전이(Transfer)훈련: 문헌 고찰(Human Resource Development Review, 2006)

전이(Transfer)훈련: 문헌 고찰(Human Resource Development Review, 2006)

Training Transfer: An Integrative Literature Review

LISA A. BURKE

University of Tennessee–Chattanooga

HOLLY M. HUTCHINS

University of Houston

이 통합적 리뷰를 위해서 우리는 먼저 전이에 영향을 주는 주요 개념요인들의 taxonomy를 찾아서 다양한 요인들의 카테고리화하고자 했다. 구체적으로 우리들은 세 가지 주요 요인들을 찾았다.

To conduct this integrative review, we first identified a taxonomy of major conceptual factors influencing transfer in order to categorize the diverse variables permeating the literature. Specifically, we examine the developing knowledge of three primary factors influencing transfer—learning character- istics, intervention design and delivery, and work environment influences—as based upon influential conceptual models in the field (Alvarez, Salas, & Garofano, 2004; Baldwin & Ford, 1988; Ford & Weissbein, 1997; Salas, Cannon-Bowers, Rhodenizer, & Bowers, 1999).

문헌 리뷰

A Review of the Literature

영역과 선택 기준

Domain and Selection Criteria

'훈련의 전이'란 직무로 돌아가서 훈련된 지식과 스킬을 활용하는 것이다. 전이가 일어나기 위해서는 "학습된 행동이 직무 맥락에 일반화되어 일정 기간에 걸쳐서 유지되어야 한다."

Training transfer generally refers to the use of trained knowledge and skill back on the job. For transfer to occur “learned behavior must be generalized to the job context and maintained over a period of time on the job” (Baldwin & Ford, 1988, p. 63).

학습자 특성

Learner Characteristics

다음과 같은 것들이 있다.

Thus, the primary learner characteristics influencing training transfer examined here include the trainee’s

 

• intellectual ability,
• self-efficacy regarding the training task,
• motivation level, as well as
• job/career variables and
• personality traits

 

that largely affect trainee motivation.

인지적 능력

Cognitive Ability

 

General mental ability, "교육연구에서 가장 흔하고 지지가능한supportable 결과는, general ability가 높은 학생들이 주로 전이가 일어난다는 것이다"

Support has long existed for the influence of general mental ability in the training and learning venue (Baldwin & Ford, 1988). Clark and Voogel (1985) argue that “one of the most common and supportable findings in educational research is that far transfer is achieved by students with higher general ability scores” (p. 120).

이러한 것들이 있음 (general intelligence, cognitive ability, general cognitive ability)

자기효능감

Self-Efficacy

자신의 과제수행을 위한 역량에 대한 피훈련자의 판단

Judgments trainees make about their competency to perform tasks (Gist, Schwoerer, & Rosen, 1989),

 

네 가지 자기효능감의 근원Bandura (1982) : enactive mastery, modeling, verbal persuasion, and arousal

Bandura (1982) defined self- efficacy as judgments individuals make about their competency to perform a defined task; he identified four sources of self-efficacy development—enactive mastery, modeling, verbal persuasion, and arousal.

 

전이의 일반화와 유지에 긍정적 영향

self-efficacy has been found to be positively related to transfer generalization and transfer maintenance

 

어떤 개입법은 학습자의 자기효능감을 향상시켜서 수행능력을 높이고자 하였는데, 이는 자기효능감이 가단성있는malleable 학습자 특성임을 말한다.

Some interventions that have been designed to increase learner self-efficacy have produced increases in training performance (Gist, 1989; Gist, Stevens, & Bavetta, 1991; Morin & Latham, 2000; Stevens & Gist, 1997) indicating self- efficacy is a malleable learner characteristic (in contrast to trainees’ innate intelligence).

전이를 높이기 위한 자기효능감 발달 방법들

For example, support for including self-efficacy development methods to enhance transfer have been demonstrated:

• (a) Transfer intervention으로 mastery expe- riences 와 지지적 피드백이 포함되었을 경우
  when mastery expe- riences and supportive feedback were included as a transfer intervention (Gist, 1986),
• (b) 목표 설정과 자기관리 전략이 훈련후 transfer intervention에 활용되었을 경우
  when goal setting and self-management strategies were used in a posttraining transfer intervention (Gist et al., 1991), and
• (c) 참가자가 transfer intervention의 한 부분으로 verbal self-guidance를 활용한 경우
  when partici- pants used verbal self-guidance as part of a transfer intervention (Brown & Morrissey, 2004).

동기부여

Motivation

"훈련의 전, 중, 후에 피훈련자가 학습-지향적 발달 활동에 투입apply하는 노력의 강도와 지속성"

Training motivation refers to the intensity and persistence of efforts that trainees apply in learning-oriented improvement activities, before, during, and after training (Tannenbaum & Yukl, 1992).

훈련 전 동기부여

pretraining motivation—or the learner’s level of intensity and desire asmeasured before the training intervention

학습에 대한 동기

motivation to learn was a key variable linking pretraining characteristics and training outcomes,

 

전이에 대한 동기부여

Motivation to transfer is the learner’s intended efforts to utilize skills and knowledge learned in training setting to a real world work situation

 

많은 연구들이 전이에 대한 동기부여가 '학습에 대한 동기', '자기효능감', '효용성 반응utility reaction', '전이 환경 요인' 등에 영향을 받는지를 확인하고 있음

However, the majority of studies has continued to examine motivation to trans- fer as an outcome variable influenced by participant motivation to learn (Kontoghiorghes, 2002), self-efficacy (Machin & Fogarty, 2004), utility reac- tions (Ruona, Leimbach, Holton, & Bates, 2002), or transfer climate factors (Seyler, Holton, Bates, Burnett, & Carvalho, 1998).

외재적/내재적 동기. 모두 영향을 주긴 하나, 내재적 동기에 좀 더 무게가 실림

The extrinsic and intrinsic components of motivation have also been linked to training outcomes. Although research has found influences for both extrinsic and intrinsic factors on transfer (Rouiller & Goldstein, 1993; Santos & Stuart, 2003; Taylor, Russ-Eft, & Chan, 2005; Tracey, Tannenbaum, & Kavanagh, 1995), preliminary findings appear to favor intrinsic factors.

성격

Personality

불안Anxiety: 부적 상관관계

anxiety produced negative correlations with every training outcome examined in their study, including transfer.

부정적 정서(개인이 부정적 감정을 지니는 성향)

negative affectivity (i.e., the dispositional tendency of individuals to feel negative emotions) as the only significant pre- dictor of posttraining transfer implementation intentions,

 

긍정적 정서: 긍정적 동기를 갖게 함

trainees with high positive affectivity to have higher motivations to improve their work performance through learning.

 

개방성

openness to experience exhibited higher training proficiency

 

사회성

Those trainees who were highly sociable (extroverted) in Barrick and Mount’s classic work (1991) also exhibited higher training performance across multiple occupational categories

 

외향성

Naquin and Holton (2002) suggest that extroversion influences trainees’ motivation to improve their work performance through learning, which is typically a social process.

 

성실성Conscientiousness

Conscientiousness has been shown to positively impact training proficiency (Barrick & Mount, 1991; Rho  .23) as well as trainees’ confidence in their ability to learn (Martocchio & Judge, 1997).

 

성실성은 중재요인moderating factor에 특히 영향을 받는 것으로 보임. Herold 등은 특히 '끈기(학습과 전이를 위한 결심resolve), 성취요소(훈련 목표를 달성하려는 열망) 등을 제시

conscientiousness seemed especially dependent on moderating factors. Herold et al. (2002) specifically suggest that the perseverance component (i.e., a resolve to learn and transfer) and achievement component (i.e., a desire to attain and enact training goals) of conscientious- ness be studied separately to isolate any differential effects on transfer.

유용성/가치에 대한 인식

Perceived Utility/Value

 

훈련이 relevant하다고 느끼는지

trainees who perceived training as relevant had higher levels of immediate skill transfer.

 

피훈련자의 즉각적 훈련 요구immediate training needs가 전이에 대한 인식에 영향을 줌

trainees’ immediate training needs significantly affected their perceived learning transfer

유용성/가치에 대한 인식에 영향을 주는 것들

Perceived value or util- ity of training can be influenced by trainees’ evaluation of:

• (1) 새로운 스킬이 수행능력을 향상시킬 것이라는 신뢰성 the credibility of the new skills for improving performance,
• (2) 직무 수행을 향상시켜야겠다고 인식하는 요구 a recognized need to improve their job performance,
• (3) 새로운 학습이 수행능력을 향상시킬 것이라는 믿음 a belief that applying new learning will improve performance, and
• (4) 새로운 스킬의 실용성과 전이가 쉬운 것 the practicality of the new skills for ease of transfer (Ruona et al., 2002; Warr & Bunce, 1995; Yelon, Sheppard, Sleight, & Ford, 2004).

 

요약하면, 전이를 최대화하려면 새로운 지식과 스킬이 근무 수행에 관련이 있다고 생각해야 함

Put simply, for maximal transfer, learners should perceive that the new knowledge and skills will improve a relevant aspect of their work performance (Baldwin & Ford, 1988; Clark, Dobbins, & Ladd, 1993).

피훈련자의 정서affective/emotional 반응보다 효용성에 대한 반응이 전이와 더 연관됨

learner utility reactions (i.e., the extent trainees felt like training was useful to helping them perform on the job) were associated with transfer of learning more than trainees’ affective or emotional reactions.

직무 요인

Career/Job Variables

직무 계획Career planning

Career planning deals with the extent employees create and update specific plans for achieving their goals

직무 탐색:

career exploration refers to the degree of career value and skill self-assessment activity.

 

직무 관여도job involvement: 직무 수행에 능동적으로 참여하는 정도, 직무 수행이 자기의 가치에 중요하다고 인식하는 정도

transfer is positively influenced by trainees’ job involvement (Mathieu et al., 1992), which refers to the degree to which an employee iden- tifies with her job, actively participates in it, and considers job performance important to her self-worth.

 

근무지 집단workplace group이 있는 경우 더 전이가 높음

trainees who identified with work- place groups (described as employee and managers) reported higher transfer than those who did not have an affiliation or identification with work members or the organization.

통제 소재

Locus of Control (LOC)

 

내적 통제 소재

trainees with an internal LOC exhibited higher levels of transfer

 

내적 통제 소재가 있는 경우 학습하려는 동기부여가 더 되어있음. 외적 통재 소재는 전이와 moderately related

those with an internal LOC were more motivated to learn; however, in their meta- analysis, external LOC was moderately related to transfer

학습자 특성에 관한 요약

Summary of Learner Characteristics

In fact, certain learner variables have been fairly well established as having important influences on transfer, including cognitive ability, self-efficacy, pretraining motivation, negative affectivity, perceived utility, and organization commitment variables.

 

 

 

인터벤션의 설계와 전달방법

Intervention Design and Delivery

요구분석

Needs Analysis

 

 

ISD에서는 적절한 인터벤션을 하려면 현재 수행능력의 원인을 평가해야 한다는 것이 오래된 원칙임. 이러한 결과는 여러 수행능력의 문제가 직무환경에서 유래한다(수행에 대한 불분명한 specification, 부적절한 자원과 서포트, 부적절한 결과, 적절치 못한 타이밍의 피드백 등)고 보기 때문이며, 근무환경요인은 최적의 학습 인터벤션의 대상이 아니다.

In the field of instructional systems design (ISD) a long-standing principle (see McGehee & Thayer, 1961) is that trainers must first assess the cause of a performance situation to ensure an appropriate intervention is employed. It has been estimated the bulk of performance problems stem from work environ- ment causes such as unclear performance specifications, inadequate resources and support, inappropriate consequences, or untimely feedback (Rummler & Brache, 1995), and thus not the best candidates for a learning intervention.

비록 요구사정에 대해서 여러 개념적 지지근거가 있지만, 요구사정이 전이에 영향을 준다는 실질적empirical  근거가 부족함

Although a vast amount of conceptual sup- port exists for using needs assessment to ensure the appropriate training needs are identified (Rossett, 1999; Swanson, 2003), there is a shortage of empirical support linking use of needs assessment to transfer outcomes.

훈련의 설계나 긍정적 전이의 장애를 밝히는 데 초점을 둔 요구분석을 제안하고 있음

Researchers further suggest including stakeholders in the design of training (Brinkerhoff & Montesino, 1995; Broad, 2005; Broad & Newstrom, 1992; Clark et al., 1993) and to use a needs analysis approach that specifically iden- tifies obstacles to positive transfer (Gaudine & Saks, 2004).

학습 목표

Learning Goals

목표 설정의 장점: 목표 설정은 다음을 통해 자신의 행동을 조절할 수 있게 도와준다.

Indeed, using goals (both assigned and participative goal setting) to increase training transfer has received much support in the extant literature (Locke, Shaw, Saari, & Latham, 1981; Richman-Hirsch, 2001; Taylor et al., 2005; Wexley & Baldwin, 1986; Wexley & Nemeroff, 1975). Goal-setting has been found to help individuals regulate their behavior by

• 집중과 행동의 방향을 정해줌 directing attention and action,
• 에너지와 노력을 동원mobilizing헤가 도와줌 mobilizing energy expenditure or effort,
• 노력을 지속하게 해줌 prolonging effort over time (i.e., per- sistence), and
• 동기부여를 해줌 motivating the individual to develop relevant strategies for goal attainment (Brown, 2005; Locke & Latham, 2002; Locke et al., 1981)

 

—all behaviors necessary for transfer.

실용적 관점에서, Brown 은 단기 목표와 장기 목표를 모두 설정하는 것이 단기목표만 설정하는 것보다 도움이 됨

From a practical perspective, Brown (2005) found that participants who set proximal (short-term) goals plus distal outcome goals reported increased transfer than those who set only distal outcome goals.

내용 관련성

Content Relevance

전이 과업과 밀접한 관련이 있어야 함Content valid

According to Bates (2003) training goals and materials should also be content valid, or closely relevant to the transfer task.

훈련 내용과 근무현장에서의 과업과 밀접한 관련을 느껴야 함. 이는 요구사정의 활용을 강조하는 것임

Taken together, it appears that trainees must see a close relationship between training content and work tasks to transfer skills to the work setting, thus underscoring the utility of needs assessment in identifying appropriate training content.

교수법

Instructional Strategies and Methods

적절한 교육법과 피드백을 줘서 스킬의 장기적 유지와 적용을 강화해야 함

learning interventions be designed to provide ade- quate practice and feedback to enhance long-term maintenance and application of skills (Salas, Rozell, Mullen, & Driskell, 1999).

 

훈련 중 인지적/정신적 리허설, 행동 연습 전략cognitive or mental rehearsal and behavioral practice strate- gies

cognitive or mental rehearsal and behavioral practice strate- gies during training are positively correlated with transfer (Ford & Kraiger, 1995; Holladay & Quinones, 2003; Warr & Allan, 1998).

 

피드백/강화/재교육 기회

providing participants with feedback, reinforcement, and remediation opportunities for learning mastery resulted in significantly higher transfer scores on a work task.

과도학습overlearning(제대로 수행하는 것을 반복적으로 연습하는 것)은 장기간 활용하지 않을 가능성이 높은 것(CPR  등)에 도움이 됨.

overlearning (i.e., repeated practice even after correct performance has been demonstrated) can improve transfer especially for skills that may go unused for long intervals; CPR training is an example (Fisk, Hertzog, Lee, Rogers, & Anderson, 1994; Fisk & Hodge, 1992).

 

자동화 요소가 있는 과제의 전이는 여러 과제에 걸쳐서 비슷한 형태로 적용될 때 좋음

transfer of automatized task components is successful if the component is applied in a similar fashion across tasks (see also Czerwinski, Lightfoot, & Shiffrin, 1992; Rogers, 1992; Schneider & Fisk, 1984).

 

학습 유지에 있어서 Overlearning은 중등도 향상을 가져오며, 이 효과는 과업의 유형에 따라 다르다(인지적 vs 행동적). 인지적 과업에 있어서 Overleraning의 강도는 훈련즉시 가장 강했고 38일 후 소실됨. 저자들은 19일을 overlearning 효과의 반감기라고 했다.

Driskell, Copper, and Willis (1992) found that overlearning pro- duces a moderate improvement (d  21.782, p  .0001) in learner retention and that this effect differs by task type (cognitive vs. behavioral). For cogni- tive tasks, they found the magnitude of the overlearning effect was strongest immediately after training and diminished totally at 38 days. The authors chose the midpoint (19 days) as the “half-life of the over-learning effect” (p. 620) and suggested training refreshers or additional support would be needed (beyond overlearning) to attenuate the effect of subsequent retention decay.

학습자들은 인지적 과부하를 경험할 수 있음

Learners can experience cognitive overload (van Merrienboer, 1997)

인지부하이론에 따르면, 학습자의 제한된 인지 자원을 강조하는데, 이것이 교수 설계에 고려되어야 한다.  인지과부하이론은 학습자들이 한 차례에 배울 수 있는 양은 정해져 있으므로, 교수 설계시 내용을 extraneous load를 최소화하고(학습에 불필요한 정보), germane load (직접적으로 학습에 관련된 것)을 최대화 해야함.

Cognitive load theory, which recognizes learners’ limited cognitive resources, should be con-sidered by instructional designers for transfer implications. Cognitive load theory suggests that learners can only learn so much at one time (Chandler &Sweller, 1991) and that instructional designers should organize content such that it minimizes extraneous load, or information that is not necessary for learning, and maximize germane load, or information that directly contributes to learning (van Merrienboer, 1997). 

 

전이 패러독스transfer paradox: 피훈련자들이 비슷한 혹은 정확한 과업을 반복적으로 하게끔 만드는 것 혹은 과업 수행에 대한 피드백을 빈번하게 주는 전략은 복잡한 과업의 mastery를 강화하긴 했으나, 학습 성과의 transfer까지 이어지지는 않았다.

In a review of empirical studies on task complexity, cognitive load, and transfer outcomes, van Merrienboer, Kester, and Paas (2006) note a transfer paradox—that is, strategies such as having trainees repeatedly practice on similar or exact tasks and providing frequent feedback on task performance— has been found to enhance learning mastery for complex tasks but has not car- ried over to support transfer of learning outcomes.

 

전이를 위해서는 학습에 대한 whole–part approach 를 통해서 extraneous한 인지적 부하를 줄여야 함.whole–part sequence 는..

To support transfer, these authors suggest a design strategy that reduces extraneous cognitive load by presenting learners with a whole–part approach to learning. The whole–part sequence involves

• 처음에는 이미 수행된 예시worked example을 통해서 다양한 과업의 요소들을 제시하고, 빈칸완성문제completion problem을 제시함.
  first presenting learners with varying task elements through worked examples (i.e., examples work out to show learners correct solution steps) and completion problems (i.e., where a learner must complete a portion of the solution) and
• 이후에 전형적 문제를 통해서 과업의 복잡성을 높여감
  then increasing task complexity by using conventional problems such as case studies.

 

서로 다른 과업의 예시를 점진적으로 보여주면서, 반대로 수행능력에 대한 피드백은 점점 줄여가는 방식(scaffolding이라 부름)은 학습자의 내적 모니터링과 피드백 메커니즘을 지원해줌으로써 germane load를 지지한다. 이러한 방법은 추측에 근거한 것이며 복잡한 과업complex task의 전이와 관련된다.

Gradually presenting learners with different examples of a task and reducing the amount of performance feedback—called scaffolding—supports germane load by supporting learners’ internal monitor- ing and feedback mechanisms. We should note that the proposed approach is speculative and relates to transfer of complex tasks only.

능동학습: 성인의 집중력을 유지시켜줌.

Active learning involves trainees in course material through carefully con- structed activities (Myers & Jones, 1993; Silberman, 1998; Silberman & Auerbach, 2006), compared to passive instructional methods such as lecture. Active learning is thought to maintain the adult attention span (Middendorf & Kalish, 1996; Stuart & Rutherford, 1978), a likely precursor of transfer.

 

행동모델링Behavioral modeling (BM): descriptive learning points (i.e., 모델의 핵심 행동에 대한 묘사descriptions of a model’s key behaviors) and rule-oriented learning points (i.e., descriptions of a model’s key behaviors) 가 전이를 향상시킴.

Behavioral modeling (BM) is a logical, transfer-strategy-based research regarding self-efficacy (Bandura, 1997). Decker (1980) found that descriptive learning points (i.e., descriptions of a model’s key behaviors) and rule-oriented learning points (i.e., descriptions of a model’s key behaviors) enhance transfer generalization for novel tasks.

 

Rule codes (따라야 할 규칙을 적시해주는 학습 요점)이 도움됨

Decker and Natham (1985) also found rule codes (i.e., learning points stated as rules to be followed) to be superior to learning points in helping trainees generalize behavior from a BM approach.

 

효율적 행동과 비효율적 행동을 좋은&나쁜 사례로 보여주눈 mixed model이 대인관계스킬 훈련 프로그램에 효과가 있었음

Taylor et al. (2005) BM had greater effects on transfer when mixed models (both positive and negative) were used in inter- personal skills training programs. A mixed model means both effective and ineffective behaviors are demonstrated for trainees to see a “good and bad” way to execute trained skills.

 

에러-기반 사례 혹은 잘못될 수 있는 가능성을 공유하는 것

error-based examples, or sharing with trainees what can go wrong if they do not use the trained skills back on the job.

자기관리 전략

Self-Management Strategies

자가-생성 긍정적 피드백의 활용. 구체적이지만 도전적인 목표 설정. 액션플랜 활용. 자기조절/자기관리 행동에 engage.

Self-management strategies work to equip trainees with necessary skills to help them transfer successfully back to the workplace, such as the use of self- generated positive feedback. Having trainees set specific, but challenging goals (Brown, 2005; Locke et al., 1981; Richman-Hirsch, 2001; Wexley & Baldwin, 1986), use action plans (Broad & Sullivan, 2002; Foxon, 1997), and engage in self-regulatory/management behaviors (Frayne & Latham, 1987; Gist, Bavetta, & Stevens, 1990; Latham & Frayne, 1989) have found conceptual and empiri- cal support for direct and indirect effects on trainee transfer.

기술적 지지

Technological Support

Summary of Intervention Design

 

 

근무환경요인

Work Environment Influences

"맥락에서의 훈련"관점으로 보는 것

Another category of variables linked to training transfer encompasses work environment elements, which “view training in context” (Ford, 1997, p. 13).

전략적 연결고리

Strategic Link

 

학습과 훈련 인터벤션은 외부와 단절되어 존재하는 것이 아니며, 조직의 목표와 전략이 어떻게 지원을 해줄 수 있는지 고려해야 한다.

Learning and training interventions do not exist in a vacuum and as such we should consider their support of organizational goals and strategies.

 

훈련의 활용도에 관한 높은 자기보고를 보인 사람은 훈련 프로그램이 조직의 전략적 방향과 잘 합치되었다고 생각한 사람.

trainees who self-reported highest usage of training perceived a significantly higher alignment of the training program with the strategic direction of the organization.

 

학습성과가 피훈련자가 속한 과의 목표와 잘 맞을 때

trainees perceived higher transfer when their learning outcomes matched trainees’ departmental goals.

전이 분위기

Transfer Climate

 

holistic and more systemic models 은 학습 인터벤션 외의 요인을 고려함. 조직의 상황이 직접적 또는 간접적(moderator로서) 영향을 줌. 다음과 같은 특징들..

The importance of holistic and more systemic models of transfer takes into account various factors outside of the learning intervention (Ruona et al., 2002; Kontoghiorghes, 2002; Russ-Eft, 2002). Those situations and conse- quences in organizations that either inhibit or facilitate the use of what has been learned in training back on the job—referred in the literature as transfer climate (Rouiller & Goldstein, 1993)—have been shown to influence transfer outcomes directly (Kontoghiorghes, 2001; Lim & Morris, 2006; Mathieu et al., 1992; Tracey et al., 1995),

indirectly as a moderator between individual or organizational factors and transfer (Burke & Baldwin, 1999), and as a cor- relate to transfer implementation intentions (Machin & Fogarty, 2004). Features of a positive transfer climate have been identified as

• 새로운 스킬을 사용하게끔 하는 암시 cues that prompt trainees to use new skills,
• 스킬의 정확한 사용에 따른 결과, 스킬을 활용하지 않았을 때의 재교육 consequences for correct use of skills and remedia- tion for not using skills, and
• 동료과 감독자로부터의 사회적 지지(인센티브/피드백) social support from peers and supervisors in the form of incentives and feedback (Rouiller & Goldstein, 1993).

감독관/동료의 지지

Supervisor/Peer Support

 

근무환경과 전이의 관계에서 가장 지속적으로 밝혀지는 요인은 피훈련자가 새로운 스킬과 지식을 활용하는데에 대한 서포트

Perhaps the most consistent factor explaining the relationship between the work environment and transfer is the support trainees receive to use their new skills and knowledge (Clarke, 2002).

 

관리감독자supervisor의 역할

the role of supervisors in influencing and sup- porting trainee transfer has been widely supported in both empirical and qual- itative studies (Brinkerhoff & Montesino, 1995; Broad & Newstrom, 1992; Burke & Baldwin, 1999; Clarke, 2002).

 

스킬을 직무에 활용하는 것에 대한 관리 차원의 지지에 대한 인식

trainees’ per- ception of managerial support for using skills on the job 

 

관리자의 지지행동에는..

Researchers have identified manager supportive behaviors such as

• 새로 배운 것에 대한 토론 discussing new learning,
• 훈련에 참여 participating in training,
• 격려 providing encouragement and
• 새로운 스킬 활용에 대한 코치 coaching to trainees about use of new knowledge and skills on the job

 

as salient contributors to positive transfer (McSherry & Taylor, 1994; Smith-Jentsch, Salas, & Brannick, 2001; Tannenbaum, Smith-Jentsch, & Behson, 1998).

 

동료의 서포트

Support from peers and colleagues have also proven to wield more consis- tent influence on trainee transfer than supervisory support (Facteau et al., 1995).

 

동료와의 네트워킹을 통한 아이디어 공유

Hawley and Barnard (2005) found networking with peers and sharing ideas about course content helped promote skill transfer 6 months after training.

 

수행의 기회

Opportunity to Perform

 

 

새로운 학습을 근무환경에서 적용할 기회가 없으면 전이가 제한됨

Research has consistently shown that positive transfer is limited when trainees are not provided with opportunities to use new learning in their work setting (Brinkerhoff & Montesino, 1995; Gaudine & Saks, 2004; Lim & Morris, 2006).

 

기회를 주는 것은 학습자에 대한 가장 높은 형태의 지지이며, 반대로 기회가 없는 것이 가장 큰 장애이다.

Notably, opportunity to use the trained skills was rated as the highest form of support for learners and the lack of opportunity to use training was rated as the biggest obstacle to transfer (Lim & Johnson, 2002).

책임감

Accountability

 

 

근무지 환경이 책임감을 강조할 때: 기관/문화/관리자가 학습자에게 학습한 지식과 스킬을 직무에 적용하기를 기대하는 정도

One understudied work environment variable is accountability, defined as the degree to which the organization, culture, and/or management expects learners to use trained knowledge and skills on the job and holds them respon- sible for doing so (Brinkerhoff & Montesino, 1995; Kontoghiorghes, 2002).

 

"전이를 평가하는 것은 훈련자/피훈련자/기타 전이의 성공에 관련된 사람등이 학습과 직무에의 활용을 가치있게 여기는 문화를 만든다"

According to Bates (2003), “assessment of transfer makes trainees, trainers, and others accountable for transfer success and helps create a culture that val- ues learning and its application to the job” (p. 264).

Summary of Work Environment

LTSI measure

Holton and his colleagues’ (2000) LTSI measurehas a transfer climate factor that assesses individual-level perceptions and attitudes about how performance (i.e., effort–performance expectations, per-formance self-efficacy, openness to change, performance–outcome expecta-tions), feedback (i.e., performance coaching), and support (peer andsupervisor) impact transfer of learning.

 

In contrast, Tracey (1998) conceptual-ized and later validated (Tracey et al., 2001) a set of transfer support variable sat the aggregate level, assuming transfer climate is a shared construct and canbe represented by a single factor labeled work environment. Their model included items tapping external factors impacting transfer (e.g., support frommanager, job, and organization). Despite their prior support for a single-factor model representing transfer climate, Tracey and Tews (2005) later substanti-ated a multifactor model (now referred to as the General Training ClimateScale) and found each set of items loaded on distinct factors, confirming a three-factor model. 

 

Summary of the Literature Critique

Research Recommendations

Targeted Research Ideas

근무환경의 영향에 있어서 Schlenker’s 의 책임감 삼각형 개념이 있다. 책임감의 정의는 아래와 같으며, 개인이 책임감을 지니는 수준은 아래의 세 가지 요소의 연결 강도에 달려있다.

With respect to work environment influences, a conceptual framework that may inform the role of accountability in transfer stems from Schlenker’s (1997) responsibility triangle concept. Responsibility is defined as the psychological adhesive that connects a person to an event and to a set of prescriptions for his/her related work conduct. As captured in Schlenker’s work, a person’s level of responsibility is proposed to derive from the strength of links between the following three components (and their respective strength):

 

• (1) 개인의 행동을 가이드하는 규정prescriptoin (개발계획, 훈련전 동의서) the prescriptions that should guide the person’s behavior (in our case, performance appraisals, development plans, pretraining agreements),
• (2) 벌어지는 사건(훈련 등) the event that occurs (e.g., training), and
• (3) 개인의 정체성/역할/성격/열망 등characteristics of the person’s identity, role, char- acter, and aspirations (such as career or job utility variables, commitment).

Guiding Future Transfer Research

1. Future empirical research should directly assess transfer as the criterion variable.

2. Future research should validate the utility of various transfer practices in orga- nizations to provide a closer connection between practice and research.

3. Research should theorize and assess training transfer as a multidimensional phenomenon with multilevel influences.

 

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Training Transfer: An Integrative Literature Review

1. Lisa A. Burke
   1. University of Tennessee-Chattanooga

1. Holly M. Hutchins
   1. University of Houston

Abstract

Given the proliferation of training transfer studies in various disciplines, we provide an integrative and analytical review of factors impacting transfer of training. Relevant empirical research for transfer across the management, human resource development (HRD), training, adult learning, performance improvement, and psychology literatures is integrated into the review. We synthesize the developing knowledge regarding the primary factors influencing transfer—learner characteristics, intervention design and delivery, and work environment influences—to identify variables with substantive support and to discern the most pressing gaps. Ultimately, a critique of the state of the transfer literature is provided and targeted suggestions are outlined to guide future empirical and theoretical work in a meaningful direction.