근무지에서의 교육실천공동체: 교수개발프로그램 평가(Med Teach, 2015)

근무지에서의 교육실천공동체: 교수개발프로그램 평가(Med Teach, 2015)

Communities of teaching practice in the workplace: Evaluation of a faculty development programme

MARIE-LOUISE SCHREURS, WILMA HUVENEERS & DIANA DOLMANS

Maastricht University, The Netherlands

도입

Introduction

교수개발은 사고방식과 실제 교육행동을 변화시키는 쪽으로 teacher의 지식/술기/개념을 강화하고 확장하기 위한 활동의 coherent sum이다.

Faculty develop- ment involves

the coherent sum of activities targeted at strengthening and extending the knowledge, skills and con- ceptions of teachers in a way that will change their way of thinking and their actual educational behaviour (Fenstermacher & Berliner 1985).

최근 교수개발의 초점은 개개인 수준에서 그룹 수준으로 변화했다.

Recently, the focus of faculty development has shifted from an individual level to a group level.

• group learning by a team of teachers을 강조
  Steinert (2010), for instance, discerned a movement away from individual experi- ences to group learning by a team of teachers.

• 그룹 단위에서의 FD를 강조함. 두 종류의 실천공동체
  O’Sullivan and Irby (2011) also laid a greater emphasis on FD at group level. They distinguished between two communities of practice:

• one created between participants in FD programmes,

• the other being a community of teaching practice in the workplace (classroom or clinic) where the teaching is actually effected.

그러나 모든 실천공동체에 대해서 '참여와 학습이 사회적 요인에 달려있다hinge on'이라는 사실은 불변이다.

참여를 향상시키는 요건

Yet, what holds true for any community of practice is that participation and learning hinge on social factors. By

• 친화적inviting 환경 creating an inviting environment,

• 가이드 제공 providing guidance and

• 개인의 관여/관계 장려 encouraging personal engagement, relationships within the community

 

can enhance participation

 

참여에는 다음이 영향을 미친다.

Also,

• 직무구조 work structure,

• 시간압박 time pressure,

• 직무량 workload and

• 직무흐름 work flow

all affect participation.

근무지에서의 멘토링과 코칭

Mentoring and coaching in the workplace

Eraut 에 따르면 멘토나 코치의 서포트는 workplace learning에서 결정적으로 중요한 것이며, 컨설팅의 기회가 늘어나고 동료와 함께 근무함으로써 강화될 수 있다. 멘토링은 FD에서 explicit한 접근법인데, 멘토는 다양한 환경에서guidance/direction/suppport/expertise를 제공해줄 수 있다. 또한 teacher들이 자신이 일하는 조직의 문화를 이해하게 도와주며, 귀중한 전문직 네트워크에 introduce해준다.

According to Eraut (2007), support and feedback by a mentor or coach are critically important for workplace learning which will be enhanced by increasing opportunities for consulting with and working alongside colleagues. Mentoring should be considered as an explicit approach in FD, for mentors can provide guidance, direction, support or expertise to faculty members in a variety of settings. They can also help teachers understand the organizational culture in which they work and introduce them to invaluable professional networks (Walker et al. 2002).

Doppenberg 는 coaching and collegial visitation 이 특정한 협력적 세팅에서 일어나며, 다른 collaborative team activities와는 다르다고 하였다.

Doppenberg (2012) found in her study that coaching and collegial visitation take place in a specific collaborative setting which differs from that of other collaborative team activities.

 

clinical teacher의 참여를 높이기 위하여 Steinert 등은 주니어 교수를 낚기hook 위한 멘토링 버디시스템을 제안하였다.

To raise involvement of clinical teachers’, Steinert et al. (2010) suggested a buddy system of mentoring colleagues to get junior faculty members ‘‘hooked’’.

 

 

근무지에서의 관계와 네트워크

Relationships and networks in the workplace

Doppenberg  등은 동료와 협력적으로 수행하는 교수-학습 활동의 유형을 연구하여서, 상호교환Exchanging, 경청listening, 평가evaluating이 가장 흔히 보고되는 활동

Doppenberg (2012) provided an overview of categories of teacher-learning activities in collaboration with colleagues. For each activity listed, she investigated the frequency of its occurrence within different collaborative settings. Exchanging, listening and evaluating emerged as the activities most frequently reported.

Steinert 등은 FD가 personal and professional growth 를 가능하게 하며, 교수들이 이것을 받아들이고, 자신의 니즈와 맞을 때 더 참여할 가능성이 높다고 했다. 또 다른 내적동기부여 요인으로는 교육과 자기발전self improvement을 중요하게 생각하는 것appreciation, 네트워크의 기회 등이 있었다.

Steinert et al. (2010) by extension argued that FD enables personal and professional growth and that faculty might be more likely to participate whether they appreciated this and considered it relevant to their needs. Other intrinsic motiv- ations could be their appreciation of teaching and self- improvement, coupled with the opportunity to network.

비슷하게, Lave and Wenger 는 실천공동체의 성공에 있어서 관계과 네트워크의 중요성을 강조하였다. 커뮤니티 내에서의 관계 뿐 아니라 외부 네트워크에 참여하는 것도 중요함.

In a similar vein, Lave and Wenger (1991) stressed the importance of relationships and networks to the success of a community of practice, and they deemed importance of both the relationships forged between community members and participation in external networks.

교육네트워크에 참여하는 것은 (1)동료와 교육적인 이슈에 대해서 상호교환 및 컨설팅을 하는 것exchanging and consulting colleagues과 같이 비공식적 방식으로 , 또는 (2)working group이나 전문가 미팅, 컨퍼런스 등과 같이 공식적으로 참여하는 것이 있다.

Participation in educational networks can occur in an informal way by exchanging and consulting colleagues about educational issues or more formal by collaborating in a working group or taking part in a professional meeting or educational conference.

 

근무지의 조직/시스템/문화

Organization, systems and culture in the workplace

Teunissen 는 실천으로부터 배우는 것learning from practice 이 사람들로 하여금 자신의 특정한 맥락에서 작동하게 만들려면 어떻게 수행하고/생각하고/상호작용해야하는지를 배우게 해준다. 동시에, learning from practice는 고도로 맥락적인 특성이 있어서 그 자체가 challenging한 교육환경이다.

Teunissen (2014) argued that learning from practice enables people to learn how to perform, think, and interact in ways that work for their specific context. At the same time, however, the highly contextual nature of learning from practice makes it a challenging educational environment.

조금 다른 각도에서 Eraut 는 관리자적 역할managerial role의 중요성을 강조했는데, 이 역할이란 상호지지와 학습의 문화를 만드는 것이다. Manager는 이 역할을 숙련된 worker들과 공유해야 하며, 이것은 distributed leadership의 한 형태이다. 이러한 능력이 직무에 기술된 것을 넘어서는 workplace learning과 문화에 영향을 준다.

From a different angle, Eraut (2007) asserted the import- ance of the managerial role, which is to develop a culture of mutual support and learning. Managers should share this role with experienced workers and this implies some form of distributed leadership. In this capacity, they have a major influence on workplace learning and culture that extends far beyond their job descriptions.

관리자적 역할 외에도 조직의 학습 분위기 역시 중요한 변인이다. Lave and Wenger 는 커뮤니티는 'a shared repertoire of common resources'가  필요하다고 했다. 더 나아가서, 반복적인 활동의 패턴으로부터 생성되는 ‘‘shared and negotiated system of socially and culturally meaningful structures’’ 가 있으면 더 좋다. Teunissen 는 이것을 가지고 변화에 저항하는 안정된 근무환경의 구조를 refer했다.

Beside the managerial role, also the learning climate of the organization is an essential variable (van Rijdt et al. 2013). Lave and Wenger (1991), for instance, argued that a community requires a shared repertoire of common resources, including language, stories and practice. What is desirable, moreover, is a ‘‘shared and negotiated system of socially and culturally meaningful structures’’ resulting from recurrent patterns of activities (Teunissen 2014). By this, Teunissen referred to stable structures in the workplace environment that are resistant to change.

 

 

근무지에서의 과제와 활동

Tasks and activities in the workplace

• Doppenberg (2012) posited that collaboration in teams can foster teaching learning, for instance by giving teachers the shared responsibility for an educational task, or by imple- menting a new educational approach.

• Lave and Wenger (1991) also stress the importance of the shared activity of newcomers at the workplace in the learning process.

• Fuller and Unwin (2003) describe the process from peripheral to mainstream participation in an organization. Working alongside and interacting with experienced colleagues leads to learning by engagement into the practices of the community.

• Handelzalts (2009) hailed the benefit of collaboration in his study into the way teachers collaborate in teams for the purpose of designing a new curriculum;

연구의 초점

Focus of the study

연구질문

Research question

방법

Methods

세팅

Setting

The FD programme under scrutiny in this study concerns a University Teaching Qualification (UTQ) programme offered by the Faculty of Health, Medicine and Life Sciences (FHML) at Maastricht University, the Netherlands.

Since its introduction in 2008, already more than 100 teachers from various depart- ments have successfully completed this UTQ programme.

인터벤션 

Intervention

UTQ course라고 부름.

As previously mentioned, the FD programme under scrutiny in this study concerns a so-called UTQ course, which forms part of the opportunities for faculty development offered by the FHML at Maastricht University in the Netherlands. The programme is intended for teachers and for faculty members who want to improve their educational skills and expertise. 

• 프로그램의 총 기간은... The full UTQ programme spans 

• 코칭스킬을 훈련받은 코치들은.... The coaches, who had been trained in coaching skills, 

• 과정이 진행되는 동안 포트폴리오 작성해야... Throughout the course, participants compile a portfolio

UTQ역량의 개발은 참가자의 현재 역량, 학습목표, 실제 교육상황에서의 학습 등에 달려있음. 다섯 달 동안 다섯 차례의 의무 트레이닝이 있음

The development of UTQ competencies depends on participants’ present competencies, learning objectives and their learning in authentic settings in educational practice. Over a period spanning five months, participants partake in five compulsory training days, 

대상

Subjects

총 102명의 선생 중 23명의 선생이 응답. 임상/기초/사회과학 분야로 나뉨. 24명이라는 숫자는 미리 정해진 것이었으며, 4회 정도 포커스그룹 인터뷰를 하면 saturation될 것이라고 기대되었음. 전화로 모집하였으며, set text를 읽는 표준화된 방식으로 연구에 대해서 설명해줌.

Respondents were 23 teachers (10 women, 13 men) from the Maastricht University FHML, selected by purpose sampling (Stalmeijer et al. 2014) from a total of 102 teachers who attended and successfully completed the UTQ programme. Participants from three clusters of departments with clinical, biomedical or social sciences backgrounds were proportion- ally represented in the sample. The number of 24 subjects was determined a priori. Saturation was expected to take place after four focus groups. We recruited the subjects by telephone and informed them about the study in a standardized way by reading a set text.

1명이 focus group에 참여하지 않았음. 교육경험은 2~20년.

One subject selected did not join the focus group session. Their prior experience of teaching ranged from two to 20 years, with eight of the teachers having five or fewer years of experience.

도구

Instrument

포커스그룹에 대한 설명

For this evaluation study, we used the focus group method. According to Morgan (1998), focus groups of six to eight participants are useful for evaluation research to explore topics that are poorly understood. The group discussions create a process of sharing and comparing among the participants and they explore the contexts in which they operate for us as researchers. We convened four focus group sessions of two hours each with six participants, which were facilitated by a moderator and assistant moderator, to discuss and explore the relevant themes. Both were skilled in group dynamics and the subject matter under discussion and had a background in educational psychology. The role and responsibilities of the moderator and assistant moderator were consistently divided across all focus groups (Stalmeijer et al. 2014). 

The format was semistructured and departed from four questions about coaching, networks, organization and activities in the workplace that guided the discussion; the questions were derived from the framework of O’Sullivan and Irby (2011) (Appendix). We discussed the questions in the research team and we pilot tested them in the first focus group with the participants. The moderator systematically went through the questions and gave time to the participants to collect and express their thoughts. Participant verification took place by summarizing the main results from each question, before moving on to the next. After the session the moderators took time to debrief, compare field notes and discuss first impressions and highlights. These steps in systematic focus group interviews were described by Krueger (1998). 

 

분석

Analysis

The sessions were taped and summarized by a research assistant. All participants were informed about the use of the tapes and the confidentiality of the data and were explicitly asked for agreement of the procedure. Two researchers(Marie-Louise Schreurs & Wilma Huveneers) independently analysed the summaries.

• To trustfully conduct the process of analysis, we started to analyse the first focus group, by reading the transcript carefully and coding relevant quotes to identify key themes independently.

• We compared the results, resolved discrepancies by discussion and fine-tuned our strategy for further analysis of all four groups.

• Afterwards, we had a comparison discussion and selected the relevant quotes in our research team to verify the results. 

The process of analysis has been carried out systematically following the steps identified by Krueger (1998). Corrective feedback was obtained from participants, for example, the summaries were sent to all participants for approval to ensure that our results were valid and members from the research team by critically discussing the findings as recommended by Stalmeijer et al. (2014). 

 

결과

Results

코칭, 네트워킹, 근무지 조직, 근무지 활동이 교육행위를 촉진/저하 했는가?

How do coaching, networking, organization and activities in the workplace facilitate or impair teaching practice after completion of a faculty development programme? 

(1) 성찰과 피드백의 긍정적 효과 The positive effect of coaching on reflection and feedback. 

(2) 교육 네트워크에 참여 증가 Increased participation in educational networks.  

(3) 조직 정책을 더 인식하게 됨 More awareness of organizational policies.  

(4) 교육 과업과 활동을 하는데 자신감 생김 More confidence in fulfilling educational tasks and activities. 

 

코칭이 성찰과 피드백을 강화시킴

Coaching enhances reflection and feedback

코치와 함께 교육문제educational question을 논의하는 것이 인사이트의 수준을 높여주었고, 수행능력을 향상시켰다. 코치가 성찰을 자극하고 피드백을 주었기 때문에 teacher는 자신의 교육행위를 더 성찰할 수 있었고, 대안적 전략을 계획할 수 있었으며, 그 결과 능동적으로 새로운 교육행위를 실험해볼 수 있었다. 또한 학습과정에서 피드백의 가치를 더 깨달았다는 언급이 있었다. 교사들은 피드백을 주고 받는 것을 더 많이 했으며, 질적으로로 동료와 학생들로부터 더 훌륭한 피드백을 주고 받았다.

The thematic analysis revealed that the opportunity to discuss educational questions with a coach led to elevated levels of insight and improved performance. As the coach stimulated reflection and provided feedback, teachers reflected more on own teaching practices and planned alternative strategies, and,consequently, experimented actively with new teaching behaviour. What the participants often mentioned was that they gained a better appreciation of the value of feedback in the learning process. Teachers gave and solicited more and qualitatively better feedback to/from both colleagues and students

 

교육 네트워크에 참여가 늘고, teacher간 자문consultation이 강화됨

Increased participation in educational networking enhances consultation among teachers 

거의 모든 참여자가 교육네트워크가 늘어났음을 보고했다. 즉, 동료들의 교육활동에 대해서 더 많이 자문해주었다. 그렇게 함으로써 UTQ과정에 참여한 동료들에게 연락을 했을 뿐 아니라, 교육에 참여하는 다른 동료들에게도 연락을 하게 되었다. 그러나 이런 과정은 주로 비공식적informal으로 이뤄졌다. 참여자들은 프로그램이 종료된 이후에도 UTQ 멤버들과 접촉이 더 강화intensification되었다고 말하였으나, 반대로 non-UTQ멤버들과의 의사소통은 더 어려워졌음을 느꼈다. 이는 UTQ과정 참여자들은 공통의 교육프레임워크를 공유하기 때문일 수 있다. 일부 과에서는 UTQ구성원들이 qualified teacher의 롤모델 역할을 하며, 다른 동료들의 UTQ참여를 inspire하기도 한다. 일부 UTQ멤버들은 교육에 특화될 계획을 가지고 있으며, MHPE과정을 이수하고 있다.

Nearly, all participants reported an increase in educational networking; that is, they indicated that they consulted colleagues about their teaching activities more frequently. In doing so, they not only called upon colleagues with whom they had participated in the UTQ course, but also on other colleagues involved in teaching. However, this mainly hap-pened on an informal basis. Participants also perceived an intensification of contacts with UTQ members, even after the trajectory had ended, while difficulties in communicating withnon-UTQ colleagues became more apparent. This could be ascribed to the fact that former UTQ-course participants shared a common educational framework. In some departments, UTQ members served as a role model of qualified teachers and inspired others to participate in the UTQ programme as well.Some UTQ members even had plans to specialize in education and to take the master’s in health professions education offered by the FHML. 

 

 

 

조직의 교육정책에 대한 인식이 향상됨

Increased awareness of organizational educational policies

참여자들이 교육커리어를 선호하는 교육문화로 향상된improved것을 경험하였다고 말하였다. 그러나 이것이 모든 과에서 그런 것은 아니었고, 어떤 과에서는 과장이 UTQ참여자들의 교육 전문성을 인정하고 더 자문을 해온 반면, 어떤 과에서는 교육에 별 관심을 보이지 않았다. 동시에, 대부분의 참여자들은 교육조직의 복잡성과 교육정책에 대해서 더 인식하게 되었다. 또한 교육(관련)과 educational department의 역할이 무엇인지 알게 되었으며, 그러한 과에 자문을 더 구하게 되었다. UTQ과정이 참여자들로 하여금 더 많은 교육적 역할을 수행fulfill하게끔 하고, 교육 커리어를 선택하게 한 것도 조직의 문화를 바꾸는 계기가 되었다. 이것이 바로 faculty board에서 UTQ프로그램을 미래의 교육리더들의 발육지breeding ground로 인식하게 된 이유이다. faculty board는 프로그램디렉터의 선정을 맡고 있다. 장애요인으로서 참여자들은 소속 과가 교육에 대한 새로운 인사이트를 수용하지 않는 것을 지적했다. 이렇나 차이 때문에 일부 참여자들은 자신이 예전 행동으로 돌아간다고 걱정했다. 이들 참여자들은 특히 새로이 습득한 행동을 지속하기 위해서 follow-up activities에 의존하였다.

In the focus groups, several favourable and inhibiting condi- tions were discussed. What came to the fore was that partici- pants experienced an improved educational culture within the faculty in favour of educational careers. However, this did not particularly hold for all departments: while some department chairs consulted participants more often for their teaching expertise, other chairs did not show much interest in education. At the same time, most participants reported that they had become more aware of educational policies and the complexity of the educational organization. Moreover, they gained a clearer view of the role of the educational department and more readily turned to the department for advice. The fact that the UTQ course obliged participants to fulfil more educational roles and to opt for an educational career also triggered a change in organizational culture. Hence, it is with reason that the faculty board in a way regards the UTQ programme as a breeding ground for future educational leaders within the faculty. The faculty board is among others, responsible for appointments of qualified programme directors. As regards barriers encoun- tered, participants pointed out that their departments were little receptive to new educational insights. Because of such indif- ference, a few participants feared that they would slide back into old behaviours. These participants in particular resorted to follow-up activities or programmes to hold on to their newly acquired behaviour.

 

 

교육적 과제task나 활동을 하는데 자신감이 생김

More confidence in fulfilling educational tasks and activities

근무지에서의 학습을 자극한 동기부여 요인에 대해 언급하였다. 교육과제나 활동에 대해서 인식이 향상되고 분석적 능력이 향상되었다. 교육을 실제로 하거나 교육활동을 계획하는 것도 긍정적으로 변화했는데, 예컨대 불확실성이 줄어든 측면이 있었다. 더 나아가서, 팀 내에서의 협력이 강화되었고, 이는 참여자들이 교육과제나 활동을 진행할 때 동료들로부터 피드백이나 어시스트를  더 쉽게 얻을 수 있었기 때문이다. 마찬가지로 참여자들은 팀-책임이 늘어난 것을 언급했는데, 일부 참여자는 즉각적으로 새롭게 습득한 교육지식을 프로그램의 재설계에 활용했다. 따라서 FD는 personal and professional growth를 촉진했다. 즉, UTQ과정을 이수하지 않은 근무지의 동료들도 그 (교육)지식을 가지고 있는 사람들을 인정해주었다.

The focus groups also addressed several motivational aspects of teacher learning in the workplace. Participants reported more awareness and analytical ability with respect to the educational tasks and activities. Their educational behaviour during delivery of education and planning of educational activities had changed positively, for example in terms of reduced uncertainty. Moreover, collaboration within teams had intensified, as participants for instance more easily solicited feedback or assistance from colleagues about educa- tional tasks and activities. Likewise, participants noted an increase in team responsibilities; some planning groups immediately incorporated the newly acquired educational knowledge into the redesign process of a programme or into an educational approach. Hence, FD facilitates personal and professional growth. In fact, colleagues in the workplace who had not taken the UTQ programme recognized the knowledge of those who had.

 

고찰과 결론

Discussion and conclusion

 

전체적으로 코칭과 네트워킹이 커뮤니티 형성의 촉매역할을 한 것으로 보였다. 코칭은 비공식적, 암묵적 학습을 일깨워주었고, 그것이 작동operationalize하게 해주었다. 같은 이유에서, 교수들은 교육조직과 문화에 대해서 더 aware하게 되었다. 이런 효과의 일부는 교육에 대한 더 긍정적인 분위기를 가져왔고, 교육커뮤니티가 birth하였다. 그러나 동시에 과장의 태도에 따라 과 간 상당한 차이가 있었다. 따라서 여전히 큰 장애물이 있으며, Teunissen은 이렇게 말했다.

Through the whole, coaching and networking seemed to function as a catalyst for community formation. Coaching appeared to raise awareness of informal and tacit learning and help to operationalize it. By the same token, faculty became more aware of the educational organization and culture. The sum of these effects invoked an atmosphere that was more favourable to education and gave birth to a community of teaching practice. At the same time, however, significant differences existed between departments due to diverging attitudes adopted by the chairs. Hence, an important hurdle has yet to be taken, a concern that has been deftly voiced by Teunissen (2014) who posited that

 

"healthcare workplace는 비교적 안정적인 환경으로 변화에 저항하는 경향이 있다. 이것은 개인이 그렇기 때문이라기보다는, 비슷한 사람들이 비슷한 목표를 가지고 비슷한 일을 오래동안 해온 그 행위의 전통 때문이다"

‘‘healthcare workplaces are relatively stable environments that tend to resist change; not necessarily because of individual resistance but because of a practice’s longstanding tradition of having similar groups of people involved in similar tasks with similar goals’’.

Teunissen PW. 2014. Experiences, trajectories, and reifications: Anemerging framework of practice-based learning in healthcare work-places. Adv Health Sci Educ 20:843–856. 

 

Appendix 

Questions that guided the focus group discussions. 

The goal of the focus group discussions was to investigate the impact of a faculty development programme on teachers’educational workplace environment. Guiding questions were as follows: 

(1) How did formal and informal coaching affect teaching practice after completion of the UTQ programme? 

(2) In what ways did your participation in formal and informal educational networks change?

(3) Which factors facilitated and inhibited teaching practice in the department and the organization? 

(4) How did the UTQ programme affect your tasks and activities in the workplace? 

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Med Teach. 2015 Nov 26:1-7. [Epub ahead of print]

Communities of teaching practice in the workplace: Evaluation of a faculty development programme.

Schreurs ML1, Huveneers W1, Dolmans D1.

Author information

• 1a Maastricht University , The Netherlands.

Abstract

BACKGROUND:

The focus of faculty development (FD) has recently shifted from individual and formal learning to formal and informal learning by a team of teachers in the workplace where the teaching is actually effected. This study aimed to evaluate the impact of a faculty developmentprogramme on teachers' educational workplace environment.

METHODS:

We invited 23 teachers, who had successfully completed a University Teaching Qualification (UTQ) programme, to evaluate the facultydevelopment programme and participate in focus group discussions. This UTQ programme spanned one year and covered 185 hours of formal and informal learning and training activities and formal coaching.

RESULTS:

After having obtained their UTQ, teachers reported that coaching enhances reflection and feedback, to participate more frequently in educational networks, which enhances consultation among teachers, increased awareness of organizational educational policies and more confidence in fulfilling educational tasks and activities.

CONCLUSION:

The evaluation of the UTQ programme demonstrated to enhance the development of a community of teachers at the workplace who share a passion for education and provide each other with support and feedback, which triggered a change in culture enhancing improvement ofeducation. However, this did not hold for all teachers. Inhibiting factors hold sway, such as a prevailing commitment to research over education in some departments and a lack of interest in education by some department chairs.

PMID:

 

26610150

 

[PubMed - as supplied by publisher]