매듭 묶기: 임상교육에서 학생의 학습목적에 관한 활동이론분석(Med Educ, 2017)
Tying knots: an activity theory analysis of student learning goals in clinical education
Douglas P Larsen,1 Austin Wesevich,2 Jana Lichtenfeld,3 Antony R Artino Jr,4 Ryan Brydges5 & Lara Varpio4

 

 

소개
Introduction

학습 목표는 종종 자기조절 학습(SRL) 프로그램의 맥락에서 개발됩니다. 예를 들어, 한 순환적 SRL 모델에서 학습자는

  • (i) 목표를 개발하고,
  • (ii) 성과를 모니터링하고,
  • (iii) 결과가 목표와 어떻게 일치하는지 성찰하고,
  • (iv) 주기가 다시 시작될 때 오래된 목표를 수정하고 새로운 목표를 만들어야 하는지를 결정합니다.1

학습자들은 비공식적인 학습 목표를 자발적으로 생성하지만,2,3 전문성 개발에서 SRL의 중요성이 강조되면서 다양한 교육 환경에서 공식적인 서면 학습 목표 프로그램이 많이 개발되었습니다.4-9 이러한 프로그램은 성공과 실패가 엇갈렸으며,4-9 서면 학습 목표가 임상 교육 실무에 어떻게 통합되고 그 유용성에 영향을 미치는 요인에 대한 의문이 제기되고 있습니다. 
Learning goals are often developed in the context of programmes of self-regulated learning (SRL). In one cyclical model of SRL, for example, learners:

  • (i) develop goals;
  • (ii) monitor their performance;
  • (iii) reflect on how outcomes align with their goals, and
  • (iv) determine how old goals should be modified and new ones created as the cycle begins again.1 

Although learners spontaneously generate informal learning goals,2, 3 emphasis on the importance of SRL in professional development has led to many formal written learning goal programmes in various education settings.4-9 These programmes have had mixed success,4-9 raising questions about how written learning goals are incorporated into clinical education practice and what factors influence their usefulness.

대부분의 학습 목표 프로그램의 이론적 토대는 사회적 지원의 중요성을 인정하고 있으며,10 이러한 프로그램의 분석은 대부분 개인의 내적, 인지적 작업에 대한 지원에 초점을 맞추고 있습니다.4-9 이러한 사회인지적 관점은 본 논문에서 연구하는 고빈도 학습 목표 프로그램의 개발의 토대가 되었지만, 프로그램이 실제로 어떻게 기능하는지 조사하기 위해서는 프로그램에 대한 인적, 물적, 문화적 영향을 설명하는 이론적 프레임워크가 필요했습니다. 문화역사활동이론(CHAT)은 개인과 집단의 활동을 형성하는 데 중요한 역할을 하는 자료로서 학습 목표에 대한 분석을 지원했습니다.11-13 
The theoretical underpinning of most learning goals programmes acknowledges the importance of social supports,10 and the analysis of these programmes mostly focuses on support of the internal, cognitive work of the individual.4-9 Although this social cognitive perspective served as the foundation for the development of the high-frequency learning goals programme we study in this paper, we needed a theoretical framework that accounted for the human, material and cultural influences on the programme to investigate how the programme functioned in practice. Cultural historical activity theory (CHAT) supported our analysis of the learning goals as materials that play a role in shaping the activities of individuals and groups.11-13

이론적 틀: CHAT과 매듭짓기
Theoretical framework: CHAT and knotworking

문화역사적 활동 이론은 사람들이 

  • 다면적인 사회적 맥락에서
  • 도구(물리적[예: 임상 노트] 및 상징적[예: 언어])를 사용하여
  • 예상되는 결과(예: 최적의 환자 치료 제공)로 이어지는
  • 특정 목적(예: 역사 기록 기술 개발)을 달성하는 방법에 중점을 둡니다.12-15

목적은 행동의 즉각적인 목적인 반면, 결과는 시스템에서 나오는 결과물입니다. 분업, 규칙 또는 규범, 실무자 커뮤니티도 결과로 이어지는 행동에 영향을 미칩니다. 이러한 시스템을 이해하기 위해 CHAT 정보 기반 분석은 업무 기반 사회적 맥락을 분석 단위로 사용합니다(즉, 활동 시스템 [그림 1]).14 
Cultural historical activity theory focuses on

  • how people use tools (physical [e.g. clinical notes] and symbolic [e.g. language])
    in multifaceted social contexts
    to achieve specific objects (e.g. develop history-taking skills)
    that lead to anticipated outcomes (e.g. the delivery of optimal patient care).12-15 

Objects are the immediate purposes of actions, whereas outcomes are the products that emerge from the system. Divisions of labour, rules or norms, and the community of practitioners also influence the actions that lead to outcomes. To understand these systems, CHAT-informed analysis uses the work-based social context as the unit of analysis (i.e. an activity system [Fig. 1]).14

업무 환경에서는 결과outcome가 겹칠 수 있고 일치해야 합니다. 문제는 완전한 일치가 이루어지지 않는 경우가 많다는 것입니다. 이러한 상황은 시스템 내 개인이 객체를 하나 이상의 결과와 어떻게 일치시킬 수 있는지 협상할 때 [서로 경쟁하는 목표]로 이어질 수 있습니다.16-18 [잘못 정렬된 결과]는 종종 활동 시스템 내에서 긴장과 모순을 유발합니다. 예를 들어,

  • 의대생은 의사로서의 진단 능력(결과)을 개발하기 위해 특정 신체 검사 기술(목표)을 개발하고 싶지만, 환자(최적의 환자 치료라는 다른 바람직한 결과와 일치하는 경쟁 목표)에게 실습을 함으로써 불편을 주고 싶지 않을 수 있습니다. 동시에, 학생은 주치의에게 자신의 신체 검사 능력을 입증하여 높은 성적(또 다른 바람직한 결과)을 확보할 수 있는 방법을 찾아야 한다는 강박관념을 느낄 수 있습니다.

이러한 모순을 극복하는 과정에는 종종 새로운 행동 방식이나 새로운 대상의 개발이 필요합니다. 예를 이어가자면,

  • 주치의는 학생의 술기(대상)를 판단하는 것에서 벗어나 학생의 술기를 연습할 수 있도록 도와줄 수 있는 환자를 찾아내어 그 환자에게 실습을 허락하도록 요청하는 새로운 대상으로 전환할 수 있습니다. 주치의의 새로운 행동(학생의 환자 식별을 돕는 것)은 학생에게 새로운 행동(신체 검사 술기를 연습할 기회 증가)으로 이어집니다.

In work settings, outcomes can and should overlap and be congruent. Problematically, full alignment is often not achieved. This situation can lead to competing objects as individuals in the system negotiate how objects can be aligned with one or more of the outcomes.16-18 Misaligned outcomes often cause tensions and contradictions within the activity system. For instance,

  • a medical student may want to develop a specific physical examination skill (object) in order to develop her diagnostic abilities as a physician (outcome), but she does not want to inconvenience patients by practising on them (a competing object aligned with the alternative desired outcome of optimal patient care). At the same time, the student may feel compelled to find ways to demonstrate her physical examination competence to the attending physician so that she can secure a high grade (another desired outcome).

Often the process of overcoming these contradictions requires new ways of acting or the development of new objects. To continue our example,

  • the attending physician may shift from judging the student's skills (object) to the new object of helping the student to practise her skills by identifying willing patients and asking their permission for the student to practise with them. The attending physician's new action (helping the student to identify patients) leads to new actions for the student (increased opportunities to practise physical examination skills).

이러한 과정을 확장 학습이라고 하며 새로운 행동 방식을 통해 활동 체계의 긴장을 해소할 수 있습니다.14, 17 우리는 이 학습의 정의를 사용하여 [공식적이고 문서화된 학습 목표]가 학습자와 감독자의 업무에 어떤 영향을 미치는지 이해했습니다.
This process is referred to as expansive learning and allows tensions in the activity system to be resolved through new ways of acting.14, 17 We used this definition of learning to understand how formal, written learning goals affect the work of learners and their supervisors.

복잡한 환경에서 역동적이고 변화하는 긴장을 포착하기 위해 CHAT 연구자들은 사람과 도구가 함께 새로운 방식으로 행동하는 방법을 설명하기 위해 [매듭짓기 은유]를 개발했습니다.17, 18

  • 매듭에서 시스템의 각 요소는 [특정 목표]를 달성하기 위해 일시적으로 수렴하여 궁극적으로 [원하는 결과]를 이끌어내는 [실]입니다.
  • 매듭의 형성은 종종 도구에 의해 매개됩니다. 경쟁하는 물체의 힘매듭을 잡아당기고 긴장시키기 때문에 매듭의 형성은 종종 미약하며 실을 빼거나 추가할 때 풀릴 수 있습니다.

우리는 경쟁하는 물체와 잘못된 결과로 인해 긴장된 약한 매듭이라는 개념을 통해 서면 학습 목표가 실제로 어떻게 사용되는지 살펴볼 수 있다고 제안합니다. 이 조사에서는 CHAT과 매듭짓기를 사용하여

  • (i) 학생과 감독자가 서면 학습 목표를 임상 업무에 통합하는 방법과
  • (ii) 작업 기반 학습에서 학생의 서면 학습 목표 사용에 영향을 미치는 요인을 탐색합니다.

To capture dynamic and shifting tensions in complex settings, CHAT researchers have developed the knotworking metaphor to describe how people and tools come together to act in new ways.17, 18 

  • In the knot, each element of the system is a thread that temporarily converges to accomplish specific objects which ultimately lead to desired outcomes.
  • The formation of the knot is often mediated by tools. Because the forces of competing objects pull and strain at the knot, its formation is often tenuous and it may unravel as threads are taken away or added. 

We suggest that the concept of a tenuous knot under strain from competing objects and misaligned outcomes allows us to examine how written learning goals are used in practice. In this investigation, we use CHAT and knotworking to explore:

  • (i) how students and their supervisors incorporate written learning goals into their clinical work, and
  • (ii) the factors that influence the use of students’ written learning goals in work-based learning.

방법
Methods

학습 맥락: 학습 목표 프로그램
Study context: learning goals programme

임상 커리큘럼에 SRL의 원칙을 통합하기 위해 2014년 6월 워싱턴 대학교 세인트루이스 의과대학의 3학년 임상 커리큘럼에서 주간 서면 학습 목표 프로그램이 개발되어 시행되었습니다. 이 프로그램은 신경과 임상실습19에서 수행된 파일럿 작업을 기반으로 했으며, 5개의 핵심 임상 실습(신경과, 내과, 외과, 소아과, 산부인과)이 참여했습니다. 3학년 커리큘럼의 대부분에 걸쳐 이 프로그램을 시행함으로써 서면 학습 목표가 교육 실습에 어떻게 통합되는지 조사할 수 있는 기회를 제공했습니다.
To incorporate principles of SRL into the clinical curriculum, a weekly written learning goals programme was developed and implemented in the Washington University in St Louis School of Medicine's Year 3 clinical curriculum in June 2014. The programme was based on pilot work that had been carried out in the neurology clerkship19 and involved five core clinical clerkships (neurology, internal medicine, surgery, paediatrics, and obstetrics and gynaecology). The implementation of the programme across much of the Year 3 curriculum offered the opportunity to investigate how written learning goals are incorporated into educational practice.

이 프로그램에서는 학습 목표가 학생들의 총괄 평가의 일부로 사용되지 않았습니다. 학생들은 임상 실습 전에 공식적인 학습 목표를 사용해 본 경험이 없었습니다. 3학년이 시작되기 직전에 모든 3학년 의대생들은 저자 중 한 명(DPL)이 진행하는 한 시간 동안의 워크숍을 통해 이 프로그램에 대한 교육을 받았습니다. 교직원과 레지던트들에게 이 프로그램에 대한 공지가 클레어십 디렉터에 의해 전달되었고, 여러 부서에서 교직원과 레지던트를 위한 교육 워크샵(DPL 강의)을 개최했습니다.
In this programme, learning goals were not used as part of students’ summative assessments. Students did not have experience in using formal learning goals prior to their clinical clerkships. Just prior to the start of the third year, all Year 3 medical students were trained in the programme during an hour-long workshop taught by one of the authors (DPL). Faculty staff and residents were notified of the programme by clerkship directors, and several departments held training workshops (taught by DPL) for faculty members and residents.

각 클럭십은 환경의 메커니즘을 수용하기 위해 약간의 수정을 가했지만, 프로그램의 형식과 절차는 5개의 클럭십에서 거의 동일하게 진행되었습니다. 학생들은 매주 초에 [환자를 위해 더 많은 의사 역할을 수행할 수 있는 방법]에 관한 [두 가지 학습 목표]를 작성했습니다. 주간 타임라인은 일상 업무에서 학습 목표의 사용을 촉진하고 구체적이고 실행 가능한 목표를 장려하는 데 사용되었습니다. 이러한 목표는 의사소통 기술, 검사 및 절차 기술, 응용 임상 지식 및 행정 기술(예: 퇴원 관리)을 포함한 다양한 실무 능력을 다룰 수 있습니다. 예를 들어, 하루 일과가 끝날 때마다 환자에게 검사 결과를 설명하거나 특정 유형의 환자에게 사용할 약물의 종류에 대한 개요를 작성하는 것이 목표가 될 수 있습니다. 학생들은 [목표를 실행]하고 [진행 상황을 추적하기 위한 계획]을 작성하도록 요청받았습니다. 첫 주가 끝난 후에는 지난 주 목표에 대한 진행 상황을 분석하는 후속 조치 섹션을 작성하도록 했습니다. 그런 다음 이러한 목표를 학생들의 지도교수(주치의 및 레지던트)에게 이메일을 통해 제출하여 피드백을 받고 한 주간의 업무에 반영하도록 했습니다.
Although each clerkship made minor modifications to accommodate the mechanics of its environment, the format and procedures of the programme were largely identical across the five clerkships. At the beginning of each week, students wrote two learning goals directed at how they could take on more of a doctor role for their patients. The weekly timeline was used to promote use of the learning goals in daily work and to encourage specific, actionable goals. These goals could cover a range of practice abilities including communication skills, examination and procedural skills, applied clinical knowledge and administrative skills (e.g. managing discharges). For example, goals might include explaining test results to patients at the end of each day or creating an outline of a class of drugs for use in certain types of patient. Students were asked to write a plan to implement their goals and track their progress. After the first week, they included a written follow-up section analysing their progress on the previous week's goals. These goals were then submitted to the students’ supervisors (i.e. attending physicians and residents) via e-mail for feedback and incorporation into the week's work.

데이터 수집 및 분석
Data collection and analysis

인터뷰 절차
Interview procedures

학생과 감독자를 대상으로 반구조화된 인터뷰를 실시했습니다. 인터뷰 가이드는 참가자가 학습 목표를 사용한 경험을 설명할 수 있도록 설계되었습니다. 가능한 참가자를 식별하기 위해 최근 학습 목표 프로그램을 사용한 각 핵심 클레임에 참여한 적이 있는 학생 및 감독자 목록을 생성했습니다. 인터뷰 전에는 프로그램에 대한 참가자의 만족도를 알 수 없었기 때문에 각 목록에서 성별에 따른 계층화를 통해 참가자를 무작위로 선정하여 인터뷰에 참여하도록 초대했습니다. 학생 인터뷰는 저자 중 한 명(AW)이 2014년 12월부터 2015년 2월까지 실시했습니다. 감독자 인터뷰는 2015년 4월부터 8월까지 다른 저자(JL)에 의해 수행되었습니다. 모든 참가자로부터 동의를 얻었습니다. 모든 인터뷰는 오디오 녹음 및 필사되었습니다. 모든 데이터는 익명으로 처리되어 인터뷰 담당자만 참가자의 신원을 알 수 있도록 했습니다. 
We conducted semi-structured interviews with students and supervisors. The interview guide was designed to allow participants to describe their experiences of using the learning goals. To identify possible participants, a list of students and supervisors who had recently participated in each of the core clerkships that used the learning goals programme was generated. Because levels of participant satisfaction with the programme were unknown before the interviews, participants were randomly selected from each list, with stratification for gender, and invited to participate. Student interviews were conducted from December 2014 to February 2015 by one of the authors (AW). Supervisor interviews were conducted from April to August 2015 by another author (JL). Consent was obtained from all participants. All interviews were audio-recorded and transcribed. All data were anonymised so that only the interviewer would know the participant's identity.

참가자
Participants

2014-2015 학년도에는 129명의 학생이 학습 목표 프로그램에 참여했습니다. 최소 250명의 교수진과 300명의 레지던트가 감독관으로 참여했습니다. 프로그램을 연구하기 위해 14명의 학생과 14명의 수퍼바이저를 인터뷰했습니다. 참여한 각 핵심 클리닉에서 2~3명의 학생과 2~3명의 주치의가 인터뷰에 참여했습니다. 외과 레지던트 2명도 인터뷰에 응했는데, 이는 레지던트들이 해당 클락십에서 학생들의 목표를 감독하는 데 특히 중요한 역할을 했기 때문입니다. 인터뷰에 참여한 14명의 학생 중 8명이 여성이었습니다. 14명의 수퍼바이저 중 5명이 여성이었습니다. 양성 평등을 유지하려는 노력에도 불구하고 수퍼바이저의 성별 대표성에 편차가 있는 것은 학생들의 학습 목표와 수퍼바이저의 가용성을 최근에 접한 수퍼바이저의 표본을 반영한 결과입니다. 학생 인터뷰는 평균 42분, 슈퍼바이저 인터뷰는 평균 26분 동안 진행되었습니다. 
During the 2014–2015 academic year, 129 students participated in the learning goals programme. At least 250 faculty members and 300 residents participated as supervisors. To study the programme, 14 students and 14 supervisors were interviewed. Two or three students and two or three attending physicians from each of the participating core clerkships were interviewed. Two residents from surgery were also interviewed because residents played a particularly important part in supervising students’ goals on that clerkship. Eight of the 14 students who were interviewed were female. Five of the 14 supervisors were female. Despite our attempts to maintain gender equality, the skew in gender representation among supervisors reflected the sample of supervisors with recent exposure to students’ learning goals and supervisors’ availability. Student interviews lasted an average of 42 minutes and supervisor interviews lasted an average of 26 minutes.

코딩 및 분석
Coding and analysis

두 명의 연구자(DPL과 AW)가 학생 인터뷰를 코딩했고, 두 명의 연구자(DPL과 JL)가 감독자 인터뷰를 코딩했습니다. 선임 저자(LV)는 학생 인터뷰의 초기 코딩에 참여하여 코딩 과정을 감독했습니다. 학생 인터뷰와 수퍼바이저 인터뷰는 데이터 수집 및 분석의 반복 주기에 따라 별도로 코딩되었습니다. 두 집단에 대한 코딩 분석이 진행됨에 따라 중요한 유사점을 발견하여 모든 연구 데이터를 분석하여 도출한 통합 모델을 개발했습니다. 
Two investigators (DPL and AW) coded student interviews, and two investigators (DPL and JL) coded supervisor interviews. The senior author (LV) participated in the early coding of student interviews and oversaw the coding process. Student interviews and supervisor interviews were coded separately in iterative cycles of data collection and analysis. As analysis across the coding of the two populations progressed, we identified important similarities and so developed a unified model that was derived from analysing all the study data.

[구성주의적 근거 이론 접근법]을 차용하여 오픈 코딩을 사용하여 초기 인터뷰 하위 집합(각 그룹에서 2~3개의 인터뷰)을 분석하여 초기 아이디어를 탐색하고 구성했습니다.20, 21 이러한 주제는 상호 연관성을 탐색하기 위해 개념적 수준에서 조사되었습니다. 그룹 토론을 통해 주제를 취합하고 조정하여 코딩 구조를 구성했습니다. 코딩 구조는 두 명의 조사자가 두세 차례의 인터뷰를 추가로 코딩하는 과정을 통해 구체화되고 확고해졌습니다. 이견은 그룹 토론을 통해 조정되었습니다. [최종 코딩 구조]한 명의 연구자가 모든 인터뷰에 적용했습니다. 데이터 분석을 지원하기 위해 클라우드 기반 질적 데이터 관리 프로그램인 Dedoose(Dedoose.com, 미국 캘리포니아주 로스앤젤레스)를 사용했습니다. 데이터를 분석하면서 우리가 발견한 관계를 설명하는 데 도움이 될 다양한 이론을 논의했습니다. 이러한 다양한 이론을 통해 데이터를 살펴본 결과, CHAT과 매듭짓기가 우리가 확인한 패턴에 대해 주목할 만한 설명력을 제공한다는 사실을 알게 되었습니다.
We borrowed from the constructivist grounded theory approach and used open coding to analyse an initial subset of interviews (two or three interviews from each group) to explore and construct initial ideas.20, 21 These themes were examined at a conceptual level to explore interconnections. Through group discussion, we collated and reconciled themes to form a coding structure. The coding structure was refined and solidified through two additional rounds of coding of two or three interviews by two investigators. Differences were reconciled through group discussion. The final coding structure was then applied to all interviews by a single investigator. We used Dedoose (Dedoose.com, Los Angeles, CA, USA), a cloud-based qualitative data management program, to support data analysis. As we analysed our data, we discussed various theories that would help to explain the relationships we identified. As we looked at our data with these various theories, it became apparent that CHAT and knotworking offered notable explanatory power for the patterns we identified.

반사성
Reflexivity

우리는 학습 목표 프로그램과 교육 이론에 대한 경험이 조사에 영향을 미쳤다는 것을 알고 있습니다. DPL은 학습 목표 프로그램을 만들고 실행을 주도한 의사이자 교육 연구원으로, 병원에서 근무하는 동안 학습 목표를 작성한 학생의 감독관으로 활동했습니다. AW는 의대생으로 신경과 임상강사 시절 이 프로그램의 파일럿 버전에 참여했으며 이듬해 이 프로젝트의 연구 조교로 활동했습니다. JL은 소아과 레지던트로서 임상 근무 기간 동안 학생들의 학습 목표를 감독했습니다. ARA와 RB는 SRL에 대한 전문성을 갖춘 교육 연구자입니다. LV는 질적 연구와 CHAT 및 매듭짓기에 대한 전문성을 갖춘 교육 연구자입니다. ARA, RB 및 LV는 학습 목표 프로그램의 개발, 실행 또는 감독에 직접 관여하지 않았습니다. 
We recognise that our experiences with the learning goals programme and with educational theories shaped our investigation. DPL is a medical doctor and education researcher who created and led the implementation of the learning goals programme; he also served as a supervisor of students with written learning goals while on the hospital service. AW is a medical student who participated in the pilot version of the programme while in the neurology clerkship and served as a research assistant for this project in the following year. JL was a paediatrics resident who supervised students with their learning goals during her time on clinical service. ARA and RB are education researchers with expertise in SRL. LV is an education researcher with expertise in qualitative research, as well as in CHAT and knotworking. ARA, RB and LV had no direct involvement in creating, implementing or supervising the learning goals programme.

결과
Results

먼저 CHAT을 사용하여 학생과 감독자가 서면 학습 목표를 사용하는 데 영향을 미친 임상 교육 시스템의 다양한 결과 사이의 긴장에 대한 분석을 설명합니다. 그런 다음 이 프레임워크를 기반으로 매듭짓기 개념을 사용하여 경쟁하는 결과 사이의 긴장을 극복할 수 있는 잠재적 도구로서 서면 학습 목표를 사용하여 매개된 학생, 감독자 및 환자의 미약한 상호작용을 설명합니다. 학생과 감독자 인터뷰 모두에서 유사한 주제가 나타났기 때문에 이러한 데이터는 함께 제시되었습니다. 
Using CHAT, we first describe our analysis of the tensions between the various outcomes of the clinical education system that influenced students’ and supervisors’ use of written learning goals. Building on this framework, we then use the concept of knotworking to describe the tenuous interactions of students, supervisors and patients that were mediated by use of the written learning goals as a potential tool to overcome the tensions between competing outcomes. Because similar themes emerged from both the student and supervisor interviews, these data are presented together.

정렬되지 않은 결과와 경쟁 대상: 전문성 개발, 채점 및 환자 치료
Misaligned outcomes and competing objects: professional development, grading and patient care

임상팀은 임상 활동의 세 가지 주요 결과에 대한 책임이 있습니다.

  • 학생의 의사로서의 능력 개발 지원,
  • 학생의 성과에 대한 채점,
  • 환자 치료 제공

학생들은 자신의 전문적 능력을 개발하기 위해 학습 목표를 세우고, 임상 성과를 분석하고 개선할 계획(예: 목표)을 결정합니다:
Clinical teams are responsible for at least three major outcomes of clinical activity:

  • helping students to develop their abilities as physicians;
  • grading them on their performances, and
  • providing patient care.

When students engaged in creating learning goals to develop their own personal professional abilities, they analysed their clinical performance and determined plans (i.e. objects) to improve:

... 목표를 세우기 일주일 전에 약점과 다음 주에 어떻게 개선할 수 있을지 생각해 보는 것은 [...] 지식과 성과를 평가하는 능력에 확실히 도움이 되었습니다. 구체적인 계획을 세우고 한정된 기간에 목표에 대한 피드백을 받는다는 것이 정말 좋은 것 같아요. (PaedsStudent2)
…going a week before trying to formulate the goals and thinking about weaknesses and how I can improve them next week […] definitely helped in that capacity to assess knowledge and performance. I think that having a concrete plan and getting feedback on the goals in a finite period of time, I think it's great. (PaedsStudent2)

그러나 추가적으로 원하는 결과를 얻기 위해서는 학생과 감독자의 관심과 노력이 필요했고, 학생들은 학습 목표를 개발할 때 다양한 대상을 고려해야 했습니다. 예를 들어, 학생들은 개인적인 발전 외에도 호의적인 평가의 필요성을 인식했습니다. 이러한 고려 사항으로 인해 일부 학생들은 [상사에게 깊은 인상을 남기는 것]과 [특정 기술을 개발하는 것] 사이의 경쟁적인 목표를 지향하는 학습 목표를 명확히 했습니다:
However, additional desired outcomes also demanded students’ and supervisors’ attention and efforts, requiring students to consider different objects as they developed their learning goals. For instance, in addition to personal development, students acknowledged the need for favourable evaluations. These considerations caused some students to articulate learning goals oriented towards navigating the competing objects of impressing their supervisors and developing specific skills:

... 저는 제가 잘하지 못하고 취약한 분야를 공부하고 싶습니다. 또한, 성적과 목표 달성 여부로 저를 평가할 주치의 앞에서 아무것도 모르는 사람처럼 보이게 될 정도로 제가 잘 못하는 것에서 목표를 정하고 싶지 않습니다. 저는 중간 정도 수준인 과제를 더 잘하고 잘하고 있는 것처럼 보이기 위해 노력합니다. (신경과 학생1)
…I want to work on things that I'm bad at, that I'm weak in. I also don't want to pick goals in things that I'm so bad at that I'm just going to look like I don't know anything in front of the attending who's ultimately going to be evaluating me in terms of both the grades as well as my accomplishing the goals. I try to play things that I'm middle of the pack on so that I can get better at them and look like I'm doing well. (NeuroStudent1)

양질의 환자 치료를 제공하는 것도 학생들이 학습 목표를 설정할 때 긴장감을 유발하는 또 다른 바람직한 결과였습니다. 일부 학생은 환자 치료를 개선하고 기술을 개발하는 것을 목표로 하는 학습 목표를 세웠습니다(예: 환자에게 약물에 대해 설명하거나 하루 동안의 계획과 결과를 환자에게 업데이트하기). 그러나 환자 치료의 요구로 인해 팀의 목표가 학생의 목표와 관련된 작업에서 멀어지는 경우가 많았습니다. 한 수퍼바이저는 다음과 같이 지적했습니다: 
Providing quality patient care was another desired outcome that caused tension as students identified their learning goals. Some students created learning goals that aimed to both improve patient care and develop their skills (e.g. to explain medications to patients or to update patients about plans and results throughout the day). The demands of patient care, however, often shifted the objects of the team away from actions involving the students’ goals. As one supervisor noted:

학생들의 학습 목표를 달성하는 데 있어 가장 큰 장벽은 진료실에서 한 시간씩 늦어지고, 그래서 계속 움직이고, 움직이고, 움직여야 하기 때문에 [학습 목표에서] 해당 주제에 도달하지 못할 수도 있다는 점입니다. (산부인과 어텐딩2)
The biggest barrier [to addressing students’ learning goals is] that we may not ever get to that topic [from the learning goal] because we were running an hour behind in the clinic and we just had to move, move, move. (ObGynAttending2)

한 학생이 이 문제를 제기했습니다:
A student echoed this challenge:

매우 빠른 속도의 서비스이고 양이 많으면 학습자 목표는 확실히 버려집니다. 학습자들은 주의를 기울이지 않죠. 하지만 다운타임이 생기면 목표가 눈에 띄게 되죠. (IntMedStudent3)
If it's a very high-pace service and high volume, yeah, the learner goals definitely get thrown out. They don't pay attention. If there's downtime, though, they'll surface up. (IntMedStudent3)

이상적으로는 임상 교육 내에서 전문성 개발, 채점 및 환자 치료라는 세 가지 예상 결과가 일치하는 것이 좋습니다. 그러나 학생과 감독자는 이러한 결과가 종종 서로 모순되거나 부분적으로만 겹친다는 사실을 인정했습니다(그림 2). 이 세 가지 결과의 상호 작용과 이를 달성하기 위해 사용되는 [경쟁적인 목표를 협상하는 과정]은 학생들의 학습 목표를 실현하기 위해 매듭을 짓는 감독자, 학생 및 환자의 활동 사이에 긴장감을 조성했습니다.
Ideally, the three anticipated outcomes – professional development, grading and patient care – would align within clinical education. However, students and supervisors acknowledged that these outcomes often contradicted one another or only partially overlapped (Fig. 2). The interplay of these three outcomes and the process of negotiating the competing objects used to achieve them created a tension between the threads of activity from supervisors, students and patients who formed the knot to enact the students’ learning goals.

학생과 감독자는 겹치지만 완전히 일치하지 않는 결과를 조정하려고 노력합니다. 학습 목표는 어떤 결과의 우선순위를 정할지 또는 어떻게 결합할지를 결정하는 데 도움이 되는 객체를 생성하는 하나의 도구가 될 수 있습니다14, 18
Students and supervisors try to reconcile overlapping but not fully aligned outcomes. Learning goals can be one tool for creating objects that can help to determine which outcomes will be prioritised or how they will be combined14, 18

매듭: 도구를 중심으로 서로 묶인 실
The knot: threads bound together around a tool

매듭짓기는 학생의 학습 목표와 관련하여 임상 교육 환경 내의 모순을 해결하기 위해 활동 시스템의 요소들이 어떻게 수렴되었는지(또는 그렇게 하지 못했는지) 설명합니다. 감독자, 학생 및 환자는 각각 새로운 행동을 생성하고, 새로운 대상을 정의하고, 원하는 결과를 향해 노력하면서 매듭의 실타래에 한 가닥씩 기여했습니다(그림 3). 다음 예에서 볼 수 있듯이 학습 목표는 이러한 스레드의 융합을 가능하게 하는 도구 역할을 할 수 있습니다:

Knotworking describes how the elements of the activity system converged to address the contradictions within the clinical education environment (or failed to do so) with regard to the students’ learning goals. Supervisors, students and patients each contributed a thread to the knot as they produced new actions, defined new objects, and worked towards the desired outcomes (Fig. 3). As the following example illustrates, learning goals could serve as tools that enabled the convergence of these threads:

매듭짓기는 활동 시스템의 요소들이 새로운 작업을 수행하기 위해 수렴하는 방식을 설명하는 은유입니다. 그러나 매듭은 [경쟁하는 힘의 존재]로 인해 약해집니다. 매듭은 느슨한 것으로 묘사되는데, 이는 조이는 것만큼이나 풀릴 가능성이 높기 때문입니다. 우리의 데이터는 학생, 감독자 및 환자가 학생의 학습 목표를 중심으로 형성되는 매듭의 실타래임을 보여줍니다.
Knotworking is a metaphor that describes the ways in which the elements of an activity system converge to accomplish new actions. However, the knot is made tenuous by the presence of competing forces. The knot is depicted as loose because it is just as likely to unravel as to tighten. Our data demonstrate how students, supervisors and patients are the threads of the knot that forms around students’ learning goals

제 목표 중 하나는 서로 다른 환자들의 발달도 검토하는 것이었습니다 [...] 그녀[주치의]는 같은 층에 있는 같은 나이의 환자 두 명을 선택했고, 저와 다른 의대생 동료와 함께 두 환자를 모두 방문했습니다. 그녀는 우리와 함께 와서 우리에게 설명하고, 질문하고, 지연에 대한 그녀의 생각과 두 환자 간의 비교를 알려주었습니다. 정말 좋은 배움의 경험이었다고 생각합니다. [...] 그 목표가 없었다면 그녀가 구체적으로 시간을 내서 그렇게 하지는 않았을 것 같아요. (PaedsStudent2)
One of my goals was to review development as well in different patients […] She [the attending] chose two patients on the floor that were the same age and she took me around as well as my other med student counterpart and then we visited both patients. She came with us and explained things to us, asked us questions and told us her thoughts about the delays and how they compare between the two patients. I think that was a really great learning experience. […] I think without that goal, I'm not sure that she would have taken the time to do that specifically. (PaedsStudent2)

이와 대조적으로 다른 학생과 감독자들은 이러한 실타래가 모이지 않고 새로운 행동이 일어나지 않는 상황을 설명했습니다. 한 예로, 한 학생은 감독자가 자신의 학습 목표를 언급하지 않았을 때 어떻게 대응했는지 물었습니다:
By contrast, other students and supervisors described situations in which these threads did not come together and new actions did not occur. In one example, a student was asked how he responded when supervisors did not bring up his learning goals:

아마 처음에 "이봐요, 제 목표는 알아요?"라고 말했을 것입니다. [...] 일반적으로 한두 번의 프롬프트 후에도 반응이 없으면 계속 언급하는 것을 원하지 않는다는 느낌을 받습니다. 아니면 그다지 중요하지 않다는 느낌이 들기도 합니다. (SurgStudent3)
Maybe at the beginning I've said, “Hey, did you get my goals?” […] Generally, if people after like one or two prompts aren't responsive, it's kind of, you kind of get the feeling that they don't want you to keep bringing it up. Or it's not something that's important to them. (SurgStudent3)

학생들은 두 가지 시나리오를 모두 설명하면서 학습 목표를 중심으로 스레드가 때때로 수렴하고 때때로 갈라지는 상황을 언급했습니다.
Students described both scenarios, referring to contexts in which threads sometimes converged and sometimes diverged around their learning goals.

스레드: 감독자
The threads: supervisors

수퍼바이저는 임상 공간에서 추구하는 세 가지 결과, 즉 전문성 개발, 채점 및 환자 치료의 실현에 핵심적인 역할을 했습니다. 인터뷰에 참여한 모든 학생은 학습 목표가 임상 경험에 중요한 역할을 했는지 여부를 결정하는 데 있어 슈퍼바이저의 참여를 가장 중요한 요소로 꼽았습니다. 이러한 영향의 일부는 슈퍼바이저가 목표에 부여하는 가치에 대한 학생들의 인식에서 비롯되었습니다. 한 학생은 이렇게 말했습니다:
Supervisors were central to the realisation of all three outcomes pursued in the clinical space – professional development, grading and patient care. Every student who was interviewed identified supervisor engagement as the most important factor in determining whether the learning goals played a significant role in their clinical experience. Part of this influence came from students’ perceptions of the value that supervisors gave the goals. As one student said:

팀 전체가 학습 목표에 집중하고 노력한다면 좋은 경험이라고 생각했습니다. 팀 전체가 "멍청하거나 바쁜 일"이라고 생각했다면, 그것은 다른 누구도 원하지 않는 학생으로서 해야만 하는 일이 되었을 뿐입니다. (SurgStudent1)
I thought that if the whole team was into your learning goals and focused on them and tried, then it was a great experience. If the whole team thought they were “stupid or busy work” then it just became something that you had to do as a student that nobody else wanted to do. (SurgStudent1)

감독자들도 자신의 역할의 중요성을 인식하고 있었습니다:
Supervisors also recognised the importance of their role:

학생들은 꽤 많은 노력을 기울이고 있으며 이 [학습 목표] 문서를 작성해야 합니다. 주치의가 그에 상응하는 주의를 기울이고 있다고 느끼지 못한다면 학생들은 실망할 것입니다. (PaedsAttending2)
The students are putting in quite a bit of work and they are required to create this [learning goal] document. I think it's frustrating for them if they don't feel that the attending is paying the commensurate amount of attention to that. (PaedsAttending2)

학생들은 목표를 달성하기 위해 수퍼바이저의 참여가 필요하다고 설명했습니다:
Students described supervisor participation as necessary for learning from their goals:

심전도 [목표]의 경우, 주치의가 어떻게 해야 하는지 알고 있었기 때문에 잘 풀렸습니다. 매일 "좋아, 학생 X는 모든 환자의 회진에서 심전도를 판독할 거야."라고 말씀하셨죠. 그 덕분에 정말 잘할 수 있었던 반면, 다른 목표의 경우 주치의가 어떻게 해야 할지 잘 몰랐다면 [...] 토론도 없었고 [...] 그래서 그 목표가 잘 달성되지 못했습니다. (NeuroStudent2)
With the ECGs [goal], that worked out because my attending knew what to do with that. Every day, he's like “Okay, Student X is going to read the ECG on rounds for every patient.” I got really good at it because of that, whereas other goals, if they didn't really know how to help me figure it out […] then there wasn't really a discussion […] so those goals didn't work out as well. (NeuroStudent2)

학생들이 목표를 달성하기 위해 상당한 노력을 기울였다고 해도 학습이 이루어지기 위해서는 감독자와의 상호작용이 필수적이었습니다:
Even if students put a significant amount of their own effort into their goals, the interaction with the supervisor was essential for learning to happen:

...학습 목표를 세우면 능동적으로 행동하게 됩니다. 제가 집중적으로 배우고 싶은 것이 이것이라는 것을 보여주고 계십니다. 나는 그것을 하기 위해 스스로 노력할 것입니다. 어떻게 할 것인지 단락에 적었지만 상대방이 참여하지 않는다면 원하는 만큼 열심히 노력할 수 있지만 피드백이나 지시를 받지 못한다면 실제로 아무것도 배우지 못한 것입니다. (SurgStudent1)
…with learning goals, you're being proactive. You're showing that this is the focused thing that I want to learn. I'm going to try on my own to do it. You write in your paragraph how you're going to do it, but if the other person isn't willing to engage, then you can try as hard as you want, but if you're not getting any feedback or direction, then you haven't really learned anything. (SurgStudent1)

감독자의 참여는 종종 학생의 목표에 대한 피드백 제공으로 이루어졌습니다. 한 주치의는 다음과 같이 관찰했습니다:
Supervisor engagement often consisted of providing feedback on students’ goals. As one attending physician observed:

저는 학생들에게 다음과 같은 피드백을 제공합니다: "그 목표를 다시 생각해 보는 것이 좋을 것 같습니다. 그 목표를 표현하는 방식이 정확히 달성 가능하지 않을 수도 있지만 이렇게 조금 더 생각해 보세요. 이 부분은 달성 가능할 수도 있습니다." (산부인과 어텐딩1)
I'll give them feedback about: “Well, you may want to rethink that goal. The way you phrase it may not be exactly accomplishable but maybe think a little bit more about it like this. This piece of it might be accomplishable.” (ObGynAttending1)

또한 슈퍼바이저가 학생의 목표에 참여하면 종종 이를 팀 업무에 통합할 수 있는 방법을 찾기도 했습니다:
Further, when supervisors engaged with students’ goals, they would often find ways to incorporate them into the team's work:

그[학생]는 영상에 대해 더 많이 배우고 싶어 했습니다. 저는 매일 그가 우리가 보고 있는 이미지를 하나 이상 검토하도록 했습니다. 그런 다음 "이것 찾아봐, 저것 찾아봐"와 같이 해부학에 대해 알고 있는지 확인했습니다. (신경과 어텐딩2)
He [the student] wanted to learn more about imaging. Every day I would make sure that he had to review at least one image that we were looking at. Then I would make sure that he knows about the anatomy, like, “Find this, find that.” (NeuroAttending2)

스레드: 학생
The threads: students

학생들의 참여 수준도 학습 목표를 도구로 사용하는 데 영향을 미쳤습니다. 한 레지던트는 다음과 같이 언급했습니다:
Students’ level of engagement also influenced the usage of learning goals as tools. As one resident noted:

항상 그렇듯이, 시스템에 관심을 갖고 "이건 저에게 유용하고 학습에 도움이 될 거예요."라고 말하는 사람을 가르치는 것이 훨씬 더 쉽습니다. 그렇지 않은 사람은 더 어렵습니다. (SurgResident2)
It's much easier, which is always the case, to teach someone who's bought into the system and is interested in it and says, “This is something that is going to be useful and help me to learn.” Other people that don't, that's more difficult. (SurgResident2)

수퍼바이저들은 종종 학생의 관심 수준과 목표에 대한 헌신을 측정하는 것에 대해 설명했습니다. 한 주치의는 다음과 같이 관찰했습니다:
Supervisors often described gauging the student's level of interest and commitment to goals. As one attending physician observed:

한 시간 전에 방금 한 학생의 목표를 받았습니다(그런데 완전히 늦었습니다). 그 학생은 목표에 전혀 관심이 없다는 것을 알 수 있었습니다. 책에 나와 있는 규칙을 제대로 따르는 사람을 구별할 수 있습니다. 이 사람은 매우 짧고 직설적입니다. 좋은 목표가 아니라는 것은 아니지만 다른 것은 없습니다. (산부인과 어텐딩2)
An hour ago, I just got [a] student's goals (which is totally late, by the way). I can tell she's totally not into the goals. You can tell people who are really following the rules by the books. This person is very brief, blunt. Not that it's not a good goal to have but [it] doesn't have anything else to it. (ObGynAttending2)

학생들은 학습 목표 프로그램에 참여하려는 동기를 형성한 내부 및 외부의 복잡한 상호작용을 설명했습니다. 인터뷰에 참여한 모든 학생들은 목표에 대한 긍정적인 경험과 부정적인 경험을 모두 표현했습니다. 학생 동기의 대부분은 학생이 학습 목표 과제를 자신의 개인적인 전문성 개발 목표를 파악하여 상사에게 전달하기 위한 도구로 보았는지, 아니면 반대로 학생의 내부 동기와는 무관한 외부에서 부과한 요구 사항으로 보았는지에 따라 결정되었습니다. 한 학생은 다음과 같이 관찰했습니다:
Students described a complex interplay of internal and external forces that shaped their motivation to participate in the learning goals programme. All students who were interviewed expressed both positive and negative experiences with the goals. Much of student motivation was driven by whether a student saw the learning goals assignment as a tool to identify and communicate his or her personal professional development objects to supervisors or, conversely, as an externally imposed requirement that was unrelated to the student's internal drives. As one student observed:

월요일 밤 9시에 앉으면 제 약점이나 교육적으로 전문적으로 무엇이 되고 싶은지에 대해 생각하지 않습니다. 저는 내일은 어떤 어떤 의사에게 보내야 하는 제 목표가 무엇일지 생각하고 있습니다. [면접관: '글을 쓸 때 어떤 동기가 있나요?'] 저의 동기는 그것이 요구되었다는 것입니다. (IntMedStudent3)
When I sit down Monday night at 9.00, I'm not thinking about my weaknesses and what I want to become professionally, educationally. I'm thinking about what are going to be my goals that I have to send off to Dr Who and Who tomorrow. [Interviewer: ‘What are your motivators when you're writing it?’] My motivator is that it's been required. (IntMedStudent3)

다른 학생들은 자신의 업무를 기록하고 상사에게 깊은 인상을 심어줄 수 있는 능력을 입증하는 도구로 목표를 어떻게 활용할 수 있는지에 대해 언급했습니다:
Other students commented on how they could use the goals as an evidentiary tool to record their work and demonstrate their skills to impress their supervisors:

... 학습 목표를 사용하여 학습을 통합하고 차트나 실제 피드백을 받을 수 있는 유용한 무언가를 만드는 것이 제가 생각하는 방법입니다. 그런 다음 주치의에게 제가 학습에 적극적으로 참여하고 있고 이 특정 로테이션에 도움이 되려고 노력하고 있다는 것을 보여주세요. (ObGynStudent2)
…that's how I'm thinking of using the learning goals – to integrate learning and making something like a chart or something that's useful for me that I can get actual feedback from. Then show the attending I am taking an active role in my learning and trying to be useful on this particular rotation. (ObGynStudent2)

감독자를 만족시키기 위한 이러한 목표는 학생들이 개인적으로 중요하다고 생각하는 목표를 공유하지 못하게 할 수 있습니다. 한 학생은 사회복지사와 함께 일한다는 목표가 자신의 팀 중 한 팀에서는 유익했지만 다른 팀에서는 같은 목표가 받아들여지지 않는다고 설명했습니다:
This object to please supervisors could prevent students from sharing goals that they personally found important. A student described how she had found the goal of working with a social worker to be beneficial on one of her teams, but indicated that the same goal would be unacceptable on another team:

... 일부 어텐딩과 레지던트들은 우리에게 특정한 종류의 목표를 원하는 것 같았습니다. 한 번은 소아과에서 저희를 앉혀놓고 "이런 목표가 정말 잘 맞는 목표입니다. 여러분이 얻고자 하는 특정 지식 기반에 집중하는 목표요."라고 말했죠. 저는 "와, 정말 제약을 받는 것 같네요."라고 생각했습니다. [...] 소아과에 특화된 일이어야 한다고 해서 사회사업 일을 하는 것이 꼭 편하지는 않았을 거예요 [...] 틀에서 벗어나 제가 원하는 일을 하면 전공의나 주치의가 좋아하지 않을까 봐 걱정이 되기도 했어요. (PaedsStudent3)
…some of the attendings and residents, have seem[ed] to want a certain kind of goal out of us. One time in paediatrics, they sat us down and were like, “This is the kind of goal that really works well – the kind where you focus on a specific knowledge base that you want to gain.” I was like, “Whoa, I feel really restricted by that.” […] I wouldn't have necessarily felt comfortable then doing a social work thing because they told me it needs to be something paediatric-specific […] I would be worried that going outside of the box and doing something I wanted wouldn't please them. (PaedsStudent3)


외부 동기가 일부 학생에게 강력한 영향을 미친 반면, 다른 학생은 목표를 사용하여 직면한 요구를 협상했습니다:
Whereas external motivators had a powerful effect on some students, others used the goals to negotiate the demands that they faced:

... 내가 개선해야 할 것이 무엇인지 생각해보고 우선순위를 정해서 상위 두 가지를 학습 목표로 삼는 것 [...] 우선순위가 경쟁하는 상황에서 도움이 됩니다. 가장 중요한 것이 무엇인지, 예를 들어 시간을 가장 잘 활용하는 것이 무엇인지에 대해 더 많이 성찰하는 것이 도움이 됩니다. (SurgStudent3)
…these are the things like reflecting on what do I need to improve on and then prioritising them and going with the top two as learning goals […] it's helpful in the context of competing priorities. It's helpful to reflect more on what's the most important – like what is the best use of your time. (SurgStudent3)

일부 학생은 환자 치료에 참여할 기회를 만들고 의사로서의 기술을 개발하기 위해 적극적으로 커뮤니티에 참여했습니다:
Some students proactively engaged their community in order to create opportunities for participation in patient care and to develop their skills as physicians:

처음에는 어텐딩이 언급하지 않으면 그 얘기를 꺼내지 않았던 것과 비교하면 정말 달라졌어요. 주치의가 말하지 않으면 저도 말하지 않았죠. 이제는 주치의에게 "이게 제 목표인데, 제가 봐야 할 환자가 있나요?", "어떻게 하면 좋을지 제안해 주실 수 있나요?" 등의 질문을 합니다. 처음 시작할 때보다 확실히 늘어났어요. (PaedsStudent2)
Compared to the beginning where if the attending really didn't mention it, I wouldn't really bring it up. Unless they said something, I wouldn't. Now, I ask them, “This is my goal, do you have any patients that I should see and do you have any suggestions for how I should go about doing this?” and those kinds of things. That's definitely increased since the beginning. (PaedsStudent2)

일부 학생은 학습 목표를 다른 방법으로는 활용하지 못했을 환자 치료에 참여할 수 있는 도구라고 설명했습니다:
Some students described their learning goals as tools enabling them to participate in patient care in ways that they otherwise would not have harnessed:

수술에서 제 목표는 제대로 닫는 방법을 배우는 것이었습니다: "제가 클로징할 수 있는 시간이 있으면 알려주세요." 그러자 그는 "네가 정말 관심이 있다는 걸 알았으니 케이스에 대해 X분 동안 해보게 해주고, 그래도 안 되면 그냥 끝내겠다"고 말했죠. 제가 먼저 나서서 이것이 저의 학습 목표라고 말하고 기회를 구하는 것이었습니다. (SurgStudent1)
I said that my goal in surgery was to learn how to close properly: “If there are any times that I can close, let me know.” He was like, “Now that I know you're actually interested, I'll let you try it for X number of minutes on a case, and if you're not finished, I'll just finish it up.” It was me coming forward and saying this is my learning goal and seeking opportunities. (SurgStudent1)

스레드: 환자
The threads: patients

목표가 폭넓은 학습으로 이어졌는지 여부는 임상 상황에 있는 환자에 따라 달라지는 경우가 많습니다:
Whether goals led to expansive learning often depended on the patients who were present in the clinical context:

많은 부분이 운에 달려 있습니다. 운이 좋게도 그 주에 제가 돌보는 환자들과 일치하는 학습 목표를 선택하면 그 목표가 매우 잘 맞아떨어집니다. 그렇지 않은 경우, 저는 제가 추적 관찰하는 환자가 앓고 있는 질환에 대해 뭐든 배우는 것을 우선하고, 학습 목표를 두 번째 우선순위로 삼게 됩니다. (신경과 학생1)
A lot of it just comes down to luck. If I happen to pick a learning goal that aligns with the patients that I'm following that week, they align it very well. If I don't, then I'm going to make the learning goals my second priority compared to just learning about whatever the patient that I am following has. (NeuroStudent1)

환자 치료의 변덕스러움은 감독자들도 지적했습니다. 한 주치의는 이렇게 말했습니다:
The vicissitudes of patient care were also noted by supervisors. One attending physician observed:

이 [목표]를 달성해야 할 다음 7일 동안 적절한 환자가 들어오지 않으면 실제로 가르치거나 배울 기회가 없을 수도 있습니다. (IntMedAttending2)
If the right patients don't come in over the next 7 days when you're supposed to achieve this [goal], then you may not have the opportunity to really teach or learn from it. (IntMedAttending2)

이러한 어려움에도 불구하고 [환자의 주요 불만 사항이나 요구 사항]이 [학생의 학습 목표]와 일치할 때 풍부한 학습 경험이 발생했습니다:
Despite these challenges, rich learning experiences occurred when patients’ chief complaints or needs aligned with students’ learning goals:

이러한 이상적인 상황은 일종의 우연입니다 [...] 학생 중 한 명이 가지고 있던 목표 중 하나는 피부 소견에 대한 설명을 더 잘하고 싶다는 것이었습니다. 실제로 그 주에 발진이 매우 광범위하고 여러 기관에 침범한 환자가 내원했습니다. 발진은 매일매일 변했습니다. 같은 환자였지만 그 학생은 그 환자에 대해 많은 주인의식을 가지고 매일 환자를 따라다니며 회진에서 발표하고, 환자에 대해 읽고, 하루에 여러 번 돌아가서 발진에 대해 설명하고 토론하면서 결과를 더 잘 설명할 수 있었기 때문에 이상적인 상황이었다고 생각합니다. (PaedsAttending2)
These ideal situation[s] are kind of fortuitous […] One of the goals that one of the students had was he wants to get better at description of skin findings. We actually had a patient on the floor that week with a very diffuse rash and multi-system involvement. The rash changed from day to day. I think that was an ideal situation because even though it was the same patient, that student took a lot of ownership in that patient and really followed him from day to day, presented him on rounds, read up on the patient and went back multiple times a day to describe the rash and discuss it and got better at describing the findings. (PaedsAttending2)

학생들이 다양한 환자를 돌보는 데 필요한 기술에 초점을 맞춘 목표를 세웠을 때, 이러한 목표는 더 많은 학습 기회를 활용하는 도구로 작용했습니다. 한 소아과 주치의는 다음과 같이 관찰했습니다:
When students constructed goals focused on skills they needed to care for broad sets of patients, those goals acted as tools leveraging greater learning opportunities. As one attending paediatrician observed:

아동 발달에 대해 배우겠다고 선택한 학생은 좋은 목표라고 생각했습니다. 이는 적절하고 매우 광범위합니다. 그녀가 보는 모든 환자에게 적용될 수 있습니다 [...] 그녀의 목표는 덴버 [발달 척도]에 따라 아이의 나이를 추측하는 것이었습니다. 환자 한 명 한 명을 대할 때마다 하는 일이었고, 다른 일과도 잘 맞아떨어졌기 때문에 꽤 효과적이었다고 생각합니다. (PaedsAttending3)
I thought the girl that chose to learn about development of kids – that was a good goal. That's pertinent, it's pretty broad. It can be applied to any patient she sees […] her goal was to try to guess based on the Denver [Developmental Scale] how old the kid was. I think that actually worked pretty well because it was something that she just did with each patient, and it kind of fit in with what else she had to do. (PaedsAttending3)

도구: 서면 학습 목표
Tools: written learning goals

학습 목표는 학생과 감독자가 환자와 함께 학습 기회를 활용할 수 있는 도구 역할을 했습니다:
Learning goals acted as tools through which students and their supervisors could harness learning opportunities with patients:

... 매일 내가... 오늘 이 목표를 달성할 수 있는 기회가 있는가? [...] 환자를 찾아보거나 상황을 찾아보자는 식의 계획을 세울 수 있고, 환자를 찾아보거나 상황을 설정하지 않을 수도 있습니다. (SurgStudent3)
…each day you think about am I… is there an opportunity to do this goal today? […] it gives you like this plan, like let me find a patient or find a situation versus if you're just kind of there, you might not be trying to identify a patient, setting up a situation. (SurgStudent3)

수퍼바이저들은 또한 학습 목표가 학습 기회를 창출한다고 언급했습니다:
Supervisors also noted that the learning goals created learning opportunities:

회진할 때마다 학습 목표와 관련된 이야기를 들으려고 노력했고 [...] 회진 후에도 그런 기회가 있을 때마다 공식적인 '3시에 만나자'는 식의 방식이 아니라 이야기를 나누곤 했습니다. 그냥 그런 일이 생길 때마다요. (PaedsAttending1)
It was pretty much every time on rounds I was trying to listen for things related to learning goals […] any time after rounds, when there was an opportunity for those things, we would talk about it but not in any formal “let's meet at 3 o'clock” type of way. Just like, whenever they kind of came up. (PaedsAttending1)

학생들이 업무 환경에서 학습에 대한 당황스러운 요구 사항과 과제에 직면했을 때 학습 목표는 학습 노력을 조직화하는 수단을 제공했습니다:
As students confronted the bewildering array of requirements and tasks of learning in a work environment, the learning goals provided a means of organising their learning efforts:

어떻게 그것을 실현할 것인지 생각하지 않으면 일이 일어나지 않을 것입니다. (ObGynStudent2)
Things aren't going to happen unless you've thought about how you're going to make that happen. (ObGynStudent2)

또한 목표는 감독자가 학생의 학습 목표를 지원하기 위해 활동을 수정하는 도구가 되었습니다:
Goals also became tools through which supervisors would modify their activities to support students’ learning objects:

다시 말하지만, 저에게 학생의 현재 위치를 알 수 있게 해줍니다. 임상 경험에 학생의 목표를 삽입하기 위해 일정을 조정합니다. (산부인과 어텐딩2)
Again, it allows for just me to know where she's at. Tailor my schedule to insert her goal into a clinical experience. (ObGynAttending2)

학생들은 또한 학습 목표를 통해 상사가 놓칠 수 있는 학습 기회를 인식할 수 있다고 언급했습니다:
Students also noted that learning goals could cause their supervisors to recognise learning opportunities that they might otherwise have missed:

...때때로 우리는 레지던트들에게 수술 노트를 건네주면 그들은 우리에게 피드백을 주지 않고 스스로 수정한 다음 서명만 하곤 했습니다. 하지만 주중에 몇 번은 레지던트들이 "아, 이게 이번 주 목표 중 하나였죠?"라고 물었고 저는 "네"라고 대답했죠. 그래서 그는 "이리 와서 이 [태아 심장 모니터] 스트립을 함께 살펴볼래요?"라고 말했죠. (산부인과 학생3)
…sometimes we would just pass the labour notes to the residents and they would just like make their own edits and then just sign it, you know, without ever [giving] feedback to us. But at several points like during the week they would be like, “Oh, you know, this was one of your goals for the week, right?”, and I was like, “Yeah.” So he was like, “Do you want to come over and then we can go over this [fetal heart monitor] strip together?” or something like that. (ObGynStudent3)

감독자들은 때때로 학생의 목표를 사용하여 더 많은 실습 기회를 제공하기도 합니다:
Supervisors would at times use students’ goals to provide more opportunities for practice:

학생이 조금 뒤처지면 [...] 봉합 재료와 소모품을 들고 오라고 격려하고, 시뮬레이션 실습실에 데려가서 [...] 과제를 검토하는 등 30분에서 1시간 정도 함께 시간을 보냅니다. (SurgResident1)
If the student is a bit behind […] I would encourage him to carry the suture material and the supplies and I would take the student to the simulation lab […] So we would go there and spend about half an hour to 1 hour with him, like go over the tasks. (SurgResident1)

학생과 감독자가 학습 목표를 도구로 사용했을 때, 그들은 그 목표를 중심으로 새로운 형태의 활동에 참여할 수 있었습니다:
When students and supervisors used learning goals as tools, they were able to engage in new forms of activity knotting around those goals:

저는 어떤 유형의 목표가 팀의 도움을 받는 데 가장 효과적일지 확실히 생각합니다 [...] 팀이 이 목표를 읽으면 저를 어떤 일에 참여시켜 다른 방법으로는 얻을 수 없는 무언가를 얻을 수 있을지도 모릅니다. 저는 다른 방법으로는 할 수 없거나 팀에서 기회를 주지 않는 일을 하려고 노력하고 있습니다. 그래서 어떤 면에서는 그 힘을 이용하는 거죠. (PaedsStudent3)
I definitely think about what types of goals I think will work the best in terms of getting the team to help me out […] If they read this goal, they might involve me in something so that I can get something out of it that I wouldn't otherwise. I'm trying to do things that aren't things I would otherwise do or otherwise have an opportunity from the team to do anyway. So, kind of using the power of it in a way. (PaedsStudent3)

토론
Discussion

우리는 서면 학습 목표가 학생과 감독자의 임상 업무에 어떻게 통합되었는지 조사했습니다. 다른 많은 학습 목표 프로그램과 마찬가지로,4-9 우리가 조사한 프로그램은 SRL의 사회인지적 원리를 작동시키기 위해 개발되었습니다. 그러나 프로그램에 대한 참가자들의 설명과 임상 업무에서 학습 목표를 어떻게 사용했는지 분석하면서 서면 학습 목표의 물질적 역할과 대인관계 및 맥락적 역학을 보다 완벽하게 설명하는 프레임워크가 필요하다는 것을 알게 되었습니다. 문화역사활동이론(CHAT)과 매듭짓기는 우리의 연구 결과를 설명할 수 있는 수단을 제공했습니다. SRL에 대한 사회인지적 접근법을 통해 프로그램을 만들었지만, CHAT과 매듭짓기를 통해 프로그램이 어떻게 작동하는지 이해할 수 있었습니다.  
We investigated how written learning goals were incorporated into students’ and supervisors’ clinical work. Like many other learning goal programmes,4-9 the programme we investigated was developed to operationalise the social cognitive principles of SRL. However, as we analysed participants’ descriptions of the programme and how they used learning goals in their clinical work, we found that we needed a framework that more fully accounted for the material role of the written learning goals, as well as interpersonal and contextual dynamics. Cultural historical activity theory (CHAT) and knotworking provided a means to explain our findings. A social cognitive approach to SRL led to the creation of the programme, but CHAT and knotworking allowed us to understand how it worked.

임상팀과 공유한 고빈도 서면 학습 목표 프로그램에서 우리는 학생들이 단순히 학습 목표를 SRL의 내적 인지 과정의 기질로 사용하지 않는다는 것을 발견했습니다. 그 대신, 학습은 학생의 인지 과정을 넘어 학습 목표에 의해 매개되는 [학생, 감독자, 환자 간의 복잡한 상호작용]에서 비롯되는 것으로 나타났습니다. 최적의 상황에서 학습 목표는 학생과 감독자가 업무 환경의 경쟁 대상을 협상하고 기술 개발, 채점 및 환자 치료의 중첩된 결과를 조정하려고 노력할 때 학생과 감독자가 행동을 바꾸는 과정을 촉진했습니다. 학습 목표가 이러한 상호작용을 중재하는 데 성공하자 새로운 교육 지향적 행동이 일어났습니다. 이러한 방식으로 활동 시스템은 학습 시스템이 되었습니다. 학생, 감독자 또는 환자가 목표를 중심으로 수렴하지 않으면 광범위한 학습이 이루어지지 않거나 제한적이었습니다. 
In our programme of high-frequency written learning goals shared with the clinical team, we found that students did not simply use their learning goals as a substrate for the internal cognitive processes of SRL. Instead, beyond students’ cognitive processes, learning appeared to result from complex interactions among students, supervisors and patients mediated by the learning goals. In optimal circumstances, the learning goals facilitated a process by which students and their supervisors changed their actions as they negotiated the competing objects of the work environment and as they sought to align the overlapping outcomes of skill development, grading and patient care. When the learning goals were successful in mediating these interactions, new education-oriented actions took place. In this way, the activity system became a learning system. When students, supervisors or patients did not converge around the goals, expansive learning did not take place or was limited.

일반적으로 학습 목표 프로그램 또는 개별화된 학습 계획은 훈련생이 보다 자기 통제적인 평생 학습자로 발전하는 데 어떻게 도움이 되는지와 관련하여 검토되며,4-9 '마스터 학습자'라고도 합니다.22, 23 SRL에 대한 이전의 분석에 따르면 사회적 환경은 학습자에게 중요한 피드백과 지원을 제공합니다.1, 2, 10, 24-26 그러나 이러한 연구는 학습자와 감독자가 업무의 도전과 학습 목표를 조화시키기 위해 협력적으로 노력할 때 어떻게 행동이 변화할 수 있는지를 보여주지 못했습니다. 우리의 연구는 목표 지향 활동object-oriented activity에 초점을 맞춤으로써, [개별 학습자를 최적화하는 방법]을 분석하는 것에서 [학습 시스템의 구성 요소가 매개 도구를 중심으로 상호 작용하고 잠재적으로 함께 변화하는 방법]을 평가하는 것으로의 중요한 전환을 나타냅니다.17, 18 
Typically, learning goal programmes or individualised learning plans are examined in relation to how they help trainees develop into more self-regulated lifelong learners,4-9 sometimes termed ‘master learners’.22, 23 Previous analyses of SRL have shown that the social environment provides important feedback and support for learners.1, 2, 10, 24-26 However, these studies have not demonstrated how both learners’ and supervisors’ actions can change as they collaboratively seek to reconcile the challenges of work with learning goals. By focusing on object-oriented activity, our work represents a significant shift from analysing how to optimise individual learners to evaluating how the components of a learning system interact around mediating tools and potentially change together.17, 18

매듭짓기 및 확장 학습으로서의 학습 목표
Learning goals as knotworking and expansive learning

[학습 목표의 집행]은 때때로 학생이 수행하기도 하고(예: 복잡한 환자 간호에 대한 주인의식을 갖거나 사회복지사와 협력할 기회를 모색하는 등), 때로는 감독자가 수행하기도 합니다(예: 학생을 데리고 환자를 진찰하거나 심전도 또는 자기공명영상 스캔에 대해 질문하는 등). [주도권과 행동이 오가고, 통제 중심이 정해져 있지 않은 것]은 매듭작업의 특징이며 복잡한 작업 환경에서 협업을 촉진하는 열쇠입니다.17, 18 이러한 변화는 전통적인 교육 분업이 모호해지고 교육 과제를 결정하는 사람과 관련된 규범이 약화되었음을 나타냅니다(그림 2 참조).

  • 학생들이 서면 학습 목표를 작성했기 때문에 수퍼바이저는 때때로 다른 방법으로는 발생하지 않았을 환자 치료에 학생들을 참여시키기도 했습니다.
  • 또한 학생들은 자신의 목표를 사용하여 다른 방법으로는 할 기회가 없었을 활동을 옹호할 수도 있었습니다.
  • 이러한 방식으로 학생들은 실무자 커뮤니티의 일원이 될 수 있었습니다.

우리의 데이터에 따르면 학습 목표를 사용하면 학생과 감독자가 새로운 대상을 만들고 새로운 행동을 수행하도록 유도할 수 있으며, 이를 확장 학습으로 해석합니다.14, 17, 18  
The enactment of learning goals was sometimes performed by the student (e.g. by taking ownership of a complex patient's care or by seeking opportunities to collaborate with a social worker) and at other times by the supervisor (e.g. by taking students to examine patients or by asking them questions about electrocardiograms or magnetic resonance imaging scans). The shifting back and forth of initiative and action and the absence of a set centre of control is characteristic of knotworking and is key to facilitating collaboration in complex work environments.17, 18 This shifting represents a blurring of traditional educational divisions of labour and a softening of norms related to who determines educational tasks (see Fig. 2).

  • Because students produced written learning goals, supervisors sometimes invited students to participate in patient care in ways that may not otherwise have occurred.
  • Students could also use their goals to advocate for activities that they might not otherwise have had the chance to do.
  • In this way, students could more fully become part of the community of practitioners.

Our data suggest that the use of learning goals could prompt students and supervisors to create new objects and perform new actions, which we interpret as expansive learning.14, 17, 18

그러나 때로는 활동 시스템 내에서 [모순되는 힘을 극복할 수 없는 경우]도 있습니다. 환자 치료의 타이밍과 긴급성, 환자의 유형과 수, 행정 업무에 할애되는 시간, 학생 채점 요건 등의 문제는 학습 목표를 매개로 한 협업으로 조정하기에는 너무 큰 장벽으로 작용할 수 있습니다. 이러한 상황에서 감독자와 학생이 임상 서비스의 바쁜 요구 사항이나 채점 시스템에 의해 부과된 위계질서를 충족하는 데 집중하면서 팀의 분업과 규범이 굳어지는 것처럼 보였습니다. 이러한 상황으로 인해 팀이 학생의 목표를 위해 함께 일할 수 없게 되면 커뮤니티의 외부인으로서 학생의 역할이 강조되었습니다. 상황이 활동의 확장을 가져올 수 있는 것처럼, 상황이 활동의 위축을 가져올 수도 있습니다.17 
Sometimes, however, the contradictory forces within an activity system could not be overcome. Challenges such as the timing and urgency of patient care, the types and numbers of patients, time dedicated to administrative work, and the requirements of grading students could act as barriers too great to be reconciled by learning goal-mediated collaboration. In these situations, the divisions of labour and the norms of the team seemed to harden as supervisors and students focused on meeting the busy demands of the clinical service or the hierarchy imposed by grading systems. When such a situation precluded the team from working together on a student's goals, this emphasised the student's role as an outsider to the community. Just as circumstances can lead to expansion of activity, they can also lead to its constriction.17

우리는 환자들이 활동 시스템에서 다면적인 역할을 한다는 것을 발견했습니다. 학생과 감독자 모두 [환자가 학생의 학습 목표 달성에 매우 중요하다]고 설명했습니다. 환자의 요구와 속성이 학생의 목표와 일치하는지 여부는 종종 우연에 기인했으며, 끊임없이 변화하는 환자의 조합은 상호 작용을 일시적으로 만들었습니다. 이런 식으로 환자들은 매듭의 실과 같은 속성을 충족시킵니다. 환자가 매듭에 참여하는 것과 관련하여 선택권을 행사하지는 않았지만, 학생들의 목표 달성 여부는 함께한 환자와의 일치 여부에 달려 있었습니다.
We found patients played a multifaceted role in the activity system. Both students and supervisors described patients as critical to the fulfilling of students’ learning goals. Whether patients’ needs and attributes aligned with students’ goals was often attributable to serendipity, and the constantly changing mix of patients made the interactions transient. In this way patients meet the attributes of a thread in the knot. Although patients did not exercise choice with regard to their participation in the knot, the success of students’ goals depended on their alignment with the patients who were present.

또 다른 문제는 서면 학습 목표가 어떻게 인식되는지에서 발생했습니다. 일부 학생들은 서면으로 작성된 학습 목표를 작업 중에 스스로 만든 비공식적이고 자발적인 목표와 별개의 것으로 생각했습니다. 학생 또는 감독자가 학습 목표를 [외부에서 부과된 요구 사항]으로 인식하면 학습 목표의 생성은 [기대 성과와 무관한 대상]이 되어 교육적 목적이 사라지게 됩니다. 이러한 경우 학습 목표 설정 요건은 학생들이 원하는 활동에 참여하도록 돕는 대신 원하는 활동에서 시간을 보내도록 강요함으로써 새로운 모순을 초래했을 수 있습니다.18
Another challenge arose from how the written learning goals were perceived. Some students saw their written learning goals as distinct from the informal, spontaneous goals they would create for themselves during their work. When students or supervisors perceived learning goals as an externally imposed requirement, the creation of learning goals became an object unrelated to any of the desired outcomes and rendered the goals an educational deadend. In these cases, the requirement to create learning goals may have led to new contradictions by forcing students to spend time away from desired activities instead of helping them to participate in those activities.18

관계적 기관의 산물로서의 학습 목표
Learning goals as a product of relational agency

학생의 학습 목표가 팀 활동의 광범위한 변화로 이어졌는지 여부는 학생과 감독자 모두의 협업에 달려 있었습니다. 새로운 행동을 만들어내는 이러한 유형의 협업 능력을 '관계적 주체성'이라고 할 수 있습니다. 관계적 에이전시란 '다른 사람의 감각적 판단을 끌어들여 자신이 작업하는 대상을 확장하고, 그 감각적 판단에 대응할 때 다른 사람이 제공하는 자원을 활용할 수 있는 능력'입니다.27 
Whether students’ learning goals led to expansive transformation of the team's activity was dependent on both students’ and supervisors’ collaboration. This type of collaborative power to create new actions can be referred to as ‘relational agency’. Relational agency is the ‘capacity to work with others to expand the object that one is working on by bringing to bear the sense-making of others and to draw on the resources they offer when responding to that sense-making’.27

[관계적 에이전시]에서는 학생과 감독자 모두 팀의 행동에 기여해야 하지만, 이들의 권한이 본질적으로 동등한 것은 아닙니다. 슈퍼바이저는 환자 치료에 대한 최종적인 책임이 있으며, 임상 업무에 기여하는 데 필요한 기술 유형을 정의하고 학생의 성적을 결정하는 경우가 많습니다. 이러한 힘의 불균형을 고려할 때, 학습 목표를 제정하는 관계적 행위자성에 대한 [슈퍼바이저의 기여도]는 학생의 기여도보다 잠재적으로 더 중요해집니다. 실제로 모든 학생이 학습 목표 사용에 영향을 미친 가장 중요한 요인으로 감독자의 참여를 꼽았습니다. 또한 몇몇 슈퍼바이저는 학생들이 목표를 달성하는 데 있어 슈퍼바이저의 역할이 매우 중요하다고 언급했습니다. 팀의 학습을 위해서는 [높은 권력을 가진 사람]이 자신의 권력을 사용하여 낮은 권력을 가진 사람의 의견과 참여를 기대하고 촉진해야 한다는 다른 연구자들의 제안을 확인했습니다.28 일반적으로 슈퍼바이저가 학생의 학습 목표를 소중히 여기고 학생과 소통할 때 학생도 관심과 노력으로 보답했습니다.
Whereas relational agency requires that both students and supervisors contribute to the actions of the team, their power is not inherently equal. Supervisors have ultimate responsibility for patient care, they often define the types of skills that are necessary to contribute to the clinical work, and they determine students’ grades. Given the power imbalance, supervisors’ contributions to the relational agency of enacting learning goals become potentially more important than students’ contributions. Indeed, all students identified supervisor engagement as the single most important factor that influenced the use of their learning goals. Several supervisors also commented on the critical role that they played in students’ fulfilling of their goals. Our study confirms what others have suggested: for teams to learn, those in positions of high power must use their power to create expectations of and promote the input and participation of those with low power.28 Generally, when supervisors valued students’ learning goals and engaged with them, students reciprocated with interest and effort.

제한 사항
Limitations

많은 CHAT 기반 연구는 광범위한 직장 내 상호작용을 조사하기 위해 직접 현장 관찰 방법론을 사용합니다. 저희는 데이터를 수집한 후 CHAT을 가장 잘 설명할 수 있는 이론으로 판단했기 때문에, 학생의 학습 목표와 관련된 경험과 행동에 대한 설명을 참가자 인터뷰에만 의존했습니다. 저희는 저희의 방법이 시스템 내 비인간적 요소의 역할보다 인간의 선택권을 우선시한다는 점을 잘 알고 있습니다. 학생과 지도교수가 임상 교육 환경에서 자신의 행동을 중재하기 위해 사용했을 수 있는 모든 도구를 조사하지는 않았습니다. 학생과 감독자가 서면 학습 목표에 참여하지 않은 경우, 다른 도구를 사용하여 새로운 학습 지향적 행동과 협업을 생성했을 수 있습니다. 그러나 이는 본 연구의 범위를 벗어난 것입니다. 향후 연구에서는 학생의 학습 목표에 대한 팀의 상호작용을 직접 관찰하는 것이 도움이 될 것입니다. 학습 목표 프로그램을 이해하는 렌즈로 CHAT을 사용함으로써, 다른 이론적 렌즈를 통해 더 강조되었을 수 있는 작업 기반 학습의 측면을 간과했을 수 있습니다. 
Many CHAT-based studies use direct field observation methodologies to investigate broad sets of workplace interactions. Because we identified CHAT as our best explanatory theory after our data had been collected, our study relied solely on participant interviews for descriptions of experiences and actions regarding students’ learning goals. We recognise that our methods privilege human agency over the role of non-human elements within the system. We did not examine all the tools students and their supervisors may have used to mediate their actions in the clinical education environment. When students and supervisors did not engage with the written learning goals, they may have used other tools to generate new learning-oriented actions and collaboration. However, this was outside the scope of our study. Future studies would benefit from direct observation of teams’ interactions around student learning goals. By using CHAT as a lens through which to understand our learning goals programme, we may have neglected aspects of work-based learning that may have received greater emphasis through a different theoretical lens.

결론
Conclusions


우리의 연구는 학생들의 서면 학습 목표가 학생의 내부 인지 과정 이외의 요인, 특히 슈퍼바이저 및 환자와의 상호작용에 의해 영향을 받는다는 것을 시사합니다. 학생과 감독자는 업무 기반 학습에 내재된 모순을 극복하기 위해 [서로 경쟁하는 목표]를 [기대 성과]와 일치시키기 위해 협력해야 합니다. 서면 학습 목표는 학생과 감독자가 이러한 조율을 달성하기 위해 새로운 행동 및 상호 작용 방식을 협상할 수 있는 도구로 사용될 수 있습니다. 그러나 이러한 상호 작용은 미약하고 유동적이며 지속적으로 압박을 받습니다. 
Our study suggests that students’ written learning goals are influenced by factors beyond students’ internal cognitive processes, notably by their interactions with supervisors and patients. Students and supervisors must collaborate to align competing objects with desired outcomes to overcome the contradictions inherent in work-based learning. Written learning goals may serve as tools that allow students and supervisors to negotiate new ways of acting and interacting to achieve that alignment. These interactions, however, are tenuous, fluid, and constantly under pressure.

교육자가 광범위한 학습을 지원하는 협업 환경을 조성하는 방법을 고려할 때, 학생 학습 목표를 문서화하는 것은 잠재적으로 강력한 도구입니다. 그러나 학생과 감독자는 목표를 그 자체로 목적이 아니라 원하는 결과를 달성하기 위한 수단으로 간주해야 합니다. 그들은 서로 연동되고 점진적으로 개선되는 시스템을 만들기 위해 협력할 때 각자의 기여가 중요하다는 것을 인식해야 합니다. 학습 목표 프로그램의 목적과 비전은 학생을 마스터 학습자로 개발하는 것을 넘어 마스터 학습 시스템을 개발하는 방향으로 나아가야 합니다.
As educators consider how to create collaborative environments that support expansive learning, written student learning goals are a potentially powerful tool. However, students and supervisors must see the goals as means to achieve outcomes they desire, rather than being an end in and of themselves. They must recognise that each of their contributions is critical in collaboration as they then create an interlocking and progressively improving system. The purpose and vision of learning goal programmes should move beyond the development of students as master learners towards the development of master learning systems.


Med Educ. 2017 Jul;51(7):687-698. doi: 10.1111/medu.13295. Epub 2017 Apr 12.

Tying knots: an activity theory analysis of student learning goals in clinical education

Affiliations collapse

Affiliations

1Department of Neurology, School of Medicine, Washington University in St Louis, St Louis, Missouri, USA.

2School of Medicine, Washington University in St Louis, St Louis, Missouri, USA.

3Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri, USA.

4Division of Health Professions Education, Department of Medicine, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, Maryland, USA.

5Department of Medicine & The Wilson Centre, Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.

PMID: 28401571

DOI: 10.1111/medu.13295

Abstract

Context: Learning goal programmes are often created to help students develop self-regulated learning skills; however, these programmes do not necessarily consider the social contexts surrounding learning goals or how they fit into daily educational practice.

Objectives: We investigated a high-frequency learning goal programme in which students generated and shared weekly learning goals with their clinical teams in core Year 3 clerkships. Our study explores: (i) how learning goals were incorporated into the clinical work, and (ii) the factors that influenced the use of students' learning goals in work-based learning.

Methods: We conducted semi-structured interviews with 14 students and 14 supervisors (attending physicians and residents) sampled from all participating core clerkships. Interviews were coded for emerging themes. Using cultural historical activity theory and knotworking as theoretical lenses, we developed a model of the factors that influenced students' learning goal usage in a work-based learning context.

Results: Students and supervisors often faced the challenge of reconciling contradictions that arose when the desired outcomes of student skill development, grading and patient care were not aligned. Learning goals could function as tools for developing new ways of acting that overcame those contradictions by facilitating collaborative effort between students and their supervisors. However, for new collaborations to take place, both students and supervisors had to engage with the goals, and the necessary patients needed to be present. When any one part of the system did not converge around the learning goals, the impact of the learning goals programme was limited.

Conclusions: Learning goals are potentially powerful tools to mediate interactions between students, supervisors and patients, and to reconcile contradictions in work-based learning environments. Learning goals provide a means to develop not only learners, but also learning systems.

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