동료에게 배우는 경험: 사회적 합치와 인지적 합치의 가치(Adv in Health Sci Educ, 2008)

동료에게 배우는 경험: 사회적 합치와 인지적 합치의 가치(Adv in Health Sci Educ, 2008)

Understanding the experience of being taught by peers: the value of social and cognitive congruence

Tai M. Lockspeiser Æ Patricia O’Sullivan Æ

Arianne Teherani Æ Jessica Muller

배경

Background

학생들을 선생님으로 사용하는 것은 보충 교육의 한 유형으로 의과 대학에서 일반적입니다. 미국 의과 대학을 대상으로 한 설문 조사에서 75.8 %의 의과 대학은 피어튜터링 프로그램 (1990)을 가졌다. "동료"의 정의 광범위한데, 실제 동료 (예 : 동일한 의대)와 가까운 동료(한 학년 이상 앞선 학생)을 포함하며, 대부분의 의과 대학 프로그램은 near-peer들을 사용합니다.

Using students as teachers is common among medical schools as one type of supplemental instruction. In a survey of US medical schools, 75.8% of medical schools had peer tutoring programs (1990) Although the definition of ‘‘peer’’ is broad, encompassing both actual peers (i.e. in the same medical school class) and near-peers (i.e. students one or more classes ahead of the students they are teaching), most medical school programs use near-peers.

peer-assisted learning 을 지지하는 사람들은 동료교사와 학생이 

• 유사한 지식 기반이나 "인지적 합치"를 공유하기 때문에 동료교사가 학습자가 이해할 수있는 언어를 사용하여, 적절한 수준으로 개념을 설명할 수 있다고 말한다 (Cornwall, 1980). 

• 또한 동료교사와 학생들은 비슷한 사회적 역할을 맡고 있으므로 '사회적 합치'를 공유한다 (Schmidt & Moust, 1995).

Advocates of peer-assisted learning suggest it is successful because the peer-teacher and students share a similar knowledge base, or a ‘‘cognitive congruence,’’ which allows the peer-teachers to use language that their learners understand and to explain concepts at an appropriate level (Cornwall, 1980). Peer- teachers and students also share a ‘‘social congruence’’ because of their similar social roles (Schmidt & Moust, 1995).

대부분의 의대에서 보완적인 peer-assisted learning 프로그램은 일대일 피어튜터링을 사용하지만, 일부 학교는 대규모 그룹 환경에서 보완적인 peer instruction를 사용합니다 (Ebbert, Morgan, & Harris, 1999; Hurley, MacKay, Scott, & James, 2003, Sawyer, Sylvestre, Girard, & Snow, 1996, Wadoodi & Crosby, 2002). 이 프로그램은 대부분 고위험 students 대신 고위험 classes를 대상으로, 탈락률을 줄이고, 학업 성적을 향상시키기 위해, '보완 교육'모델을 기반으로합니다 (Blanc & Martin, 1994). Ashwin (2003)은 이전 수행능력을 통제할 때조차, PAL세션에 참가하면 수행능력 향상이 있음을 발견했습니다. 그러나 동시에 동료 집단에 참여하는 학생들은 종종 평가에서 성공하기위한 접근법은 배웠지만, 더 깊은 학습은 아닐 수도 있다고 지적했습니다. 최근의 문헌 검토에서 Santee와 Garavalia (2006)는 피어튜터링을 받은 것과 받지 않은 것을 비교한 경우 거의 모두가 피어 접근법을 선호한다고 지적했다.

Although the majority of medical school supplemental peer-assisted learning programs use one-on-one peer tutoring, some schools employ supplemental peer instruction in a large group setting (Ebbert, Morgan, & Harris, 1999; Hurley, MacKay, Scott, &James, 2003; Sawyer, Sylvestre, Girard, &Snow, 1996; Wadoodi & Crosby, 2002). Most of these programs are based on the ‘‘Supplemental Instruction’’ model that targets high-risk classes instead of high-risk students in an attempt to reduce drop out rates and improve academic performance (Blanc & Martin, 1994). Ashwin (2003) found that more attendance in peer-assisted learning sessions related to better performance even when controlling for previous performance. However, this researcher noted that students participating in peer groups often learned approaches to succeed on assessments, but perhaps not deeper learning. In a recent review of the literature, Santee and Garavalia (2006) noted that studies comparing receiving peer tutoring to no tutoring nearly uniformly favored the peer approach.

몇몇 연구는 동료 지원 학습의 효용성을보다 전통적인 교수 주도 접근 방식과 비교했다. Santee와 Garavalia (2006)는 10 개의 연구 중 절반에서 피어 보조 그룹의 학생들이 교수 주도로 배운 학생들과 성과에 차이가 없었다고 밝혔다.

Several studies have compared the efficacy of peer-assisted learning to a more traditional faculty led approach. Santee and Garavalia (2006) found that in half of the 10 studies reviewed, students in peer-assisted groups performed no differently than students in faculty led groups.

연구에 따르면 학생들은 PAL을 중요하게 생각합니다. 학생들은 동료 교사가 유용한 피드백과 명확한 설명을 주 었음을 알았고 친구들에게 이런 종류의 학습을 권유합니다.

Research also indicates that students value peer-assisted learning. The students found the peer tutors gave useful feedback and clear explanations and they would recommend this kind of learning to friends.

Methods

두단계

This study employed a two-phase research design. 

• First, focus groups were conducted with first- and second-year students participating in the Medical Scholars Program (MSP), described below, as learners and teachers. As a tool for qualitative research, the focus group method uses group discussion to explore the perceptions and perspectives of its participants (Morgan, 1988). 

• Based on the results of the focus groups, a questionnaire was developed and administered to all first-year medical students.

프로그램 설명

Program description

MSP is a supplemental peer-teaching program at the University of California, San Francisco (UCSF) School of Medicine that has served as a model for at least two other supplemental medical school peer-teaching programs (Hurley et al., 2003; Sawyer et al., 1996).

포커스그룹

Focus groups

In the spring of 2005, students were recruited to participate in one of four focus groups, three for MSP learners and one for MSP teachers. We randomly selected students using a table of random numbers from the first-year class and contacted them by email to request their participation for the first two learner focus groups.

All focus groups were facilitated by one of the authors (TML). 

Lunch was served to all focus group participants. 

• Immediately prior to all focus groups, students filled out a brief questionnaire about their participation in MSP. 

• Then, the facilitator asked semi-structured questions about participants’ perceptions of the overall efficacy of MSP, differences in student experiences over the 6-month course of MSP, and the experience of being taught by second-year students as compared to faculty members (for the learners) or the experience of teaching first-year students (for the teachers). 

Each focus group lasted approximately 60 min and was audio-recorded.

설문

Survey

We used the results from the learner focus groups, including statements and codes, to design a questionnaire that was administered to all first-year medical students during a required session at the end of the year. Completion was both voluntary and anonymous.

분석

Analyses

Descriptive statistics were calculated for the 14 survey items. We conducted a principal components factor analysis of these items followed by a varimax rotation. Factors with eigen values greater than 1 were retained. Items with factor loadings of 0.4 were considered significant for this sample size (Stevens, 1996).

결과

Results

포커스그룹 결과

Focus group results

높은 응답률에 초점을 맞추기보다는 충분한 수의 참가자를 확보하기 위해 과다 샘플링했습니다. 인구 통계 조사에서보고 된 데이터에서 포커스 그룹의 참가자는 MSP 등록 (데이터 표시 안 됨)에 따라 전체 1 학년 클래스를 대표했습니다.

We over-sampled to ensure sufficient number of participants rather than focusing on a high response rate. From the data reported in the demographics survey, the participants in the focus groups were representative of the entire first-year class based on their enrollment in MSP (data not shown).

학습자 포커스 그룹 

Learner focus groups

near peer로부터 배우기

Learning from near-peers

1 학년 학생들은 near-peer가 인지적으로 잘 매칭되는 것이 중요함을 언급했습니다. 2 학년 MSP 동료 교사는 최근에 자료를 스스로 공부했기에, 개념에 대한 기본적인 이해에 초점을 맞추어 적절한 수준에서 가르 칠 수있었습니다.

the first-year students mentioned the importance of near-peers being good cognitive matches. The second-year MSP peer-teachers had recently learned the material themselves and could teach at an appropriate level, focusing on a basic understanding of concepts.

2 학년 학생은 가르칠 자료를 공부하고자 고심했기 때문에 개념이 왜 어려웠는지, 어떻게 배웠는지 설명 할 수있었습니다.

Because the second-year teachers had recently struggled to learn the material they were teaching, they were able to explain why a concept had been difficult for them and how they had learned it.

2학년 학생과의 만남

Exposure to second-year students

학생들은 2 학년 학생들과의 상호 작용의 사회적 중요성에 대해 논평했습니다. 특히 학년 초에 MSP의 2 학년 교사들은 의대에 대한 두려움과 걱정을 덜어주었습니다.

Students commented on the social importance of interacting with students from the second-year class. Particularly at the beginning of the year, the second-year MSP teachers helped alleviate fears and anxiety about medical school.

2 학년 학생들과 상호 작용하면서, 그들이 1학년을 무사히 넘겼다는 것을 알게되고 나서는, 그 경험이 normalized 되었고, 2학년에 무엇을 해야하는지에 대한 그림을 보여줬다고 묘사했습니다.

Interacting with the second-year students and seeing that they had made it through the first year normalized the experience of being a first-year medical student and provided the first-years with a portrayal of what to expect in the upcoming year.

단순히 2 학년 학생들과의 상호 작용하고 알게 되는 것 만으로도 MSP의 중요한 구성 요소였습니다.

Simply interacting with and getting to know the second-year students were also valuable components of MSP.

학생들은 2 학년 학생들과의 상호 작용에서 얻은 지원에 관해 대부분 말했지만, 1 학년 학생들 내에서 협력 및 우정 증진도 장점으로 언급했다.

Although the students spoke mostly about the support they received from interacting with second-year students, they also discussed the benefits of MSP in promoting collaboration and camaraderie among the first-year class.

리뷰와 통합의 필요성

Need for review and synthesis

학생들이 해부학을 배우고있을 때, 그들은 엄청난 보완적 리뷰가 필요함을 느꼈습니다.

When the students were learning anatomy, they felt an immense need for supple- mental review.

1 년이 진행됨에 따라 MSP review는 덜 중요 해지고 학생들은 공부하는 방법을 더 잘 이해하게되었습니다.

As the year progressed, the MSP review became less essential, and students had a better understanding of how to study.

MSP 세션은 과목에 포함된 다양한 개념을 연결해주었고, 배우고있는 정보를 체계화하는 명확한 수단을 제공했습니다.

The MSP sessions connected the various concepts taught in a course together and provided an explicit means of organizing the information that the students were learning.

교육 방법

Teaching modalities

2 학년 MSP 동료 교사는 교수들과는 다른 교수 스타일을 사용했습니다. 1 학년 학생들은 암기법 사용이 유용함을 발견했습니다. "나는 MSP 동료 교사가 내용을 dumb down해서 더 간단한 방법으로 가르치고, 교수가 생각하지 않는 silly mnemonics를 쓰는 더 편하다고 생각한다"고 덧붙였다. 또한 MSP는 많은 강의보다 시각적이며 상호 작용 적이었습니다. "저는 쌍방향 학습자입니다. 사람들이 나에게 퀴즈를 낼때 더 잘 기억합니다 ... MSP는 그렇게 했지만, 교수님들의 강의는 그러하지 않습니다."

The second-year MSP peer-teachers used different teaching styles than the faculty. The first-year students found the use of mnemonics helpful. ‘‘I think [the MSP peer- teachers] were more comfortable with kind of dumbing things down and just teaching it in a simpler way, and making silly mnemonics and things that I don’t think the faculty would do.’’ In addition, MSP was more visual and interactive than many of the lectures. ‘‘I’m an interactive learner, I remember things when people quiz me on them... MSP does that, lectures don’t.’’

동료교수 포커스그룹 

Teacher focus group

MSP 동료교사의 포커스 그룹에는 "교사의 이익"이라는 고유 한 주제가있었습니다. 2 학년 동료 교사는 1 학년 학생들과의 관계 계발의 가치에 관해 말했으며, 그들의 commitment to service는 이 학생들을 가르치고자 하게 만든 동기 부여 요인이었습니다. 한 동료 선생은 "MSP를 가르침으로써 성취 감을 얻었습니다. 내가 1학년 때 쉽지 않았지만 지금은 완전히 이해한 것을 가지고 다른 사람을 도울 수 있다는 것이 좋았다 "

For the single focus group of MSP teachers there was one unique theme that emerged, ‘‘Benefits for the teachers.’’ The second-year peer-teachers spoke about the value of the relationships they developed with first-year students and stated that their commitment to service was a motivating factor in their decision to teach. One peer-teacher remarked, ‘‘I got a sense of fulfillment from teaching MSP. It was great to be able to help others with things that were not easy for me in first-year but that I finally understood.’’

설문 결과

Survey results

Of the 141 students in the first-year class 139 attended the required teaching session, and 111 completed the questionnaire (80%).

결론

Conclusions

교사 역할을 한 2 학년 학생들은 자신의 학습뿐만 아니라 다른 사람들을 돕는 데서 얻는 개인적 보상에 대한 장점을 발견했습니다. 이 발견은 선생과 학습자 간의 사회적 및 인지적 합치가 강력한 PAL경험을 가져올 수 있음을 시사하는 이전 연구를 확인한다 (Cornwall, 1980; Moust & Schmidt, 1995; Schmidt & Moust, 1995).

The second-year students who served as teachers also identified advantages for their own learning as well as the personal rewards that come from helping others. These findings confirm previous research that suggests that social and cognitive congruence between teacher and learner can result in a powerful peer-assisted learning experience (Cornwall, 1980; Moust & Schmidt, 1995; Schmidt & Moust, 1995).

전반적으로 우리의 요인 분석 결과는 PAL에 대한 사고 체계를 세 가지 요소로 제안합니다.

• 동료 교사의 장점,

• 피어 보조 프로그램 학습 과정

• 교원 / 교사 역할 인식

Overall, our factor analysis results suggest a framework for thinking about peer-assisted instruction which has three components—

• the benefits of the peer-teachers, 

• the learning process for peer-assisted programs, and 

• the peer-teacher/faculty role perceptions.

포커스 그룹이 MSP에 대한 긍정적 인 경험을 많이 보여 주었지만 설문 조사의 평점은 '중립적'에서 '동의 함'사이였습니다. MSP에 가장 많이 참여한 학생들은 프로그램을 가장 긍정적으로 평가했습니다.

Although the focus groups revealed largely positive experiences with MSP, the survey ratings averaged between ‘‘neutral’’ to ‘‘agree.’’ We note that students with the highest participation in MSP rated the program most positively.

교수 능력을 선택 했음에도 불구하고, 2학년 MSP 동료 교사는 교수 역할을 수행하기 전에 가르치는 방법에 대해 더 가르쳐 줄 것을 요청했습니다. 우리는 "Teaching to Teach" 워크샵을 학생에게 제공함으로써이 문제를 해결하기 시작했습니다.

Despite selecting for teaching ability, the second-year MSP peer-teachers in their focus group requested more instruction about how to teach before assuming their teaching roles. We have begun to address this issue by offering a student derived and delivered ‘‘Teaching to Teach’’ workshop.

우리의 연구에 따르면, 우리는 다른 학교에 여러 가지 추천을 할 수 있다고 생각합니다. 

첫째, 학교가 제공하는 커리큘럼을 중심에 두고 보완적인 동료 교육 프로그램의 역할을 고려해야합니다.

Based on our research, we believe we can make several recommendations to other schools. 

First, the role of a supplemental peer-teaching program must be considered in light of the curriculum that the school offers.

둘째, 또래 교육은 의대 초반에 가장 효과적이며, 학생들이 겪는 과도기적 어려움의 일부를 크게 완화시킬 수 있습니다. 처음에는 학습 자료가 압도적으로 많아 학생들이 자신의 학습을 이끌어 나가는 것이 편안해질 때까지 추가 guidance와 안도감을 찾도록 유도합니다. PAL은 학생들이 특히 압도되거나 신경이 쓰이는 중요한 몇 개월 동안의 지원을 제공합니다.

Second, peer-teaching is likely to be most effective in the beginning of medical school and may greatly alleviate some of the transitional difficulties students encounter. Initially, the large volume of material to learn may be overwhelming, leading students to seek additional guidance and reassurance until they become comfortable guiding their own study. Peer-assisted learning provides support in the crucial first fewmonths when students are particularly overwhelmed or nervous.

셋째, 학교는 near peer가 동료 학생들에게 공감하고, 적절한 수준에서 가르치며, 학습을 anticipate and reframe함으로써 공헌할 수 있음을 인식해야합니다. 2 학년 MSP 교사는 교수진과 동일한 전문 지식을 가지고 있지 않지만,인지 적 합치로 이를 보상했습니다. 인지적 합치 연구는 적절한 수준에서 가르치는 능력에 중점을 둔다 (Moust & Schmidt, 1995; Schmidt & Moust, 1995). 이 연구는 1 학년 학생들이 특정 개념을 이해하는 데 어떤 것을 어려워할지를 예상 할 수있는 2학년 MSP 교사의 능력이 인지적 합치를 창출하는 데 중요한 구성 요소임을 보여주었습니다.

Third, schools should recognize the unique contribution of near-peers who can empathize with their students, teach at the appropriate level, and anticipate and reframe learning. Even though the second-year MSP teachers do not have the same content expertise as the faculty, they compensated for this with their cognitive congruence. The cognitive congruence literature focuses on the ability to teach at the right level (Moust & Schmidt, 1995; Schmidt & Moust, 1995). This study revealed that the ability of the second-year MSP teachers to anticipate problems that the first-year students might have in understanding particular concepts was a key component in creating cognitive congruence.

넷째, 학교는 팀 오리엔테이션을 향상시키는 방법으로 near peer teaching을 고려해야합니다. MSP는 2학년 학생들이 1학년 학생들에게 비공식적 지원 및 조언을 줄 수 있게 하였으며, 1학년 학생들 사이의 협력 및 우정에 대한 조언을 제공했습니다.

Fourth, because of the collaboration it promotes both between and within medical school classes, schools should consider near-peer-teaching as a way of enhancing team orientation. MSP helped foster informal support and advising of the first-year class by the second-year class as well as collaboration and camaraderie among the first-year students.

다섯째, 동료 교사는 교사 역할을 위한 준비를 해야합니다. 교육자로서의 기술을 향상시키는 데 시간을 사용하지 않는 것은 문제이다. 독특한 발견은 아니지만, 이 연구는 PAL이 동료 교사뿐만 아니라 학생들에게도 도움이된다는 증거를 제공했습니다. 2학년 MSP 교사는 1학년 자료를 검토하고 다시 배울 기회를 소중히 여겼으며, 이것을 의과대학 커뮤니티 다시 돌려 줄 수있는 기회를 얻었습니다. 그러나 그들은 교사로서 역할이 준비가 필요함을 인정했다.

Fifth, peer-teachers must be prepared as teachers. It is a disservice not to spend the time enhancing their skills as educators. Although not a unique finding, this study provided further evidence that peer-assisted learning benefits the peer- teachers as well as the students . While thesecond-year MSP teachers valued the opportunity to review and relearn materialfrom first year, they also appreciated the opportunity to give back to the medicalschool community. However, they recognized that the role of teacher was one forwhich they needed further preparation.

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Adv Health Sci Educ Theory Pract. 2008 Aug;13(3):361-72. Epub 2006 Nov 24.

Understanding the experience of being taught by peers: the value of social and cognitivecongruence.

Lockspeiser TM1, O'Sullivan P, Teherani A, Muller J.

Author information

1

School of Medicine, Office of Medical Education, University of California, 521 Parnassus Ave, Box 0410, San Francisco, CA 94143-0410, USA. tai.lockspeiser@ucsf.edu

Abstract

BACKGROUND:

Medical schools use supplemental peer-teaching programs even though there is little research on students' actual experiences with this form of instruction.

PURPOSE:

To understand the student experience of being taught by peers instead of by faculty.

METHODS:

We conducted focus groups with first- and second-year medical students participating in a supplemental peer-teaching program at one institution. From the learner focus group themes, we developed a questionnaire and surveyed all first-year students.

RESULTS:

Focus groups revealed four learner themes: learning from near-peers, exposure to second-year students, need for review and synthesis, teaching modalities and for the peer-teachers, the theme of benefits for the teacher. Factor analysis of the survey responses resulted in three factors: second-year students as teachers, the benefit of peer-teachers instead of faculty, and the peer-teaching process. Scores on these factors correlated with attendance in the peer-teaching program (P < .05).

CONCLUSIONS:

Students valued learning from near-peers because of their recent experience with the materials and their ability to understand the students' struggles in medical school. Students with the highest participation in the program valued the unique aspects of this kind of teaching most. Areas for improvement for this program were identified.

PMID:

 

17124627

 

DOI:

 

10.1007/s10459-006-9049-8