교수개발프로그램의 전이(transfer)를 높이기 위한 12가지 팁(Medical Teacher, 2014)

교수개발프로그램의 전이(transfer)를 높이기 위한 12가지 팁(Medical Teacher, 2014)

Twelve tips for increasing transfer of training from faculty development programs

STEPHEN L. YELON, J. KEVIN FORD & WILLIAM A. ANDERSON Michigan State University, USA

Introduction

임상적으로 교수가 될 준비가 잘 되었다고 해도, 교수로서 맡아야 할 새로운 학문적 역할에 모두 준비된 것은 아니다. 교수개발의 정의는 아래와 같다. 교수개발의 수단으로는 멘토링, 자기주도학습, 웹기반학습, 워크숍, 펠로우십 프로그램 등등이 있다.

Physicians who choose a career in academic medicine are generally well prepared clinically to serve as faculty; however, they may not be as well prepared to be successful in their new academic roles (Steinert et al. 2006). Medical schools have provided training in essential academic skills through faculty development programs. Steinert et al. (2006) define the term faculty development as the “broad range of activities that institutions use to renew or assist faculty in their academic roles”. Medical schools have largely focused faculty development efforts on new faculty, addressing the knowledge, skills and attitudes necessary for instruction, scholarship, and administration (Bland et al. 1990). Faculty developers have taught these skills via mentoring, self-directed learning initiatives, web-based learning, workshops, and full or part-time fellowship programs (Steinert 2000).

미시간주립대학의 교수개발 프로그램 개요(1)

The Michigan State University’s (MSU) Primary Care Faculty Development Program is one example of a successful national on-campus/at-home, part time faculty development fellowship program that ran from 1978 to 2012. The overall goal of the program was to prepare new primary care physicians for full-time careers in academic medicine. The fellowship curriculum addressed the basic roles of instruction, research, and leadership and also included other domains such as the use of computer technology, and adjustment to working in the academic community. For each role, there were objectives for all participants to attain. For example, for instruction, fellows, as the program’s participants were known, were to plan and present a lesson, teach a psychomotor skill, give feedback, and carry out selected clinical teaching approaches.

미시간주립대학의 교수개발 프로그램 개요(2)

Six hundred and one academic physicians from medical schools and primary care residencies completed this fellowship. Fellows spent a total of four weeks at MSU learning and practicing teaching, research or leadership skills in workshops, seminars and small group activities. At their home institutions, fellows completed assignments and projects to practice new skills or to demonstrate their attainment of program objectives.

미시간주립대학의 교수개발 프로그램 개요(3)

The MSU faculty development fellowship program used both formative and summative evaluation strategies. Fellows consistently expressed high satisfaction with their learning. Generally, fellows stated they were able to master most, if not all, of the program learning objectives, and, subsequently, supervisors noted positive changes in fellows’ faculty behavior.

교육의 현장전이에 대한 효과를 평가하는 것이 어렵다. 현장전이(Transfer)의 정의와 영향을 미치는 세 가지 주요 요소(학습자 특성, 훈련설계방식, 근무환경)

One of the most challenging outcome evaluation questions for the MSU Faculty Development Fellowship Program was a question of transfer of training, that is, the degree to which fellowship program graduates used at their home institutions the methods of instruction they acquired. Transfer is defined as the extent to which trained knowledge and skills are applied to the work context. Systematic reviews of training transfer research have identified three major factors affecting the extent of transfer to the job: 

• trainee characteristics (e.g. trainee motivation to learn), 
• training design features (e.g. incorporation of learning principles), and 
• work environmental factors (e.g. supervisory support for training) (Baldwin & Ford 1988; Blume et al. 2010; Grossman & Salas 2011).

MSU 교수개발 프로그램의 평가결과 요약. 신뢰할 수 있고, 실용적이고, 필요한 것을 적용한다. 조직이 필요로 하고, 배운 내용을 적용하는 것에 대한 보상이 있고 그것을 지원받을 수 있기에 적용한다.

MSU fellowship program faculty systematically investigated the transfer of instructional skills from the MSU program over the past 15 years (Yelon et al. 1997 2004, 2013; Sleight & Reznich 2006). In brief, the researchers uncovered a continuous, dynamic, transfer process whereby individual fellows perceived the utility of a method learned in the program, became ready to use it, applied it, and learned from its application. Fellows decided to use a method when they perceived its credibility, practicality and need. Immediately, and over years, in different ways and in varied contexts, fellows applied behavioral skills such as presenting a lecture, teaching a psychomotor skill, and giving feedback, as well as intellectual skills, such as planning, analyzing, and evaluating instruction. Fellows reported continuing to use what they learned because their well-designed plans were effective in addressing recognized institutional needs, and because they were supported and rewarded for application.

'전이'란 복잡하고 점진적으로 나타나는 단계로서, 훈련 이전, 훈련 중, 훈련 후에 걸쳐서 나타난다.

Researchers reviewing transfer, including the articles about MSU fellows, proposed that transfer is a set of complex, gradually emerging processes taking place before, during, and after training (Ford & Weissbein 1997; Yelon & Ford 1999). Accordingly, faculty developers must strive to incorporate strategies and principles that are effective in facilitating transfer prior to, during, and following a training experience.

본 article의 목적

(...)

MSU 펠로우십을 기반으로 진행된 연구, 기존 논문, 이론적 논문, 33년간의 운영경험에 기반한 팁임을 밝힌다.

The tips are based on the research conducted by MSU fellowship faculty about the ways medical fellows transferred instructional skills they learned to their work, reviews of empirical literature on transfer (Baldwin & Ford 1988; Baldwin et al. 2009; Grossman & Salas 2011), theoretical articles on transfer (Broad & Newstrom 1992; Yelon & Ford 1999; Yelon & Sheppard 1999; Broad 2005; Ford et al. 2011) and knowledge we gained from thirty three years of experience in directing, teaching and evaluating the MSU Primary Care Faculty Development Program.

무엇을 필요로 하는지 분석하라

Tip 1 Assess development needs

프로그램의 내용이 참가자들에게 관련된, 효용성있는 것일 때 현장전이가 촉진된다.

Researchers assert that participants’ perceived relevance and utility of an instructional program’s content has a strong influence in producing transfer (Grossman & Salas 2011). For example, MSU medical fellows said they transferred what they learned in the program because they believed they needed the skills taught to do their work well (Yelon et al. 2004, 2013). One fellow, who needed to improve his medical skills course reported that he knew immediately that he would apply one of the program’s instructional goals: able to systematically teach psychomotor skills. Another resolved to apply lesson-planning skills after practice when he realized he could do the same with his students.

프로그램 설계는 요구사정으로부터 시작한다.

Thus, begin designing a transfer-oriented faculty development program by conducting a needs assessment of faculty participants (Grant 2002). For example, program planners may investigate what potential participants do to meet clinical and academic expectations. Planners may search for the competencies that participants need to be successful in those academic roles, and, especially the competencies they lack. Fortunately, several researchers have provided, as a head start, lists of essential faculty competencies to consider (Bland et al. 1990; Harris et al. 2007; Srinivasan et al. 2011).

'요구되는 역량'이 프로그램의 목표가 된다.

Needed competencies become program goals: the statements that learners will use to judge personal relevance, and that program staff will interpret to design transfer-oriented, learning experiences. In addition, program planners can take into account the work conditions and constraints they find that are likely to affect participants’ attempts to transfer new skills after the program.

요구조사를 위해 활용할 수 있는 방법

Investigative strategies include direct observation, surveys, focus groups, and interviews. For example, one may ask participants on a survey to assess their current level of competence for each academic medical skill, as well as their interest and need to learn more. Supervisors may add their observations as well.

프로그램을 지원하면서 어떤 기대를 하고 왔는지 알아보기

Tip 2  Communicate the expectation of application

참가자들은 학습한 내용을 성공적으로 활용한 근거를 제시해야 한다.

To foster transfer, convey to participants that they are to apply at work what they learn from the program. Broadcast this message at every possible opportunity: improvement of academic medicine requires application of knowledge, skill and attitude; and application takes time, hard work, and a little help from friends. Specifically, state that session attendance or participation alone is not acceptable. Participants must provide evidence of the successful application of learning.

모든 세션을 시작할 때 실제 상황과 관련될 수 있는 학습목표를 언급하면서 시작하는 것이 좋다.

For instance, program staff may remind participants of the need to apply, by starting every session with specific objectives that are related to real world roles. They may communicate expectations of transfer in their exposition as: “Here’s something you can use when presenting at noon conferences as I did when…” Staff may continue by conducting simulation exercises of that performance. Further, to account for differences in participants’ duties and work environments, one may convey, by statement and example, permission to adapt methods to their specific circumstances.

적용시에 필요한 지원을 해줄 것을 약속하기

Tip 3 Secure support for application

Support의 의미

The term support, in the context of transfer, refers to the encouragement and the time and physical resources given to participants to motivate and enable them to apply what they learn. Researchers identify support as a crucial factor in promoting transfer, both in the short and the long run (Baldwin & Ford 1988; Broad & Newstrom 1992; Sleight & Reznich 2006; Grossman & Salas 2011; Yelon et al. 2004, 2013). Those participating in a faculty development program need the support of their colleagues and especially of their supervisors.

프로그램에 참가하는 사람들은 자신의 일상업무를 벗어나서 상당한 시간을 할애하게 되며, 동료로부터의 저항에 부딪칠 수도 있다. 따라서 프로그램을 시작하기 전에 참가자와 참가자의 상관, 프로그램 관리자로부터 공식적 동의(시간 허용, 새로운 접근법의 활용 등에 대한 동의)를 받아두는 것이 좋다.

Participants in lengthy programs must spend considerable time away from their everyday duties. Thus, participants may encounter resistance from colleagues, and they may become discouraged from spending time applying what they have learned. Therefore, before the onset of the program, gain formal agreement from supervisors and administrators for released time and for allowing attempts at perfecting new approaches, both during and after the program. Consider a phone or live conversation about needed support between a participant, a supervisor and a program staff member, followed by a signed document attesting to the aid promised. As to support from coworkers, teach participants how to gain and maintain help and encouragement from colleagues within and outside their own institutions. Monitor adherence to the agreement by inquiring and intervening if needed.

교수자가 현장전이에 대해서 가르칠 준비가 되어있어야 한다.

Tip 4 Prepare instructors to teach for transfer

전이에 영향을 주는 두 가지 주요한 요소를 고려해야 한다.

To prepare to teach for application, instructors in a faculty development program have to take into account two major factors influencing transfer, that is, participants’ personal characteristics and work environments (Baldwin & Ford 1988). Program instructors also must be able to design a program to create instruction that learners need, will be able to use and will accept – the third major factor influencing transfer.

청자가 무엇을 원하는지, 무슨 의무를 지고 있는지, 근무환경은 어떤지 알아야 한다.

First, instructors must know their audience’s needs, duties and work conditions. To gain that knowledge, instructors can study the results of their program’s needs assessment. To collect specific information relevant to their instruction, instructors may contribute questions to the assessment.

참가자가 그러한 조건에서 활용할 수 있는 방법이 무엇인지 알아야 한다.

Second, instructors must know methods that their participants could use, given their needs and work context. Hence, based on their research and experience, instructors have to know an assortment of practical, effective methods that can be broadly applied or specifically adapted.

참가자는 교수자가 신뢰할 만 하고, 그래서 교수자가 제시한 방법을 받아들일만 하다고 인식할 수 있어야 한다.

Third, participants have to perceive their program instructors as believable so as to accept the methods they propose. As a case in point, MSU fellows reported that they decided to apply ideas taught because they believed the program faculty when they said the methods would be effective (Yelon et al. 2004). To create believability, instructors could, for example, reveal their relevant professional experience and accomplishments when introducing themselves and using personal examples and cases. Further, to show their extensive knowledge of a topic, instructors could simplify what might otherwise be complex phenomena.

원칙과 방법을 모두 가르쳐야 한다.

Tip 5 Teach principles and methods

방법과 원칙의 차이

Methods are the ways of doing something, while principles explain how or why something works or happens. For example, at the start of a lesson, an instructor may use the motivational method of making a statement or presenting a case to show participants when they will use the lesson’s content and what they will accomplish. In contrast, the principle of meaningfulness explains why and how the motivational method works: to motivate students to learn, relate lesson content to the learners’ experiences, interests and aspirations (Yelon 1996).

원칙을 배움으로써, 방법이 작동할 것임을 확신할 수 있고, 방법의 절차를 익혀서 현장에서 적용할 준비를 할 수 있다.

Yelon et al. (1997) reported that before transfer, fellows in the MSU program engaged in two processes: (1) deciding to use a method and (2) preparing to use it. By learning principles of instruction, fellows were convinced that methods would work. By learning the methods’ steps, fellows were preparing to transfer.

원칙을 먼저 가르치고, 이를 바탕으로 논리적으로 방법을 선택할 수 있게 할 것을 권한다.

We recommend teaching principles first so participants will make logical choices of methods. 

• Accordingly, program planners select and define principles that explain how or why the methods to be taught should work. 
• Program instructors explain how using those principles will be of benefit: to justify a method, adapt the approach, trouble-shoot unsuccessful attempts, and create new techniques. Instructors illustrate each principle using cases set in familiar work contexts, and in each case, clearly accentuate the cause, relationship, and effect. After an explanation of each principle, instructors demonstrate an application and ask participants to explain how the principles were operating.
• Then, instructors teach methods that fulfill needed competencies, such as how to create a motivational attention-getter according to the meaningfulness principle. After justifying each method’s relevance and utility, instructors describe and demonstrate its steps, and provide practice and feedback.

적용에 대한 동기를 부여하기

Tip 6 Motivate to apply

실용적이고, 효과적이고, 필요성을 느껴야 한다.

Yelon et al. (2004) reported that fellows in the MSU program decided to apply what they learned about teaching when they perceived the content as practical, effective, and needed. Accordingly, learners will decide to use an approach when they believe: “I can employ this method”, “I believe this method will work” and “I must use this method to get what I need” (Yelon et al. 2004, 2013). For example, learners might decide immediately to use the One Minute Preceptor approach if they see it as easy to use, likely to work, and as likely to fulfill an important clinical teaching need.

가르칠 때 근거중심의, 충분한 이유가 있는 기법을 가르쳐야 하고, 적용 사례를 제시해야 한다.

To produce perceptions of credibility, practicality and need, program faculty must describe evidence-based and meaningful reasons for use of methods taught and must provide examples of application. Faculty must demonstrate methods fluently and clearly, present convincing research evidence of efficacy and efficiency, and provide realistic, challenging, active practice leading to success. For example, one technique to promote application is to show where, when, and how learners are likely to make use of the methods to be learned. Another is to show what the rewards will be for proper use and what the unfortunate consequences will be for non-use or improper use.

배운 내용을 상기시키고 적용할 때 필요한 도구를 제공하기

Tip 7 Provide tools to aid recall and application

실제로 적용할 때 까지는 오랜 시간이 걸릴 수도 있다.

Yelon et al. (1997, 2004, 2013) found that participants in the MSU program applied new ideas immediately, and weeks, months, and even years later. Fellows spoke of using instructional aids that converted to job aids, to provide reminders and offer specific guidance to apply. Fellows used program session notes, slides, checklists, decision aids, charts, lists of principles or skill steps, diagrams of processes, annotated models, and mnemonics.

For example, consider how the following combination of a novel name, a clear definition, a diagram, a poem, an outline of a plan, all on a card, served to help fellows remember and apply what they learned. In teaching goal-oriented instructional design, an instructor whispered that he was about to reveal the secret of instruction design. Projecting a definition and diagram, he gradually revealed each element of a consistent instructional system. He illustrated each part, demonstrated application, and then asked learners to apply it. He included the diagram and an outline of an instructional plan on a wallet-sized card. Later he added this poem:

• Real-world performance is the goal.
• The objective describes the test.
• If all the parts are consistent,
• your instruction will be the best.

참가자들이 직접 교육 설계를 하게될 때, 교육전략과 도구를 적절히 혼합해서 사용함으로써 원칙이 무엇인지 기억할 수 있고, 아이디어를 재구성할 수 있으며, 카드를 활용하여 계획을 짤 때 필요한 단서를 연결시킬 수 있다.

When fellows needed to design instruction, the combination of instructional strategies and transfer tools helped them remember the name of the principle, reconstruct the idea itself, associate certain cues that led them to the card, which they used to plan. For example, working at home, one fellow was planning to teach other physicians how to be successful on foreign medical missions. As she was thinking about what she wanted to teach, she remembered, “Real world performance is the goal!” Then she remembered the card, retrieved it from her home office, and applied the secret of instructional design to guide her creation of a coherent and effective session.

어떻게 적용할 수 있는가를 직접 보여주기

Tip 8  Demonstrate application

Yelon et al. (2004, 2013) found that MSU fellows made up their minds to apply methods when observing demonstrations and subsequently applied the methods that faculty showed them. Those results correspond to research showing that behavior modeling is a potent factor in producing transfer (Grossman & Salas 2011). To practice efficiently and to be able to apply at work, participants must see demonstrations of desired methods.

단순히 어떻게 하는지 보여주는 의미 뿐 아니라 다른 사람이 하는 것을 관찰함으로써 학습자들은 좀 더 집중할 수 있고, 다른 사람의 시연에서 가장 중요한 지점이 어디인지 집중할 수 있고, 행동을 따르기 위한 정신틀(mental template)를 형성할 수 있다.

However, an effective demonstration is more than merely showing participants how to perform. According to Bandura (1977), to learn and transfer through observing others, learners have to be motivated to pay attention, have to be focused on the most critical aspects of the behavior shown, and have to form a mental template to guide action. 

• "곧 활용하게 될 것입니다"라고 언급함으로써 동기부여 Thus, in demonstrations, motivate learners by stating that they will practice the procedures shortly, and will also use the procedures at work. 
• 보여주기 전에 어디에 집중해야 하는지 전체 단계의 절차를 알려줌 Next, focus attention on listed steps by telling learners what to look at and look for before the demonstration. 
• 시연하는 동안 참가자의 관심을 중요한 부분으로 집중시킴 Then, as demonstrating, direct viewers’ attention to the method’s important features. 
• 직접 해보도록 하기 전에 학생들로하여금 기억해야 할 단계를 수행해보도록 함 Finally, before providing practice, ask students to commit the steps to memory (Yelon & Maddocks 1987).

실습 기회 제공하기

Tip 9 Provide authentic practice

학습자들이 '이걸 사용할 수 있겠어' 라고 말할 수 있어야 한다. 

In studying the dynamics of transfer from a faculty development program, Yelon et al. (2004) reported that, to transfer, graduates need to be able to say, “I know I can use this notion”. The researchers noted, “Fellows gained their knowledge from workshop explanations and demonstrations, but were most affected by practice” (Yelon et al. 1997).

전체 시간 중 1/4~3/4 정도는 실제 연습에 할애해야 한다.

Thus, it is imperative to arrange time for practice opportunities. As a rule-of-thumb, practice should account for a quarter to as much as three quarters of instructional time, allotting more time as learning progresses.

한 가지 기본 원칙은 - 전이를 향상시키기 위해서는 - 실제 근무현장과 유사한 맥락에서 연습해봐야 한다는 것이다. 각 연습은 약간 어렵지면 궁극적으로 달성할 수 있을 정도의 난이도여야 한다.

One basic principle of transfer is – to promote transfer, learners should practice performance in contexts similar to those at work (Thorndike 1913; Grossman & Salas 2011). Thus, practice should simulate conditions at work. Each practice should be a bit more challenging, yet achievable. To prepare learners for success, precede practice by careful explanation, a complete demonstration and precise instructions and criteria.

프로젝트를 할 것을 요구하기

Tip 10 Require a project

프로젝트의 정의

Researchers reported that after the MSU program, fellows continued to develop their fellowship projects at work, such as developing a course, conducting research, or designing college policies (Yelon et al. 2004, 2013; Sleight & Reznich 2006). A project, in the context of a faculty development program, is an assignment requiring participants to apply skills learned to meet an important need at their home institution. The project is one instance of long term, development work expected of an academic physician. For example, in the MSU fellowship, participants are required to choose a significant curricular, research, or management problem at their home institution, to investigate and to design a solution, and then to implement the solution, evaluate it and report what they find.

교수개발 프로그램의 전이를 위한 완벽한 처방이다.

A project is the perfect prescription for transfer from a faculty development program. In fact, as they progress in developing their projects, participants are transferring skills learned in the program. In addition, a project incorporates several main factors affecting transfer: participant’s needs and interests, institutional needs, and a requirement that participants perform under real world conditions (Baldwin & Ford 1988). Specifically, participants choose projects of personal interest in collaboration with their home supervisor and the faculty development program staff. Together they design a feasible and useful project for their institution and perhaps the field at large.

발달과업(developmental work)는 프로그램 기간 내내, 그리고 그 이후에도 이어진다. 

The developmental work takes place over the length of the program, and it is designed to continue beyond. Just as it would in participants’ careers, the work leads to a substantial professional product. For instance, some fellows in the MSU program produced a course manual including a justification of the need for a course documented with a literature review, followed by instructional plans, materials, a report of a pilot test, and plans for revision and continued development. In addition, fellows wrote a paper in publishable form, created and presented a poster, and summarized their work at a conference attended by work supervisors.

그러나 단순히 프로젝트 수행을 요구하는 것 만으로는 부족하다. 참가자들은 자기평가, 지속적이고 광범위한 가이드와 피드백이 필요하다. 이를 위해서는 3~5명의  참가자를 프로젝트 그룹으로 묶거나, 한두명의 프로그램 스테프가 멘토 역할을 해주는 방법도 있다.

But, merely requiring a project does not insure successful accomplishment. To complete a project successfully, participants need frequent opportunities for self-assessment, and continuous, extensive guidance and feedback from others at every step of the project. That form of systematic supervision is made possible by project groups consisting of three to five participants and one or two program staff, who act as mentors. The purpose of project groups is to continuously promote, monitor, and support successful project development.

MSU의 멘토들은 자주, 그렇지만 타당한 데드라인을 정해준다. 

MSU mentors set frequent, but reasonable, deadlines for reviewing work. They encouraged participants to help each other succeed in transfer. Both mentors and group members provided feedback to improve, encouraged participants to advance, pointed out roadblocks to transfer and provided strategies to overcome the obstacles in work conditions. Participants provided support and pressure as they affirmed proper application and pinpointed errors. When the group formed a consensus about a participants’ work, it had a profound effect on that participant’s plans.

피드백 사이클을 만들라

Tip 11 Establish the feedback cycle

Yelon et al. (1997, 2013) described a continuous cycle of learning from transfer. Through practice and subsequent feedback in the MSU program, participants became willing and competent enough to try new methods at work. At home, they observed and analyzed the consequences of their attempts, were encouraged to continue to use successful methods, to improve unsatisfactory performance, and to try again.

이 사이클을 만들기 위해서는 참가자들에게 어떻게 유용하면서, 서로를 존중하면서, 솔직하면서, 긍정적 피드백을 줄 수 있을지를 가르쳐야 한다. 또한 어떻게 피드백을 찾고, 모아서, 받아들이고, 활용할 수 있는지도 가르쳐야 한다.

To begin to establish the continuous cycle of learning from transfer, teach participants how to provide useful, respectful, frank, and positive feedback to their own medical students and to each other. Then, for each practice in the program, ask learners to assess their own work and to check peers’ work before program staff makes their analyses. Next, teach how to seek, gather, accept and use feedback to improve themselves at home, as they will and must do the rest of their careers.

시작단계에서는 루틴한 그룹 피드백을 진행하는 것이 좋다. 그 다음으로 유사한 코멘트를 동료와 교수들로부터 얻도록 한다. 마지막으로 무엇을 들었고, 어떻게 할 것인지 보고서를 제출하게 하라.

• As a first step, establish a group feedback routine. Specifically, immediately after completing a task, ask the participant performers themselves to state what they did well and what they would change. 
• Next call for similar comments from peers and faculty. If performers become defensive, remind them to listen and attend to what they should continue to do and what they need to do differently to meet the criteria. 
• Finally, ask performers to report what they heard and what they would do the next practice round.

Subsequently, provide opportunities for participants to apply what they have learned about giving, listening to and accepting feedback. When practicing new skills or when presenting portions of their projects they need to listen to peers and staff in the program, colleagues and supervisors at home, and critics and experts outside their institution.

전이를 평가하라

Tip 12 Evaluate transfer

Over the years MSU fellows mentioned that they had used what they had learned. Faculty became curious about what, when, how, and why fellows had transferred what they learned. Consequently, MSU program faculty set out to evaluate transfer. Their purpose was to generate hypotheses about what had transferred and why, so as to improve the program and to inform colleagues about transfer. In the three studies mentioned (Yelon et al. 1997, 2004, 2013), Yelon et al. asked fellows to tell stories about their applications. From the stories faculty gained considerable food for thought about specific aspects of the program, and about transfer in general. One outcome was the tips you have been reading.

교수개발 프로그램을 개발하는 사람들이 전이를 촉진시키고 싶다면, 일부의 시간은 현장적용을 평가하기 위해 남겨두어야 한다. 온라인 설문이나, critical incident report를 제출하도록 할 수 있다. 

Thus, if faculty development program developers design a program oriented for transfer, they should consider allocating some time and effort to evaluate application. Evaluators can use qualitative research approaches calling for open-ended responses as recommended by Ford et al. (2011) to gain insight into the process of transfer. They can also use online questionnaires and surveys or critical incident reports using a social media site.

Conclusion

배운 내용을 적용하기 위해서는 (1)배운 내용을 수행할 능력이 있어야 하고 (2)시도해보고자 하는 의지가 있어야 하고 (3)자신의 시도가 지지받는다는 기분을 느낄 수 있어야 한다.

For faculty development participants to be likely to apply the methods they learn, they must: (1) be able to perform, (2) be willing to try and (3) feel supported (Mager & Pipe 1997). In our 12 tips, we account for each of these prerequisites to transfer. 

• First, to create the ability to transfer, participants learn needed competencies, as knowledgeable faculty guide them via relevant content, aids, demonstration, practices and feedback. 
• Second, to create willingness to apply, participants learn to adhere to a norm of applying the practical, needed approaches taught. As they achieve success and notice the effectiveness of their new skills, they want to try again. 
• Third, to produce support for application at work, participants learn to arrange for the physical resources, time, and opportunities to transfer. 

추가적으로 참가자들이 자신들의 새로운 시도의 효과에 대해서 건설적 피드백을 찾고, 모으고, 활용함으로서 스스로를 도울 수 있다면 더 안전함을 느낄 것이다. 또한 이를 위해서 이 12개의 팁은 하나의 시스템으로 활용되어야 한다.

Further, when participants realize that they can take care of themselves by seeking, gathering and using constructive feedback about the effects of their attempts, they feel secure. Because all three outcomes are necessary to influence transfer, the tips are to be used as a system. Clearly, designing a faculty development program to produce able, willing and secure medical educators is a demanding task, but well worth the effort.

---

Med Teach. 2014 Nov;36(11):945-50. doi: 10.3109/0142159X.2014.929098. Epub 2014 Jul 2.

Twelve tips for increasing transfer of training from faculty development programs.

Yelon SL1, Ford JK, Anderson WA.

Author information

• 1Michigan State University , USA.

Abstract

Physicians serving as faculty in medical schools are taught medical skill and knowledge, but are usually not taught how to be competent teachers, researchers and leaders. Medical schools can provide the appropriate training for academic faculty by providing faculty development. However, to accomplish the purpose of producing competent teachers, researchers and leaders, faculty development programs must be designed to foster transfer of training, the use on the job of what is learned in instruction. Based on experience and empirical research, we provide tips as to how to design and conduct faculty development programs that will enable and motivate medical school faculty to use the skills and knowledge they learn as academic physicians.

PMID:

 

24984563

 

[PubMed - in process]