서로를 묶어주는 유대: 교수개발 프로그램 개발을 위한 네트워크 접근(Med Educ, 2010)

The ties that bind: a network approach to creating a programme in faculty development

Lindsay Baker,1 Scott Reeves,1–4 Eileen Egan-Lee,1 Karen Leslie1,5 & Ivan Silver1,4





도입

INTRODUCTION


의료가 입원환자에서 외래환자로, 커뮤니티-기반으로 변화하면서 의과대학들은 점차 학생과 전공의들에게 더 많은 커뮤니티-기반 placement의 기회를 제공하고 있다. 이러한 의학교육의 분산된 모델이 의미하는 바는, 임상교육이 더 이상 의과대학-기반 병원에 독점적인 것이 아니며, 더 작은 커뮤니티에서도 교육이 진행된다는 것이다.

 In response to a shifting emphasis in care from in-patient to ambulatory, community-based centres,1 medical schools are pro- viding increasing opportunities for students and residents to learn in community-based placements.2–4 These distributed models of medical education mean that clinical teaching is no longer exclusive to university-based sites, but can also take place in smaller communities.


학습자의 숫자 증가는 또 다른 변화의 촉매이다. 북미에서 현재, 그리고 미래에 예상되는 의사의 부족은 학생 수를 늘리는 결정으로 이어져서 학생들은 이제 더 다양한 배경과 더 다양한 니즈를 가지게 되었다.

A further catalyst in this move is steadily increasing number of learners. Current and projected doctor shortages in North America result in an expanding student body made up of an increasingly diverse set of learners with a diverse set of needs.


의학교육의 변화에 기여한 또 다른 요인은 사회의 요구와 기대의 변화이다. 1995년의 WHO 보고서에서는 사회적 책무성에 대한 새로운 관점을 명시했고 이에 AMFC는 SAI를 만들었다.

Also contributing to shifts in medical education are evolving societal needs and expectations. In response to a World Health Organization report in 1995, which made explicit the need for a new focus on social accountability,7 the Association of Medical Faculties of Canada developed the Social Accountability Initiative (SAI).


의학교육의 변화를 가져온 또 다른 것으로는 교육이론과 교육실천의 새로운 개념이다. 학습에 대한 최신 견해는 능동적이고 구성적인constructive 사회적, 자기성찰적 프로세스를 강조한다. 이것은 교육내용, 교육방법, 교육과정 구조, 평가접근법 등을 변화시켰다. 의학교육 프로그램은 점차 학습자-중심, 지식-풍요knowledge-rich하게 되었고, 평가와 학습자공동체 속에서 guide되었다(guided by assessment and situated in a community of learners).

Further changes in medical education are prompted by new concepts in educational theory and practice. Current research emphasising learning as an active, constructive social and self-reflective process10 has stimulated changes in content, instructional meth- ods, curricular structures and approaches to assess- ment. Medical education programmes have become increasingly learner-centred and knowledge-rich, guided by assessment and situated in a community of learners.




맥락

CONTEXT


2002년 토론토의과대학은 세 개의 아카데미를 개설함.

In 2002 the Faculty of Medicine at the University of Toronto was configured into three academies which provided education in basic medical sciences and represented the main sites for most clinical clerkships.15 These academies were based across nine fully affiliated teaching hospitals and 15 community- affiliated hospitals, resulting in an expanding faculty of over 5000 members. 


 

프로그램의 형성: 7개의 핵심요인

FORMATION OF THE PROGRAMME: SEVEN KEY FACTORS



요인1. 준비된 환경

Factor 1. Environmental readiness


국가적 환경, 로컬 환경, 재정 등

At the time of the programme’s formation, many elements combined to create favourable environ- mental conditions. This was reflected in national accreditation reports In addition, a large, local teaching and research hospital was looking to provide financial support to educational and staff development


 

요인2. 모빌라이저의 헌신과 비전

Factor 2. Commitment and vision of a mobiliser


비전은 "다양하고 분산된 교육스텝들의 요구를 충족시키고 health sciences에 걸쳐서 교수개발을 전반적으로 발전시키는데 기여하는 중심적 조직 형성"이었다.

The director’s vision for the CFD was to create a central organisation that could meet the needs of diverse and distributed teaching staff and contribute globally to advance faculty develop- ment across the health sciences.



요인3. 핵심 이해관계자와 리더 모집

Factor 3. Recruitment of key stakeholders and leaders


핵심 이해관계자와 리더를 찾고 유대를 형성form ties하는 것. 유대에 헌신하게 하고 네트워크를 강화시키기 위해서는 집단적 정체성, 즉 we-ness를 만들어야 했다. 구성원들의 배경이 다양했지만, 모두 교수개발에 관심이 있는 사람들이었다.

An important first task for the director was to identify and form ties with key stakeholders and leaders (n = 40), including department heads in the Faculty of Medicine and leaders at various local education centres and hospital sites (approximately 12 locations across the city). To ensure their commitment and strengthen their ties to the net- work, it was considered necessary to create a collective identity, or a feeling of ‘we-ness’.17 Although the members came from diverse backgrounds, they had all identified interests in faculty development.


 

요인4. 협력적 네트워크 구조의 성장

Factor 4. Growth of collaborative network structure


핵심 이해관계자와 리더의 유대는 CFD에 여러가지 장점을 가져왔다. Visibility, Legitimacy, 그리고 로컬 니즈에 대한 지식, local champion과 미래의 collaborator를 접촉하게 됨.

Ties to key stakeholders and leaders conferred numerous benefits on the CFD. These included enhanced visibility, increased legitimacy, knowledge of local needs and access to local champions and future collaborators.


네트워크의 구성원이 되기로 한 결정에는 여러가지가 있었다. 가장 흔한 것은, 멤버들간 협력이 상호 이해interest와 신뢰, 공동의 이익shared benefit이나 일반화된 호혜성generalized reciprocity, 또는 미래 언젠가에 도움을 받을 것이란 약속promise to return the favor 등에 기반을 두고 있었다. 이러한 호혜성 전략은 future returns 혹은 '미래의 그림자shadow of the future'가 충분히 길다는 것에 가치를 두었는지에 따라 달라진다.

The decision to become a member of the network was motivated by many reasons. Most frequently, collab- orations between members were based upon mutual interest and trust and were motivated by shared benefit or generalised reciprocity, or an unspoken or spoken promise to return the favour at some later date.20 The success of these reciprocity strategies was dependent on sufficient value being placed on future returns or a sufficiently long ‘shadow of the future’.21


요인5. 사회적 자본의 축적

Factor 5. Accumulation of social capital


네트워크 구조의 확장으로 scholarly output이 늘어났다(연구비, 출판 등)

The expanding network structure resulted in an increase in scholarly outputs, including grant captures and peer-reviewed publications (Fig. 3).



요인6. 정당성

Factor 6. Legitimacy



정당성은 전체 프로세스에 걸쳐서 핵심 역할을 했으며, 네트워크의 성공적인 형성과 성장에 필수적이었다. 중앙화된 FDP는 initial ties로부터 신뢰cridibility를 받아 정당화된 심벌legitimated symbol이 된다. 정당성은 첫 디렉터를 저명한 이 분야의 리더를 임명하여 더욱 강화된다. 센터의 지위와 신뢰를 더욱 높여준 것은 핵심 이해관계자 및 리더와의 파트너십이었고, 이들은 대부분 고위직에 있었으며, 그 분야의 전문가로 인정되는 사람들이었다.

Legitimacy played a key role throughout the entire process and was essential to the successful formation and growth of the network. The idea for a centralised faculty development programme had credibility from initial ties to legitimated symbols – the hospital and the university. This legitimacy was enhanced with the appointment of an inaugural director with a reputation as a leader in the field of continuing education. Further increasing the status and credibility of the Centre were the partnerships formed with key stakeholders and leaders, many of whom held high-profile positions and were viewed as experts in the field.



요인7. 유연

Factor 7. Flexibility


네트워크가 커지면서, 구성원과 구성원의 요구도 다양해졌다.

As the network grew, so too did the makeup of its members and their needs.

 

 


 

 

 

 

낚시바늘 모델

THE FISHHOOK MODEL



이 모델에서 첫번째 요인F1은 환경의 서포트와 기회의 존재(준비된 환경)이다. 모든 조직은 더 큰 사회적/정치적/경제적 맥락에 놓여있기 때문에, 외부 시스템에 의해서 영향을 받는다. '준비된 환경'은 진행되는 모든 프로세스를 아래에 두는 반원으로 묘사되었다.

In the model we refer to the first factor (F1) in the process, and the presence of support and opportunity in the environment, as representing environmental readiness. Because organisations are embedded within larger social, political and economic contexts, they are influenced by external systems, events and conditions.26,29 Environmental readiness is depicted as an overarching semi-circle to represent a supportive umbrella under which the entire process can play out.


두 번째 요인F2는 센터의 형성에 필수적인 것으로, 최초 디렉터의 헌신과 비전으로, 우리는 이 최초 디렉터를 '모빌라이저'로 보았다. '모빌라이저'는 'hub firms'로도 알려져 있으며, triggering entities이면서, network orchestrator이고, 어떤 조직의 시작과 형성과정을 적극적으로actively 지휘하는 사람이다. 성공하는 모빌라이저는 평판이 우호적이며, 과거의 관련 경험이 있고, 신뢰를 불어넣고 다른 사람에게 동기를 부여하여 새로운 조직에 유대감을 형성하고 리소스가 투입commit되게끔 하는 인격을 가지고 있다. 구체적으로, 모빌라이저는 다음을 갖추고 있다.

The second factor (F2) essential to the formation of the Centre was the commitment and vision of the inaugural director, whom we view as a ‘mobiliser’.30 Mobilisers, also known as ‘hub firms’,31 triggering entities27 and network orchestrators,32 are individuals who actively go about orchestrating the initiation and formation of an organisation. Successful mobilisers require a favourable reputation, relevant previous experience and specific personality traits in order to inspire trust and motivate others to form ties with the new organisation and commit resources.33 Specifi- cally, mobilisers are said to be

  • 헌신 committed,

  • 신뢰 trustwor- thy,

  • 창의성 creative,

  • 능력 competent and

  • 리스크 감당 tolerant of risk and to

  • 의사결정/리더십/대인관계 기술 possess superior decision-making, leadership and interpersonal skills.34

 

Most importantly, mobilisers must have

  • 강력한 비전 a strong vision,

  • 비전을 커뮤니케이션하는 능력 the ability to communicate this vision and

  • 다른 사람을 동기부여하는 능력 the ability to motivate others to action.



모빌라이저가 핵심 이해관계자와 리더를 모집하여(F3), 비록 이전에 서로 관계가 없었지만 공동의 이해interest를 가지는 사람들을 끌어모으게 된다. 기존에 관계가 없다는 것은 네트워크이론에서 'structural hole'이라고 부르는 것이며, 종종 'reinvention of the wheel'의 결과를 낳기도 한다. 이 개개인들을 모음으로써 모빌라이저는 'structural holes'을 매우고, 지식과 리소스의 공유를 위한 잠재력을 형성한다. 더 나아가서 초반의 파트너십은 CFD가 '신생조직의 취약성liability of newness'를 극복하는데 도움이 되었는데, 이 취약성은 새로 만들어진 조직이 오래된 조직보다 더 실패할 가능성이 높은지를 설명해주는 것으로서, 고립isolation과 관련된 것이다.

The mobiliser’s recruitment of key stakeholders and leaders (F3) brought together many individuals who, although they shared a common interest, had no previous connection with one another. This lack of connection, known as a structural hole in network theory, often results in the reinvention of the wheel. By bringing these individuals together the mobiliser essentially bridged these structural holes and created the potential for the sharing of knowledge and resources.35 Furthermore, these early partnerships helped the CFD overcome ‘liability of newness’, a phenomenon related to isolation that helps to explain why nascent organisations are more likely to fail than older organisations.36



사람과 집단이 embed된 사회적 네트워크가 조직의 성패에 중요하며, 특히 새로운 조직일 경우에 더욱 그러하다. 핵심 이해관계자와 리더들은 (이미 신뢰와 헌신과 열린 의사소통을 갖추고 있는) 자신들의 사회적 네트워크에 접촉할 수 있다. 따라서 초반의 유대가 (FDP제공에 동기부여가 되어있고 헌신하고자 하는) 개인들의 협력적 네트워크의 빠른 성장을 촉진하였다(F4).

There is much literature to suggest that the social networks within which people and groups are embedded have important consequences for the success and failure of their organisation and are particularly important to the success of new initia- tives.26,37–39 Key stakeholders and leaders allowed access to members of their individual social networks, with whom they had already established trust, com- mitment and open lines of communication. There- fore, these early ties facilitated the rapid growth of a collaborative network of individuals motivated by and committed to the provision of faculty development (F4).


네트워크 구조의 성장은 scholarly output의 증가로 이어졌고, 이것은 사회적 자본으로서 이해될 수 있다(F5). 사회적 자본은... 아래와같이 다양하게 개념화된다.

The growth of the network structure led to the accumulation of increasing scholarly outputs, which can be understood as social capital (F5). Social capital is conceptualised variously as

  • 사회적 커넥션을 통해서 가용한 리소스
    the resources available to people through their social connec- tions,33,40 as

  • 다른 리소스에 접근권한을 가지게 되는 메커니즘
    a mechanism to gain access to other resources41 and as

  • 집단 혹은 개인이 함께 일하면서 축적되는 능력
    the cumulative capacity of groups or individuals to work together.41

네트워크의 다른 사람들과 연결을 가지게 되면서, 혼자 했을 때보다 더 많은 것을 성취할 수 있게 된다. 사회적 자본은 모든 신생 조직의 생존과 성공의 주된 원동력driving force이다. 사회적 자본의 축적이 가져오는 다양한 장점에는 기존 구성원의 헌신이 높아지는 것, 새로운 멤버가 들어오는 것이 있다.

By making connections with others in the network, individuals were able to achieve more than if they had acted alone.20 Social capital is viewed to be a major driving force in the survival and success of any nascent organisation.33 The numerous benefits conferred by the accumula- tion of social capital led to escalating commitments with existing members27 and encouraged new members to join,

 


사회적자본F5와 협력적네트쿼크 구조의 성장F4는 서로 순환적인 관계이다 사회적 자본은 따라서 네트워크를 이어주는 풀glue이며, 네트워크 성장을 쉽게 해주고 에너지를 주는 기름oil과 같은 것이다.

This cyclical relationship between the accumulation of social capital (F5) and the growth of the collaborative network structure (F4) is illustrated in the fishhook model. Social capital is therefore both the ‘glue’ that binds to create a network and the ‘oil’ that eases and energises network growth.42


 

마지막 요인은 정당성과 유연성으로서, 전체 과정을 둘러싼 가장 외곽의 두꺼운 선으로 표현된다. 정당성은 주관적이다. 정당성이란 조직의 외부 관객이 어떤 것을 받아들일 것인가acceptance, 그것이 적절한가appropriateness, 바람직한가desirability에 대해 내리는 사회적 판단이다. 유대를 맺을지, 리소스에 접근을 허용할지에 대한 결정은 그 조직의 정당성에 대해서 어떻게 인식하느냐에 달려있다. 유연성은 네트워크가 변화하는 환경에 적응하고, 구성원의 니즈에 빠르게 반응하게 해준다.

The final factors, legitimacy and flexibility (F6 and F7), are represented by the thick outer arrow encircling the entire process. Legitimacy is a subjective issue; it represents a social judgement of acceptance, appropriateness and desirability made by an orga- nisation’s external audience.29,43 An individual’s decision to form ties with an organisation and to provide it with access to resources is strongly influenced by the perceived legitimacy of that organisation. Flexibility allows the network to adapt to the changing environment and respond quickly to the evolving needs of its members.



IMPLICATIONS




 


 





 2010 Feb;44(2):132-9. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2923.2009.03549.x. Epub 2009 Dec 21.

The ties that bind: a network approach to creating a programme in faculty development.

Author information

  • 1Centre for Faculty Development at St Michael's Hospital, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.

Abstract

CONTEXT:

Current trends in medical education reflect the changing health care environment. An increasingly large and diverse student population, a move to more distributed models of education, greater community involvement and an emphasis on social accountability, interprofessional education and student-centred approaches to learning necessitate new approaches to faculty development to help faculty members respond effectively to this rapidly changing landscape.

METHODS:

Drawing upon the tenets of network theory and the broader organisational literature, we propose a 'fishhook' model of facultydevelopment programme formation. The model is based on seven key factors which supported the successful formation of a centralised programmefor faculty development that addressed many of the contemporary issues in medical education. These factors include: environmental readiness; commitment and vision of a mobiliser; recruitment of key stakeholders and leaders to committees; formation of a collaborative network structure; accumulation of networking capital; legitimacy, and flexibility.

DISCUSSION:

Our aim in creating this model is to provide a guide for other medical schools to consider when developing similar programmes. The model can be adapted to reflect the local goals, settings and cultures of other medical education contexts.

PMID:
 
20040057
 
[PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]


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