deans.medsch.ucla.edu

Abstract

Medical school faculty members are being asked to assume new academic duties for which they have received no formal training. These include time-efficient ambulatory care teaching, case-based tutorials, and new computer-based instructional programs. In order to succeed at these new teachingtasks, faculty development is essential. It is a tool for improving the educational vitality of academic institutions through attention to the competencies needed by individual teachers, and to the institutional policies required to promote academic excellence. Over the past three decades, strategies to improve teaching have been influenced by the prevailing theories of learning and research on instruction, which are described. Research on thesestrategies suggests that workshops and students' ratings of instruction, coupled with consultation and intensive fellowships, are effective strategies for changing teachers' actions. A comprehensive faculty development program should be built upon (1) professional development (new faculty members should be oriented to the university and to their various faculty roles); (2) instructional development (all faculty members should have access toteaching-improvement workshops, peer coaching, mentoring, and/or consultations); (3) leadership development (academic programs depend upon effective leaders and well-designed curricula; these leaders should develop the skills of scholarship to effectively evaluate and advance medicaleducation); (4) organizational development (empowering faculty members to excel in their roles as educators requires organizational policies and procedures that encourage and reward teaching and continual learning). Comprehensive faculty development, which is more important today than ever before, empowers faculty members to excel as educators and to create vibrant academic communities that value teaching and learning.

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