AMEE GUIDE NO 36

Faculty development: Yesterday, today and tomorrow

MICHELLE MCLEAN1, FRANCOIS CILLIERS2 & JACQUELINE M. VAN WYK3

1University of the United Arab Emirates, 2University of Stellenbosch, South Africa, 3University of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa


Abstract

의학교육은 그 자체가 하나의 학문으로서 진호하였다. Medical faculty에게 요구되는 사회적 책무와 함께 가르치는 일에 대해서도 professionalization의 압박이 커지고 있다. 프로페셔널하고 역량있는 선생, 교육자, 연구자, 리더를 키우기 위해서는 교수개발(faculty development, FD)가 필요하다. 그러나 FD는 쉬운 일이 아디나. 조직 차원에서의 지지가 필요하고, 적절한 자원의 배분과 우수한 교육자를 인정해주는 것이 필요하다.

Medical education has evolved to become a discipline in its own right. With demands on medical faculties to be socially responsible and accountable, there is now increasing pressure for the professionalisation of teaching practice. Developing a cadre of professional and competent teachers, educators, researchers and leaders for their new roles and responsibilities in medical education requires faculty development. Faculty development is, however, not an easy task. It requires supportive institutional leadership, appropriate resource allocation and recognition for teaching excellence.


이 가이드는 의학분야 뿐만 아니라 관련된 보건분야를 막라하여 교육에 대한 교수의 새로운 역할을 위한 FD를 담당하고 있는 사람들을 위해 만들어졌다. FD 개발의 역사적 관점을 보여주고 FD 프로그램을 만들기 위해서 도움이 될 만한 프레임워크를 제공하고자 했다. 이 프레임워크는 FD 담당자들이 계획을 세우고, 도입하고, 평가하는데 도움을 줄 것이다.

This guide is designed to assist those charged with preparing faculty for their many new roles in teaching and education in both medical and allied health science education. It provides a historical perspective of faculty development and draws on the medical, health science and higher education literature to provide a number of frameworks that may be useful for designing tailored faculty development programmes. These frameworks can be used by faculty developers to systematically plan, implement and evaluate their staff development programmes.


마지막으로 이 가이드는 미래 FD를 이끌어나갈 주요 트렌드와 원동력을 짚어보았다.

This guide concludes with some of the major trends and driving forces in medical education that we believe will shape future faculty development.









FD를 이끄는 원동력은 무엇인가?

What drives faculty development?


Gruppen 등이 세 가지의 주된 원동력을 밝혔으며, 다른 몇 가지의 내적/외적 요인들이 있다.

While Gruppen et al. (2006) have identified three main driving forces (public accountability, the changing nature of health care delivery and the need to sustain academic vitality) of faculty development, several others, both internal and external, also warrant consideration.


내적 요인

A. Internal factors


조직 문화의 사회화 Socialization into the institutional culture.



교육을 위한 준비 Preparation for teaching


대부분의 의과대학 교수들이 교육에 대해서 훈련을 받거나 준비과정을 거친 적이 거의 없는 것이 사실이다.

It would be true to say that most medical academics have received little or no training or preparation for their teaching responsibilities.


효과적이고 모범적인 교사, 교육자가 되는 과정은 발달과정과 같다. 한 사람이 어떻게 교육에 접근하는가는 교육/학습에 어떠한 개념을 가지고 있는지를 반영한다.

We believe that becoming an effective and exemplary teacher and then an educator is a developmental process (Riley 1993; Higgs & McAllister 2007a,b). It is generally accepted that one’s approach to teaching reflects one’s conception of teaching and learning (Trigwell 1995; Kember 1997; Prosser & Trigwell 1997; Lueddeke 2003; Richardson 2005; Prebble et al. 2004).


그 개념의 범위는 'reproductive', 즉 지식을 전달하는 것으로부터 'transformative' 즉 가르친다는 것은 인지적 측면 뿐만 아니라 정서적(affective) 측면의 변화까지 일으킨다는 것 까지 넓다. 가르쳐보는 경험만으로 transformative 라는 개념을 익히게 된다는 근거는 거의 없기 때문에 교수들이 교육을 더 잘 하도록 하려면 기관적 차원에서 이러한 개념을 가르쳐주고 지원하는 것이 필요하다. 

Conceptions range from reproductive, in which teaching is perceived as knowledge transmission, to a transformative conception in which teaching is perceived as fostering not only cognitive but also affective change in learners. As there is little evidence suggesting that teaching experience alone promotes the adoption of transformative conceptions (Norton et al. 2005), it is becoming imperative that institutions invest in and support their teaching faculty in transforming their conceptions, which should then improve their teaching practice. 


'교육'과 관련한 커리어를 밟는 사람들은 다음과 같은 논리적 과정을 거치게 된다. 

"Teacher => Scholarly teacher => Educational scholar/Educational leader."

For individuals who choose a ‘teaching’ career path (i.e. personal development), this professional development can be followed through to its logical conclusion: from teacher, to scholarly teacher, to educational scholar (Cohen et al. 2005; Fincher & Work 2006) or perhaps educational leader (Eitel et al. 2000; Steinert et al. 2003; Rogers 2005; Cohen et al. 2005).


지원을 해주기 위해서는 교수들에게 조언을 해주고 피드백을 줘야 한다. 세 가지 모델이 있다.

To provide support, advice and feedback for teachers to improve their practice, Weimer and Lenze (1997) describe three models:


      • The professional service model, in which a consultant provides organizational or technical support.
      • The counselling model, in which a consultant assists teachers to seek solutions to their own problems and challenges.
      • The collegial model, in which two peers provide mutual guidance.


이 세가지 모델을 조합해서 활용하는 것이 효과적일 것이다.

It is likely that a combination of these models will be effective, as each caters for different needs.


멘토링은 professional inquiry의 문화를 만들어서 새롭게 들어온 사람들이 두려워하지 않아도 되는 환경을 조성하고, 협력적 네트워크를 조성하고, 진로개발을 도와주며, 의미있는 academic encounter를 권장해준다.

Mentoring, through the creation of a culture of professional inquiry, may foster a nonthreatening environment for socializing newcomers, promoting collaborative networks, developing career paths and encouraging meaningful academic encounters (Pololi et al. 2002; Steinert 2005; Ramani 2006).


더 국제적인 관점에서 FAIMER의 성공은 멘토링 프로그램을 통해 국제적 네트워크와 협력 고리를 만들었기 때문에 가능한 것이었기도 한다.

In a more global context, part of the success of the Foundation for the Advancement of International Medical Education and Research (FAIMER) in terms of establishing international networks and collaborative links rests with its mentoring programme (Burdick et al. 2006).



학문적 활력 유지 Sustaining academic vitality


교수들 사이에 스트레스와 burnout은 흔한 일이다.

Stress and burnout amongst medical teachers is common (Harden 1999).


academic vitality를 증진시키기 위해서는 적절한 FD프로그램이 적절한 보상/인센티브와 연계되어야 한다.

To promote academic vitality, appropriate faculty development programmes linked to rewards and incentives would assist in retaining teachers, clinicians, researchers and administrators (Bland & Stritter 1988; Hitchcock et al. 1993; Wilkerson & Irby 1998; Bligh 2005; Gruppen et al. 2006).



외적 요인

B. External factors


사회적 요구에 부응 Meeting society’s needs


의학교육의 궁극적 목표가 의료전달을 향상시키는 것이기 때문에, 사회의 보건의료에 대한 요구는 지속적으로 변화한다.

While the overarching goal of medical education is to improve health care delivery (GMC 1993, Boelen 1999), the health care needs of society are constantly changing.


GMC에서는 다음과 같이 기술하고 있다.

GMC (1993) document: 


의과학과 의학기술의 발전속도를 감안하면, 미래의 의사들은 지금은 전혀 본적도 없는 지식과 기술을 활용하게 될 것이다. 우리는 발견되지 않은 과학을 가르칠 수도 없을 뿐더러 미래를 예측할 수도 없다. 하지만 현재 의학기술과 의과학의 일부는 분명 살아남아 미래 의료의 근간을 이룰 것이다. 나머지에 대해서 우리가 할 수 있는 것은 의사들이 적응하고 변화할 수 있도록, 새로운 아이디어와 기술의 발전을 포용할 수 있도록, 전문직으로서의 평생에 걸친 학습태도를 지속할 수 있도록 가르치는 것 뿐이다.

Given the pace at which the horizons of medical science and technology expand, we can be certain that the doctors of tomorrow will be applying knowledge and deploying skills which are at present unforeseen . . . We cannot teach science that is as yet undiscovered nor can we forecast its future implications. But some of the present day art and science of medicine is fundamental to its practice and will certainly endure . . . For the rest, we can best strive to educate doctors capable of adaptation and change, with minds that can encompass new ideas and developments and with attitudes to learning that inspire the continuation of the educational process throughout professional life [p. 4].


개개 의대교수들에게는 막중한 책무와 사회적 책임이 따른다.

A considerable onus and social responsibility therefore rests with individual medical faculties



교육의 전문직화과 교육에 대한 책 Accountability and the professionalization of teaching practice


삼차 교육에 있어서 책무는 피할 수 없는 현실이다. Brown이 약 십년 전에 지적한 것처럼 '교육에 대한 책임은 대학만 가지고 있는 것은 아니며, 대학이 하는 역할 중에서 학생/직원/기타 이해관계자가 관심을 두는 가장 대중적인 역할이다.

Accountability is a fact of life in tertiary education. As Brown (2000) pointed out almost a decade ago, ‘teaching is rarely the only occupation of an academic . . .. And yet it is the most public aspect of the work, in that students, employers and other stakeholders often focus on that part of the academic’s role’.


인증에 대한 여러 문헌들에서는 '측정가능한 성과'에 대해서 교수들이 가르치는 것을 'professionalize'해야 할 필요가 있으며, 이에 대해 보상받아야 할 것을 주장하고 있다. HPCSA에서는 '의과대학은 교육의 효과성에 대한 기준을 마련해야 한다. 의학교육에 대한 qualification이 승진에 반영되어야 한다'라고 하고 있다.

Measurable outcomes in many accreditation documents increasingly refer to the need for teachers to professionalise their practice, for which they should be rewarded (e.g. World Federation for Medical Education 2003, HPCSA 2004) – ‘Medical schools should establish effectiveness-related standards of performance for all teaching staff. . .. Qualifications in medical education should be recognized for promotion’ (HPCSA 2004).


Box3에서 다루고 있는 역량은 삼차교육에 종사하는 모든 교수들이 갖추어야 할 일반적인 기술과 능력을 평가하는 좋은 시작점이다.

(Box 3). Such competencies might be a good starting point for reflecting on generic skills and abilities of all teachers in tertiary education, including medical education.





인증에 대한 압박은 국경을 넘어 확장되고 있다.

the pressure for accreditation now extends beyond a country’s borders (Hamilton 2000; Lilley & Harden 2003; Stern et al. 2003; 2005; Karle 2006).


한 예로서 WFME는 staff development의 기본 기준을 다음과 같이 말하고 있다.

As an example, the WFME (2003) requires that as a basic standard of staff development


의과대학은 교육/연구/진료 능력에 대해서 균형잡힌 정책을 가져야 하며, 칭찬할 만한 업적에 대해서는 충분히 인정해줘야 한다.

‘the medical school must have a staff policy which addresses a balance of capacity for teaching, research and service functions, and ensures recognition of meritorious academic activities, with appropriate emphasis on both research attainment and teaching qualifications.’


의과대학 학생들을 의학의 지식과 기술을 가르치는 것 외에도 의과대학 졸업생은 가르칠 수 있는 능력을 지녀야 한다.

In addition to training medical students in the art and science of medicine, our medical graduates are also expected to teach.


미국 의과대학 학생연합(AMSA)는 Mount Sinai School of Medicine과 협동을 통해서 'Training Tomorrow's Teachers Today'라는 프로그램을 만들어서 학생들의 임상교육능력과 학문적 리더십 스킬을 높이고자 했다.

The American Medical Students’ Association, recognizing this omission, has proactively, in collaboration with Mount Sinai School of Medicine, designed the ‘Training Tomorrow’s Teachers Today’ programme to enhance students’ clinical teaching and academic leadership skills.



FD의 장애물은 무엇인가?

What are the barriers to faculty development?


Skeff등은 세 가지의 주된 장애물을 언급했다.

For Skeff et al. (1997b), three major barriers impact on faculty development: lack of institutional support, misconceptions and attitudes of teachers and the relative paucity of research on what constitutes effective teaching improvement.



학교 차원의 지원 부족

Lack of institutional support for faculty development


조직의 문화 Institutional culture

조직의 문화는 FD에 담겨지는 가치에 영향을 준다. 조직 내, 학문 내의 다양한 맥락적 상황적 요소가 이러한 mismatch에 영향을 준다.

The institutional culture affects the value ascribed to faculty development. A number of contextual and situational factors (e.g. leadership; appropriate rewards) within institutions and even within different disciplines may contribute to this mismatch, including the value assigned to teaching (Healey 2000; Knight & Trowler 2000; Richardson 2005; Norton et al. 2005).


연구가 승진의 'gold standard'인 기관에서 FD에 대한 참여가 떨어지고, FD가 하향식 접근법으로 여겨지는 상황에서도 비슷한 일이 생긴다. 

At institutions where research remains the ‘gold standard’ for appointment and promotion, participation in faculty development may require negotiation. A similar situation could arise if faculty development is perceived as a political ‘top-down’ approach, with little or no personal or professional reward (Hill & Stephens 2004).


Boyer’s (1990) identification of four scholarships, followed by Glassick et al. (1997) criteria for measuring these scholarships, has provided a template for recognizing and rewarding excellence and scholarly activities in all spheres of academia.


교수들의 태도와 오해 Teachers’ attitudes and misconceptions

교수들의 태도와 오해는 FD에 참여할 가능성을 낮춘다.

Teachers’ attitudes and misconceptions about their teaching reduce the likelihood of participation in faculty development (Skeff et al. 1997b).


FD의 장기적 효과에 대한 연구 부족 Paucity of research on long-term benefits of faculty development. 

앞서 언급된 것처럼 의미있는 혹은 장기적인 효과는 연구된 바가 부족하다. 

As mentioned earlier, meaningful or longterm outcomes of faculty development have generally not been measured or documented, despite several decades of research on and reported success of faculty development programmes (Skeff et al. 1997a, b; Guskey 2003; Prebble et al. 2004; Steinert 2005; Steinert et al. 2006).




FD가 진짜로 중요한가?

Does faculty development really matter?


만약 teaching이 student learning에 영향을 준다는 교육의 기본 전데를 받아들인다면, 교육에 대한 지식/교육 업무를 향상시킴으로서 학생에게 이득이 돌아갈 것이다. FD에 관한 문헌은 많지만 teaching practice에 변화가 있었는지, student learning이 향상되었는지에 관한 의미있는 결과를 보고한 연구는 적다.

If we accept the fundamental educational premise that teaching influences student learning (Lueddeke 2003; Prebble et al. 2004), then by improving educational knowledge and teaching practice, students should benefit. Despite a wealth of literature describing faculty development programmes in medical, health sciences and higher education, few studies document meaningful outcomes such as sustained changes in teaching practice or improved student learning (Skeff et al. 1997a; Prebble et al. 2004; Steinert et al. 2006; Knight et al. 2007; Williams et al. 2007).


이러한 측면에서 Prebble 등은 FD의 틀(frame)에 영향을 주는 네 개의 주된 요소를 주장했다.

In this regard, Prebble et al. (2004) identified four guiding influences, which can be used to frame faculty development. 


These include:

(1) attributes and elements that contribute to good teaching practice,

(2) teachers’ beliefs and conceptions of teaching and learning that may positively influence student outcomes,

(3) a range of conceptual models of good teaching, and

(4) learners’ perceptions of what constitutes quality teaching.


1. 좋은 교육행동에 영향을 주는 요소들

1. Teaching elements and attributes contributing to good teaching practice

학생들의 학습을 촉진하는 교육의 특질을 나열하는 것이 가능하다.

It has been possible to identify teaching attributes (from an extensive list) that promote student learning, such as those proposed by Cohen (1981) and Ramsden et al. (1995) (Box 4).


2. 교사가 교육에 대해 가지고 있는 믿음

2. Teachers’ beliefs about teaching.
     교육과 학습에 대한 개념을 제대로 이해하고 있지 않으면, 교사들은 교육을 지식을 전달하는 것으로 보기 쉽다.

Without an awareness of their teaching and learning conceptions, teachers generally view their task as imparting knowledge.


3. 교수-학습에 대한 개념 모델

3. A conceptual model of teaching and learning. 


학생 중심의 학습 접근법을 가지고 있는 교사들은...

In their view, teachers who adopt a ‘student-centred learning approach’ to teaching

(1) 학생의 학습의 관점에서 도달하고자 하는 것이 무엇인지에 대한 일관되고 분명한 관점을 가지고 있다.

(1) develop a coherent and articulated view of what they are trying to achieve in terms of student learning, and how they can achieve this (i.e. focus on student learning). Today, learning outcomes need to reflect more than just knowledge acquisition,

(2) 학생들이 planned learning context를 인지할 수 있는 다양한 방법을 활용한다.

(2) discover the many ways in which students perceive the planned learning context (i.e. take cognisance of the learning environment), and

(3) 자신의 분명한 관점을 학생들이 이해하도록 한다.

(3) ensure that students understand the articulated view (i.e. align teaching and learning).


따라서 FD의 주된 기능은 교수들이 자신의 teaching practice를 학생의 needs와 align시키는 것이다.

A major function of faculty development should therefore be about making teachers aware of aligning their teaching practice with the needs of students.


4. 가르침에 대한 학생의 인식

4. Students’ conceptions of teaching

학생들이 자신들의 학습경험에 대해서 평가하도록 하는 것은 흔히 사용되는 방법이다. 많은 사람들이 믿는 바와 달리 학생들의 평가는 적절하게 사용되면 일반적으로 신뢰도도 높고, 편향이 적어서 피드백을 주기에 유용하다. 학생들의 평가는 FD의 좋은 시작점이다.

Asking students to assess the quality of their learning experiences is commonly used by institutions to guide faculty development. Contrary to what many academics may believe, student evaluation, provided it is used appropriately, is useful, generally reliable and is relatively unbiased in terms of providing feedback to individual faculty and administrators (Dunkin 1997). Student evaluation has been recommended as a good starting point for faculty development (Hitchcock et al. 1993; Trigwell 1995).






의학교육실(Medical Education Units Offices)이 FD에 기여한 바는 무엇인가?

What contributions have medical education units offices made to faculty development?


최조의 의학교육실(offices of medical education)은 1950년대 후반부터 1960년대 초반 사이에 세워졌다. 그들의 주된 업무는 기본적으로 의학교육 연구였다. 이후 1970년대 이후에 의학교육실/교실(medical education units/departments)들은 학부 의학교육을 지원하게 되었으나 교수들에게 새롭게 요구되기 시작한 책무에도 반응하고 있었다.

Although the first offices of medical education were set up in the late 1950s and early 1960s, their focus, according to Davis et al. (2005), was primarily medical education research. Later, in the 1970s, medical education units/departments were established to support undergraduate medical programmes, but probably also in response to the evolving responsibilities (and hence needs) of teachers (Tables 1 and 2). 


1980년대와 1990년대에 PBL이 널리 퍼지면서 활동 영역이 더넓어졌고, 지난 20년간 FD의 초점은 개개 교수로부터 학과/조직의 요구에 이르게 되었다. 의학교육학과는 많은 의과대학에서 중요한 역할을 하게 되었다. 1993년 이전에는 의과대학에서 교육 전문가들을 거의 키우지 않았지만, 이제는 사회의 변화하는 요구에 맞춰서 새로운 기술을 익히고 학문적 협회를 발달시키는 역할을 하고 있다. 

The widespread adoption of problem-based learning (PBL) in the late 1980s and 1990s then sparked a flurry of activity, resulting in education units appearing in many medical faculties. Over the past two decades, with the shift in focus of faculty development from the individual teacher to departments and institutional needs (Bland & Schmitz 1988; Benor 2000; Hill & Stephens 2004), medical education departments have become integral in a number of medical colleges. Educational specialists, a rare breed at medical schools prior to 1993 (Leinster 2003), but now highly sought after, are responsible for reskilling and developing the academic fraternity in the light of society’s changing health care needs. For a comprehensive discussion on the development and roles of a medical education unit, readers should consult AMEE Educational Guide No. 28 (Davis et al. 2005).









 2008;30(6):555-84. doi: 10.1080/01421590802109834.

Faculty developmentyesterdaytoday and tomorrow.

Abstract

Medical education has evolved to become a discipline in its own right. With demands on medical faculties to be socially responsible and accountable, there is now increasing pressure for the professionalisation of teaching practice. Developing a cadre of professional and competent teachers, educators, researchers and leaders for their new roles and responsibilities in medical education requires faculty developmentFaculty development is, however, not an easy task. It requires supportive institutional leadership, appropriate resource allocation and recognition for teaching excellence. This guide is designed to assist those charged with preparing faculty for their many new roles in teaching and education in both medical and allied health science education. It provides a historical perspective of faculty development and draws on the medical, health science and higher education literature to provide a number of frameworks that may be useful for designing tailored faculty development programmes. These frameworks can be used byfaculty developers to systematically plan, implement and evaluate their staff development programmes. This guide concludes with some of the major trends and driving forces in medical education that we believe will shape future faculty development.

PMID:
 
18677659
 
[PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]






AMEE GUIDE NO 36

Faculty development: Yesterday, today and tomorrow

MICHELLE MCLEAN1, FRANCOIS CILLIERS2 & JACQUELINE M. VAN WYK3

1University of the United Arab Emirates, 2University of Stellenbosch, South Africa, 3University of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa


Abstract

의학교육은 그 자체가 하나의 학문으로서 진호하였다. Medical faculty에게 요구되는 사회적 책무와 함께 가르치는 일에 대해서도 professionalization의 압박이 커지고 있다. 프로페셔널하고 역량있는 선생, 교육자, 연구자, 리더를 키우기 위해서는 교수개발(faculty development, FD)가 필요하다. 그러나 FD는 쉬운 일이 아디나. 조직 차원에서의 지지가 필요하고, 적절한 자원의 배분과 우수한 교육자를 인정해주는 것이 필요하다.

Medical education has evolved to become a discipline in its own right. With demands on medical faculties to be socially responsible and accountable, there is now increasing pressure for the professionalisation of teaching practice. Developing a cadre of professional and competent teachers, educators, researchers and leaders for their new roles and responsibilities in medical education requires faculty development. Faculty development is, however, not an easy task. It requires supportive institutional leadership, appropriate resource allocation and recognition for teaching excellence.


이 가이드는 의학분야 뿐만 아니라 관련된 보건분야를 막라하여 교육에 대한 교수의 새로운 역할을 위한 FD를 담당하고 있는 사람들을 위해 만들어졌다. FD 개발의 역사적 관점을 보여주고 FD 프로그램을 만들기 위해서 도움이 될 만한 프레임워크를 제공하고자 했다. 이 프레임워크는 FD 담당자들이 계획을 세우고, 도입하고, 평가하는데 도움을 줄 것이다.

This guide is designed to assist those charged with preparing faculty for their many new roles in teaching and education in both medical and allied health science education. It provides a historical perspective of faculty development and draws on the medical, health science and higher education literature to provide a number of frameworks that may be useful for designing tailored faculty development programmes. These frameworks can be used by faculty developers to systematically plan, implement and evaluate their staff development programmes.


마지막으로 이 가이드는 미래 FD를 이끌어나갈 주요 트렌드와 원동력을 짚어보았다.

This guide concludes with some of the major trends and driving forces in medical education that we believe will shape future faculty development.








Introduction


한 때, 의과대학을 졸업한 사람은 누구나 가르칠 수 있는 능력이 있다고 생각되던 때가 있었다. 그러나 점차 가르치는 것은 타고난 재능이 아님이 명백해졌고, 가르치는 내용 외에도 '가르침'이라는 것은 어떤 '과정'으로서 '기술'이 필요하고 학문적 지원이 필요함이 확실해졌다.

At one time, anyone who graduated from medical school was considered capable of teaching. It became apparent, however, that teaching was not an innate gift. Besides content, teaching also involved ‘process’, and to develop the ‘art’ of teaching, academics required support (Benor 2000).


초기의 teacher training이라는 것의 목적은 교수들의 '가르치는 능력'을 키워주기 위한 것이었다.

The purpose of this early ‘teacher training’ was generally to prepare academic faculty members for teaching,


연구와 행정이라는 반복되는 레파토리와 함께 FD의 개념은 확장되어서 한 조직의 학문적 기반을 확장하는 것이라는 의미를 담게 되었다.

As an academic’s repertoire of responsibilities evolved to include research and administration, the concept of faculty development expanded, largely to strengthen the academic base of institutions (Bland & Stritter 1988; Hitchcock et al. 1993; Wilkerson & Irby 1998; Steinert 2000, 2005; Steinert et al. 2003; Harris et al. 2007).


Sheets와 Schwenk는 FD의 정의를 다음과 같이 내렸다. "교수들로 하여금, 그들이 자기 학과나 레지던트 프로그램을 위해서 어떤 수행을 하는데 필수적이라고 여겨지는 영역의 지식과 술기를 향상시키기 위한 계획된 활동"

Sheets and Schwenk (1990) capture this in their definition of faculty development: ‘‘Any planned activity to improve an individual’s knowledge and skills in areas considered essential to the performance of a faculty member in a department or a residency programme (e.g. teaching skills, administrative skills, research skills, clinical skills)’’. 


'학생의 학습'의 근간을 이루는 이론들이 staff development가 진화하는데 중요한 역할을 했다.

The theories underpinning student learning have played a major role in the evolution of staff development (Table 2).


1970년대에는 '좋은 선생'을 목표로 하였고, 80년대와 90년대에는 좀 더 학생중심이 되어서 학습의 촉진자가 목적이었다. 21세기에는 성과바탕교육이 등장하였다.

in the 1970s, faculty development aimed to develop the attributes and competencies of the ‘good’ teacher: someone who could use various teaching aids, reinforce important concepts and communicate effectively (Wilkerson & Irby 1998). In the 80s and 90s, reform to more student-centred and self-directed learning required a metamorphosis of the teacher, from a didactic conveyer of knowledge to a facilitator of student learning (Entwistle & Ramsden 1983; Knowles 1988). To make this transition, teachers needed new skills, which required training. The dawning of the new millennium brought ‘outcomes-based education’, with competencies being identified for graduating medical students (Harden et al. 1999; Carraccio et al. 2002; Simpson et al. 2002).


FD는 의대교수들의 역할이 다양해짐에 따라서 그 영역과 정의가 더 넓어졌다.

Faculty development followed suite, and the various roles of the medical teacher, from clinical expert to mentor and role model, were further expanded and defined (Harden & Crosby 2000) (Figure 1).


Hesketh 등은 three circle model을 이용하여 좋은 임상 선생님의 지능에 대해 정의한 바 있다.

Not long afterwards, Hesketh et al. (2001), using the three circle model (Harden et al. 1999), defined the intelligences of an excellent clinical teacher


'교수의 역량'은 끊임없이 재정의된다. 개개인의 교수들이 모든 영역에서 다 뛰어날 수 없기 때문에 '노동의 분할'이라는 경향이 일부 학문 영역에서 등장하기 시작했다.

the competencies of faculty members are continuously being redefined. Acknowledging that individual faculty members cannot excel in all of the recognized responsibilities, a trend of a ‘division of labour’ has emerged in some academic disciplines (Tedesco et al. 2002; Harris et al. 2007).


FD를 재정의하는데 있어서 확장되고 있는 'faculty'라는 개념을 이해할 필요가 있다.

In redefining faculty development, cognisance should be taken of the broadening concept of ‘faculty’.


오늘날의 의대생들의 선생님은 개인병원의 의사, 지역사회의 의사, 다른 보건의료직 등을 모두 포함한다. 교육 경험과 각 선생의 수준이 다르기 때문에 FD는 의대생과 졸업후 교육을 하는 사람들을 모두 포함해야 한다.

Thus, teachers of today’s medical students may now include clinicians in private practice, community preceptors as well as practitioners from other health care professions, such as physiotherapists, nurses and social workers (Eitel et al. 2000; Steinert 2005). As their teaching experience and level of teacher training will vary (Clark et al. 2004; Houston et al. 2004), faculty development should therefore include any individual involved in teaching undergraduate medical students or supervising post-graduates.







왜 가이드가 필요한가?

Why the need for a guide?


FD의 초점은 개개인의 교사에 대한 접근에서 조직적/총체적 접근쪽으로 옮겨져갔다. 어떤 사람들이 보기에 이것은  하향식의 접근법이며 개개인의 희생을 요구하는 것이다.

As a result of some of these forces, the focus of faculty development has shifted from individual teacher development to a more institutional and systematic planning approach, which some may perceive as top-down, and at the expense of individual academics (Hill & Stephens 2004).


우리는 모든 FD프로그램은 조직의 발전과 개인의 발전을 모두 추구해야 한다고 생각한다.

we believe that any faculty development programme should address both the professional (i.e. in the interest of the institution) and the personal (i.e. benefiting the individual) development of teachers.


보건 의료분야의 고등교육에 대한 문헌들에서 다양한 FD프로그램을 다루고 있다. 하지만 모든 문헌들이 그 효과성까지 기술하고 있는 것은 아니다. 평가는 종종 자기기입식의, 스스로 생각하는 이익에 대해 보고하는 수준이며, 실제 교육 현장을 모니터하고 평가되고 있지는 않아 그 효과성을 판단하기 쉽지 않다.

The medical, health sciences and higher education literature abounds with descriptions of the many and varied faculty development programmes (Wilkerson & Irby 1998; Prebble et al. 2004; Steinert et al. 2006; Skeff et al. 2007). Not always forthcoming, however, is the effectiveness (i.e. meaningful outcomes, such as improved teaching practice) of many of these interventions (Prebble et al. 2004; Steinert 2005; Otto et al. 2006; Steinert et al. 2006). Evaluation has often relied on perceived, self-reported benefits rather than monitoring and assessment of actual teaching practice, making it difficult to judge the effectiveness of faculty development.


여기서는 무엇을 다룰 것인가?

What will be covered in this guide?


여기서는 '가르치는' 영역에 대해서만 다룰 것이다.

Direction will therefore be provided in terms of the ‘teaching’ aspect only..


누가 이 가이드를 읽어야 하는가?

Who should read this guide?


이 가이드는 Faculty developer들을 돕기 위해서 만들어졌으며 우리는 이들이 이 가이드를 유사한 영역인 interprofessional learning에까지 적용하기를 기대한다.

This guide aims to assist faculty developers who have been tasked with supporting teachers and supervisors of medical students. We hope that faculty developers in allied health professions will also find the guide useful as similar principles will apply, particularly in the light of an increasing emphasis on interprofessional learning (Parsell & Bligh 1999; Bligh et al. 2001).


이 가이드에 담겨있는 가정과 원칙은 무엇인가?

What assumptions and principles are embodied in this guide?



이 가이드에 담긴 기본 가정은 FD는 의학교육의 궁극적인 목적을 달성하기 위한 것이라는 점이다. 

The primary assumption embodied in this guide is that faculty development must ultimately serve the overarching goals of medical education i.e. improving patient and community care by training and educating quality medical practitioners.


그 외의 다른 가정들은 아래와 같다.

Several other assumptions are embodied in this guide: 

의학교육은 의학교육자와 각 전공과목 교육자들에 의해 감독받는 하나의 전문직종이다.

. Medical education is a profession in its own right, overseen by specialist educators and medical educators.

여기서 사용하는 teacher와 educator는 professional development의 서로 다른 레벨을 의미한다.

. The use of ‘teacher’ and ‘educator’ in this guide refers to different levels of professional development.

Educator는 조금 더 학문적인 것으로서 더 높은 medical education qualification의 더 높은 단계이고, 의학교육연구에도 관여하는 것을 말한다.

An ‘educator’, on the other hand, is more scholarly, and will often have a higher or medical education qualification and is involved in medical education research.

FD은 다양한 목적을 위해서 필요하기 때문에 FD는 다양한 레벨에 대해서 계획되어야 한다(개인, 부서, 조직, 지역, 국가, 국제)

. Faculty development serves many purposes, ranging from individual staff development in terms of teaching, research, administration or career opportunities, to meeting the accountability needs of an institution. Faculty development should therefore be planned at different levels: individual, departmental, institutional, regional, national or international (Skeff et al. 1997a, b).

FD프로그램은 academic staff의 개인적 발전과 전문직 발전을 모두 촉진해야 한다.

. Faculty development programmes should promote both the personal and professional development of academic staff


21세기에 기관 수준에서의 FD에 대한 더 종합적인 정의는 아래와 같다.

A more comprehensive definition of faculty development at an institutional level in the 21st century might then read something along the lines of:


"The personal and professional development of teachers, clinicians, researchers and administrators to meet the goals, vision and mission of the institution in terms of its social and moral responsibility to the communities it serves."









 2008;30(6):555-84. doi: 10.1080/01421590802109834.

Faculty developmentyesterdaytoday and tomorrow.

Abstract

Medical education has evolved to become a discipline in its own right. With demands on medical faculties to be socially responsible and accountable, there is now increasing pressure for the professionalisation of teaching practice. Developing a cadre of professional and competent teachers, educators, researchers and leaders for their new roles and responsibilities in medical education requires faculty developmentFaculty development is, however, not an easy task. It requires supportive institutional leadership, appropriate resource allocation and recognition for teaching excellence. This guide is designed to assist those charged with preparing faculty for their many new roles in teaching and education in both medical and allied health science education. It provides a historical perspective of faculty development and draws on the medical, health science and higher education literature to provide a number of frameworks that may be useful for designing tailored faculty development programmes. These frameworks can be used byfaculty developers to systematically plan, implement and evaluate their staff development programmes. This guide concludes with some of the major trends and driving forces in medical education that we believe will shape future faculty development.

PMID:
 
18677659
 
[PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]



















(출처 : http://webaccessibility.gmu.edu/barriers_DE.html)




의과대학의 교수개발 프로그램은 선생님으로서, 관리자로서, 연구자로서의 역할을 잘 할 수 있도록 돕기 위한 목적이 있다.

Faculty development programmes designed to assist faculty members to fulfil their multiple roles as teachers, administrators and researchers have developed a prominent profile in most medical schools


그러나 교수들이 교수개발 프로그램에 참여하고자 하는 동기에 대한 연구는 적다.

However, the literature on attendance and participation in these activities is scant and, to our knowledge, no one has looked at what motivates clinical teachers to participate in faculty development initiative


교수들의 교수개발 프로그램 참여와 관한 두 가지 연구 영역이 있다. 한가지는 의사들로 하여금 참석하게 만드는 요인은 무엇인가 하는 것이다.

Two areas of inquiry are pertinent to why faculty members participate in faculty development activities. The first is the broad field of continuing medical education (CME), in which several authors have examined what motivates doctors to attend formal events.

For example, McLeod and McLeod5 identified five important motivators

maintenance of professional competence; 

acquisition of new knowledge and skills; 

improvement of understanding of key concepts; 

elimination of clinical deficiencies, and reassurance that one is ‘doing it right’. 

In another study, Harrison and Hogg6 examined motivators for CME attendance and uncovered the following: 

obtaining information and updates; 

reassurance that practice behaviour lies within accepted guidelines, 

and interaction with specialist presenters.


참여의 장애물은 무엇인가에 대한 연구도 있다.

Although motivators for participation in faculty development have not been explored, several studies have looked at barriers

Skeff and colleagues7 identified the following barriers against participation in faculty development programmes focusing on teaching improvement: 

attitudes and misconceptions of teachers; 

insufficient support from the institution, 

and a lack of convincing research on the benefits of teaching improvement methods.


또 다른 연구.

(i) the clinical reality, which encompassed volume of work and a lack of (protected) time; 

(ii) logistical issues, which included the timing of sessions and the central location of organised activities, which was often viewed as ‘remote’; 

(iii) a perceived lack of financial reward and recognition for teaching, and 

(iv) a perceived lack of direction from, and connection to, the university.



이러한 연구결과를 바탕으로 이 논문에서는 다음을 보려고 한다.

'자주 참석하는 교수들'의 참석 동기는 무엇인가.

'자주 참석하는 교수들'이 생각하는 참여의 장애요인은 무엇인가

어떻게 참여를 높일 수 있을까.

Building on our previous findings, the goals of this study were: 

(i) to explore what motivates ‘frequent attendees’ to participate in centralised faculty development activities; 

(ii) to examine frequent attendees’ perceptions of the personal, professional and organisational barriers described by ‘non-attendees’ in our earlier study,8 and 

(iii) to identify strategies to enhance faculty development offerings.



임상 교수들의 인식

Clinical teachers’ perceptions of faculty development


연구 참여자들은 'teacher improvement'라고 보았다.

The focus group participants generally had a clear idea of the goals of faculty development. They saw it as linked to ‘teacher improvement’ and felt that faculty development provided support for teaching, validated the importance of teaching, and offered a venue for self-improvement as a teacher


자주 참석하는 사람들은 왜 자주 참석하는가

Reasons why some clinical teachers participate on a regular basis


개인적, 전문적 성장을 할 수 있음

Faculty development is seen as enabling personal and professional growth

‘I go to faculty development to have my batteries recharged…’

‘Yeah, it’s like a mini, not a mini-sabbatical, but like a mini-retreat...’


학습과 자기성장을 가치롭게 여기는 사람임

Learning and self-improvement are valued

‘I like to learn new things. I like to expand my horizons... I think it’s about our priorities and where our interests lie...’


워크숍 주제가 필요에 맞음

Workshop topics must be viewed as relevant to teachers’ needs

‘For me it’s topic-oriented. If I’m interested in the topic, then I go…’

‘What usually draws me in is the subject matter – if it is relevant to the work I do…’


다른 동료들과 네트워크를 이룰 수 있음

The opportunity to network with colleagues is appreciated


처음 해봤을 때의 경험이 긍정적이어서 계속 하게 됨.

Initial positive experiences promote ongoing involvement

"낚였다(getting hooked)" 

The value of early positive experiences – and the notion of ‘getting hooked’ 

‘Once they get there, they’ll stay there...’



장애요인에 대한 임상교수들의 인식 

Clinical teachers’ perceptions of barriers against participation


자주 참석하는 교수들과 참석하지 않는 교수들이 느끼는 장애요인이 유사하다는 사실을 눈여겨 볼 필요가 있다.

It is noteworthy that individuals who attended faculty development on a regular basis perceived the same barriers against participation as their colleagues who did not attend.8


또한 교수개발 프로그램의 '장소'(학교 안인가 학교 밖인가) 역시 중요한 상징적 의미를 갖는다.

Moreover, as in our previous study,8 the location of our faculty development activities had both ‘symbolic’ and practical implications



참여를 높이기 위한 방법 

Ways to increase clinical teachers’ participation


다음의 제안을 한다.

In response to the question of how we can attract individuals who do not attend on a regular basis, the following suggestions were made: 

• 사람들을 끌어모을 수 있는 "연수 친구" 시스템을 만든다. implement a buddy system to get junior faculty members ‘hooked’;

• 동료들을 대상으로 멘토 역할을 한다. mentor colleagues; 

• co-leader로서 참석할 교수를 초대한다. invite faculty members to participate as ‘co-leaders’; 

• 새로 부임한 교수를 위한 소개 프로그램을 만든다. develop an orientation programme for new faculty members, and

• 조직 문화를 바꾼다.change the ‘institutional culture’ by formally recognising and rewarding teaching and participation in faculty development.


‘We need to catch them when they’re young! We need to help them learn to navigate the hidden curriculum... the academic culture...’




'동기'이란 단어의 라틴어 어원은 '움직인다' 이다. "기대"와 "가치" (둘 다 '동기'와 관련이 된다.)의 역할에 대해 고민해볼 필요가 있다. 

The Latin root of the word ‘motivation’ means ‘to move’.16 It would be beneficial to investigate the roles played by expectancies and values (both related to motivation) in helping some clinical teachers ‘move’ out of their clinical reality to participate in faculty development activities


성공적인 community of practice과 관련된 다섯 가지 요인이 있다.

Lave and Wenger20 suggest that the success of a community of practice depends on five factors: 

the existence and sharing by the community of a common goal

the existence and use of knowledge to achieve that goal

the nature and importance of relationships formed among community members

the relationships between the community and those outside it, 

and the relationship between the work of the community and the value of the activity.

그 외에도 필요한 것들은 공동의 자원(언어, 이야기, Practice)이 있다.

community also requires a shared repertoire of common resources, including language, stories and practices.21 


많은 면에서 공동체진료의 한 구성원으로 속한다는 것은 교수개발의 중요한 촉진제 역할을 할 수 있다.

In multiple ways, belonging to a community of practice can be an important facilitator for faculty development, which in turn can lead to the creation of a community of practice.22 


의학교육자로서, 교수개발자로서, 동료들이 공동체의 가치를 생각하고, 공동체를 찾아나설 수 있게 해야한다.

As medical educators and faculty developers, we need to help our colleagues value the community of which they are a part (e.g. by celebrating its existence, members and resources) and find community (e.g. by building new networks, creating opportunities for exchange and support, and sustaining relationships). 


또한 교수개발이 '사회적 역할'이라는 인식을 가질 수 있게 해야 한다. 그래서 상황학습이 아닌 '성인학습(자)'의 원칙을 따를 수 있도록 해야 한다.

Moreover, if we begin to conceptualise faculty development as a social practice, these findings may have important implications for the design and delivery of faculty development activities which often follow principles of adult learning and instructional design, but do not explicitly consider principles of situated learning23,24 and the building of communities of practice.20,21




 2010 Sep;44(9):900-7. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2923.2010.03746.x.

Faculty development: if you build it, they will come.

Source

Faculty Development Office, Faculty of Medicine, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada. yvonne.steinert@mcgill.ca

Abstract

OBJECTIVES:

The goals of this study were three-fold: to explore the reasons why some clinical teachers regularly attend centralised faculty development activities; to compare their responses with those of colleagues who do not attend, and to learn how we can make faculty development programmes more pertinent to teachers' needs.

METHODS:

In 2008-2009, we conducted focus groups with 23 clinical teachers who had participated in faculty development activities on a regular basis in order to ascertain their perceptions of faculty development, reasons for participation, and perceived barriers against involvement. Thematic analysis and research team consensus guided the data interpretation.

RESULTS:

Reasons for regular participation included the perceptions that: faculty development enables personal and professional growth; learning and self-improvement are valued; workshop topics are viewed as relevant to teachers' needs; the opportunity to network with colleagues is appreciated, and initial positive experiences promote ongoing involvement. Barriers against participation mirrored those cited by non-attendees in an earlier study (e.g. volume of work, lack of time, logistical factors), but did not prevent participation. Suggestions for increasing participation included introducing a 'buddy system' for junior faculty members, an orientation workshop for new staff, and increased role-modelling and mentorship.

CONCLUSIONS:

The conceptualisation of faculty development as a means to achieve specific objectives and the desire for relevant programming that addresses current needs (i.e., expectancies), together with an appreciation of learning, self-improvement and networking with colleagues (i.e., values), were highlighted as reasons for participation by regular attendees. Medical educators should consider these 'lessons learned' in the design and delivery of faculty development offerings. They should also continue to explore the notion of faculty development as a social practice and the application of motivational theories that include expectancy-value constructs to personal and professional development.








(출처 : http://meded.ucsf.edu/radme/faculty-development)




교수법 향상 개입의 효과

EFFECTIVENESS OF TEACHING-IMPROVEMENT INTERVENTIONS


어떤 교수개발 모델 혹은 개입방법을 사용할 것인가를 결정할 때, 관련 연구들의 결과를 참고하는 것이 도움이 된다. 교수법 향상에 관한 최근의 연구들은 과거의 연구와 비슷한 결론을 도출하고 있다. 교수향상을 위한 개입방법의 영향에 대한 실험논문은 많지 않지만, quasi-experimental 연구를 비롯한 다른 논문들이 많이 있다.

When considering which faculty development models and interventions to use, it is helpful to base these decisions upon the results of educational research. The most recent reviews of the research on instructional-improvement interventions in medical education17,18.are in accord with prior reviews.5,39-42 While there is a paucity of experimental research on the effects of teaching-improvement interventions, there is a large and growing body of quasi-experimental and qualitative research demonstrating the efficacy of longer workshops, students' ratings coupled with individual consultation, and faculty development fellowships


Workshops


이틀 혹은 그 이상 길이의 워크숍은 한 가지 이상의 개입방법을 포함하고 있으며, 실제 수행과 피드백, Reminder가 교수자의 지식, 태도, 기술에 영향을 주는 것으로 연구되어 있다.

Workshops that are two days long or longer, involve more than one type of intervention, and are followed up with practice, feedback, and reminders have demonstrated effects on teachers' knowledge, attitudes, and skills. 21,22,37,44-56


이러한 결론은 Davis 등의 메타분석 결과와도 비슷하다.

This conclusion is similar to that reached by Davis and colleagues 57 in a meta-analysis of continuing medical education programs intended to change the practice, knowledge, attitudes, and skills of physicians


Teaching Evaluations with Consultation


학생으로 하여금 교육을 평가하게 하는 것은 교육자의 행동을 바꿀 수 있으며, 특히 개개인에 대한 자문이 더해질 경우 더욱 그렇다.

Evaluations of teaching by students can lead to changes in teaching behaviors, particularly if accompanied by individualized consultation in which the instructor is provided assistance in interpreting results and devising changes in

teaching practice in a nonthreatening environment.60


임상 교육에 대한 최근의 연구 결과에서 평가 결과를 제공할 때 개개인에 대한 조언을 함께 하는 것의 중요성이 자주 강조되고 있다. 전향적인 무작위 시험에서 개개인에 대한 피드백을 준 것이 기술 향상과 평가 전-후의 차이가 가장 컸다.

Three recent studies in clinical education reinforce the importance of individualized advice in reporting ratings. A prospective, randomized trial of the effect of feedback on clinical teaching by Schum and Yindra63 suggests that individual feedback was associated with higher ratings on four skills and larger pre-post differences among participants than among controls


Wilson은 가장 통계적으로 중요한 변화를 보인 평가 아이템들은 구체적이고, 자세하고, 행동에 관한 것(concrete, specific, behavioral) 이었다 라고 하였다.

Wilson found that rating "items on which the greatest number of faculty showed statistically important change were those for which the suggestions were most concrete, specific, and behavioral.69.


Faculty Development Fellowship Programs


교수개발 프로그램에 대한 fellowship program은 더 자세하면서 포괄적인 기전을 다루고 있으며, 비교적 최근에 등장하였다.

Faculty development fellowship programs have emerged in recent years as a more in-depth and comprehensive mechanism for strengthening the instructional skills and scholarly abilities of faculty members





A COMPREHENSIVE PROGRAM OF FACULTY DEVELOPMENT

전문가 개발 (Professional Development: Joining the Academy)

교수법 개발 (Instructional Development)

리더십 개발 (Leadership Development)

조직 수준 개발 (Organizational Development: Educational Policies and Procedures)





교수개발은 교육사업에 있어서 몇 단계에 걸쳐서 교수들을 참여시켜야 한다. 


시작 단계에서, 모든 교수들은 기본적인 교육 기술을 습득해야 하며, 그 기관의 학문적 가치, 규범, 기대에 대해 이해하고 있어야 한다.

Faculty development programs need to address the several levels of faculty involvement in the educational enterprise. 67·69 At the entry level, all faculty members should possess basic teaching skills and be oriented to the academic values, norms, and expectations of the institution


자신의 교육에 대한 성찰의 기회가 주어짐에 따라서 일부 교수들은 좀 더 교육학적 지식을 습득해야 하며 여기에는 다음과 같은 것들이 포함된다. 

With opportunities to reflect upon their teaching practices, a subset of teaching faculty will develop into teachers with more pedagogic content knowledge, 19 which integrates...

 knowledge of content, learners, 

teaching skills, context, and, in medicine, patients. 

이 단계에서 일어나는 변화의 원동력은 더 발전된 교육 경험, guided reflection, 교육 이론과 실습에 대한 광범위한 노출 등이다.

This second level occurs as a result of more advanced teaching experience, guided reflection, and broader exposure to educational theory and practice



세 번째 단계에서 교육프로그램에 리더쉽을 발휘하는 교수들이 생겨난다. 임상실습이나 레지던트 프로그램의 책임자를 맡게 되며, 교과과정 위원회의 위원장이나 교육에 관심이 있는 주니어 스텦들의 멘토로서 역할을 할 수 있다.

At a third level, there are those faculty members who provide leadership to educational programs, serving as directors of clerkship and residency programs, as chairs of course and curriculum committees, and as mentors to junior colleagues

interested in teaching


일부 소그룹의 교수들은 Teacher-scholar의 네 번째 단계에 도달하며, 교육을 가르치는 것과 교과과정의 과정과 결과(process and outcome of teaching and the curriculum)으로 인식한다.

A small group of faculty members constitutes a fourth level-teacher-scholars, who approach education with questions about the process and outcomes of teaching and the curriculum



마지막으로 학교에는 정책, 과정, 조직구조를 집행하며 의미있는 참여를 이끌어내고, 교육의 향상을 가져오는 일을 할 수 있는 일부 교수들과 집행부가 있다.

Finally, schools have a group of faculty members and administrators who are committed to and capable of creating policies, procedures, and organizational structures that encourage meaningful participation in and improvement of education.7


이러한 다양한 종류의 교육자들을 개발하고 유지하기 위해서 교수개발 프로그램은 넓은 범위의 활동을 포함해야 한다.

In order to develop and sustain the work of these various types of educators, faculty development programs should include a range of activities:6, 70- 72



Professional Development: Joining the Academy


academic community의 새로운 일원으로서, 교수는 academic profession에 대한 사회화가 되어야 한다. Benor와 Mahler는 "조직, 조직의 철학, 그리고 조직의 교육적 접근에 대한 개개 교수들의 정체성을 확립해야 한다"라고 강조했다.

As new members of the academic community, faculty members need to be socialized into the academic profession. Benor and Mahler stress the importance of "enhancing the identification of the individual teacher with the institution, its philosophy, and its educational approaches." 71


새로운 교수 구성원에 대해서 다뤄야 할 내용은 교수에게 요구되는 가치와 규범, 기대와 같은 것들이며, 특히 선생님으로서의 역할이 중요하다. 

Issues to be addressed for new faculty members include the values, norms, and expectations of the faculty, particularly as teachers; 

the skills of scholarship as defined by the institution; 

the establishment of a network of experienced and knowledgeable colleagues; 

and knowledge of the steps for academic advancement, including how to document accomplishments as a teacher.



Instructional Development


<초급 교육 기술 Initial teaching skill>


교수 개발은 교수들이 기본적인 교육 기술을 학습하는 것으로부터 시작하며, 이는 교수에게 요구되는 교육적 역할과 연결이 되어야 한다. 

Faculty development should include opportunities for all faculty members to master basic teaching skills. Such skills should be connected to the instructional roles that faculty members are asked to perform 51, 52, 54, 74 

presentation and discussion facilitation skills; 

strategies for teaching during patient care; 

instructional planning and reflection skills; 

evaluation, feedback, and grading skills; 

and information technology skills


<가르침과 배움을 연결시키기 Connecting teaching and learning.>


가르치는 것을 학습하는 것과 연결시킬 수 있어야 한다. 몇 년의 교육을 경험하고 나면 교수들은 왜 어떤 방법은 통하고 어떤 방법은 통하지 않는지에 대해 생각하게 된다. 그들은 학습자에 대해서 더 관심을 가질 수도 있고, 가르치는 사람인 본인에 대해서는 덜 신경을 쓸 수도 있다. 이 때야말로 교수-학습에 대한 것을 가르치기에 가장 좋은 때이며, 학습 이론과 교육 임무를 연계시키는 과정에 참여시킬 수 있는 기회이다. 교육수행을 되돌아보면서 교수들은 그들이 가르쳤던 경험으로부터 학습을 한다.

After several years of teaching, faculty members often begin to wonder why certain teaching methods work while others do not. They may also begin to focus more on the learners and less on themselves as teachers. This is the best time to introduce them to the literature on teaching and learning, and to engage them in the process of connecting learning theory to teaching practices. Reflective educational practices involve faculty members in learning from their experiences of teaching. 


실용적인 지식에 대한 토론과 교육에 대한 생각에 대해 이야기하고, 학습에 대한 연구를 리뷰하면서 경험이 많은 교수들은 어떻게 가르쳐야 할 것인가에 대한 자신만의 이론을 구성할 수 있다.

Through discussion of their practical knowledge and beliefs about teaching, and review of research on learning, more experienced teachers can begin to construct a personal set of principles to guide decisions76 about how to teach specific content to particular learners in distinct situations. 3,18,19,27


Leadership Development


<교과과정 개발과 리더십(Curriculum development and leadership in medical education)>


교육프로그램의 발전을 위해서는 그들이 이끌어 갈 집단의 사고체계를 Re-framing하고, 조직의 활력을 위해서는 변화를 유도하는 것이 필수적이라는 것을 일깨워 줄 수 있는 효과적인 리더가 필요하다.

Educational programs need effective leaders who are capable of reframing the thinking of those whom they guide and of encouraging change as an essential component of institutional vitality. 78


공식적이든, 비공식적이든 리더는 서로 다른 리더십 스타일을 이해하고 어떻게 사용해야 하는가를 알아야 한다.

Both types of leaders, formal and informal, need to understand different leadership styles and how to use them.



<Instructional scholarship>


교육 리더들은 teacher-scholar처럼 그들이 지휘했던 교육 프로그램의 성과와 질을 평가할 책임이 있다. 프로그램 평가를 디자인하고 수행하는 능력은 지속적인 질적 향상에 필수적이다.

Educational leaders, as teacher-scholars, are responsible for evaluating the quality and outcomes of the teaching programs that they direct. Skills in the design and implementation of program evaluation are essential to the success of continuous quality improvement.




Organizational Development: Educational Policies and Procedures


교수개발의 목적은 교수 구성원들이 교육자로서의 역할을 잘 하도록 하는 것이고, 이를 통해서 지속적 학습(continual learning)에 대해 보상을 하고 이를 장려하는 조직을 만드는 것이다. 교육 리더와 교수개발의 전문가들은 서로의 책임을 공유하고 교육적 미션과 가치를 공유하며, 교육과 관련된 의사결정과정에 교수들을 활발히 참여시켜야 한다. 

The goal of faculty development is to empower faculty members to excel in their role as educators and in so doing, to create organizations that encourage and reward continual learning. 70 Educational leaders and professional faculty developers share the responsibility for creating and promoting a shared educational mission and shared values, for actively involving the faculty in decision making related to education, for providing opportunities for teaching improvement, and for shaping the systems for evaluating and rewarding teaching.7


교수와 행정가들은 교육에 가치를 두고, 지속적 학습을 중시하는 조직의 분위기를 만들 수 있다. 

Faculty members and administrators can create an organizational climate that values education and the process of continual learning. For example, a teaching-evaluation system 80,81 with established procedures for reporting educational contributions of faculty members such as the educator's portfolio11 can carry important messages about how teaching is valued and how faculty members should allocate their time.






 1998 Apr;73(4):387-96.

Strategies for improving teaching practices: a comprehensive approach to faculty development.

Source

Department of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles 90095-1722, USA. lwilk@deans.medsch.ucla.edu

Abstract

Medical school faculty members are being asked to assume new academic duties for which they have received no formal training. These include time-efficient ambulatory care teaching, case-based tutorials, and new computer-based instructional programs. In order to succeed at these new teachingtasks, faculty development is essential. It is a tool for improving the educational vitality of academic institutions through attention to the competencies needed by individual teachers, and to the institutional policies required to promote academic excellence. Over the past three decades, strategies to improve teaching have been influenced by the prevailing theories of learning and research on instruction, which are described. Research on thesestrategies suggests that workshops and students' ratings of instruction, coupled with consultation and intensive fellowships, are effective strategies for changing teachers' actions. A comprehensive faculty development program should be built upon (1) professional development (new faculty members should be oriented to the university and to their various faculty roles); (2) instructional development (all faculty members should have access toteaching-improvement workshops, peer coaching, mentoring, and/or consultations); (3) leadership development (academic programs depend upon effective leaders and well-designed curricula; these leaders should develop the skills of scholarship to effectively evaluate and advance medicaleducation); (4) organizational development (empowering faculty members to excel in their roles as educators requires organizational policies and procedures that encourage and reward teaching and continual learning). Comprehensive faculty development, which is more important today than ever before, empowers faculty members to excel as educators and to create vibrant academic communities that value teaching and learning.

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