누구를 아는가? 교수의 네트워크를 교육적발달의 단계와 연결짓기 (High Educ, 2015)

Know-who? Linking faculty’s networks to stages of instructional development

Sara Van Waes • Piet Van den Bossche • Nienke M. Moolenaar • Sven De Maeyer • Peter Van Petegem




Introduction


(교육의) 책무성accountability이 커지면서 고등 교육에서의 교육의 질 향상이 점점 더 주목 받고있다 (Biggs 2003; Devlin and Samarawickrema 2010). 그러므로 초보자부터 경험 많은 교사까지의 FD가 이뤄졌다 (Baume 2006). 이러한 유형의 교수 개발은 Instructional development라고 불린다 (Centra 1989). Instructional development은 교사로서 교수의 역할을 개발하는 것을 명시적으로 목표로 삼습니다 (Taylor and Rege Colet 2010). 교수진의 학습 개발에 대한 연구는 주로 개인 능력과 처분에 기반한 개별 교수진의 기술과 지식에 중점을두고 있지만 (Cox 2004), 최근의 교육 연구는 이 개인별individual 접근법을 교육자의 전문직 상호 작용과 교류에 관한 사회적 초점social focus으로 보완했습니다 Lieberman and Pointer Mace 2008). 이 연구는 학생들의 학습과 성취에 궁극적으로 영향을주는 교수법에 대한 전문직 상호 작용professional interactions의 중요성을 인정한다 (Goddard et al., Moolenaar et al., Yasumoto et al., 2001). 이 연구는 전문 학습 공동체professional learning communities (Stoll 등, 2006)와 실천 공동체communities of practice (Little 2002)와 같은 다양한 협력 적 시도를 통해 교육자의 교수 및 학습을 향상 시키라는 요구에 부응하고있다. 교육 발전에서 사회적 측면으로의 초점의 전환은 고등 교육의 맥락에서도 일어났습니다 (Kezar 2005). 이 사회적 측면에 대한 경험적 연구가 부족하기 때문에 이 연구에서는 소셜 네트워크 관점을 사용하여 교직원의 교수 개발을 탐구합니다.


In times of growing accountability, improving teaching quality in higher education is receiving increasing attention (Biggs 2003; Devlin and Samarawickrema 2010). Therefore, the development of faculty members from novice to experienced or expert teacher has come to the fore (Baume 2006). This type of faculty development has been called in- structional development (Centra 1989). Instructional development explicitly aims to de- velop faculty in their role as a teacher (Taylor and Rege Colet 2010). While studies on faculty’s instructional development have primarily focused on the skills and knowledge of individual faculty members, based on individual abilities and dispositions (Cox 2004), recent educational studies have supplemented this individual approach with a social focus on educators’ professional interactions and exchanges (Lieberman and Pointer Mace 2008). This line of research acknowledges the importance of professional interactions for the teaching practice, which ultimately affect student learning and achievement (Goddard et al. 2007; Moolenaar et al. 2012; Yasumoto et al. 2001). This research answers a growing call to enhance educators’ teaching and learning through a variety of collaborative ini- tiatives, such as professional learning communities (Stoll et al. 2006) and communities of practice (Little 2002). This shift to a supplementary focus on the social aspect of in- structional development has also taken place within the context of higher education (Kezar 2005). As empirical studies on this social aspect are scarce, this study explores faculty members’ instructional development using a social network perspective.


소셜 네트워크 이론은 전문직 상호 작용professional interactions의 역할과 성격을 설명하는 중요한 렌즈와 도구를 제공합니다 (Scott 2000). 네트워크 연구의 증가는 개인주의적individualist 설명으로부터 관계적, 문맥적, 체계적 이해로의 전환을 이루었다 (Borgatti and Foster 2003). 네트워크 이론은 교수진의 전문직 상호 작용을 포착 할 수있는 강력한 프레임 워크를 제공합니다. 학자들은 직장workplace에서 전문가를 양성하는 데있어 소셜 네트워크의 중요성과 힘을 보여주었습니다 (Carpenter et al. 2012, Cross and Parker 2004). 특히 K-12 학교와 학구의 교육자 (Carolan 2013). 그러나 소셜 네트워크 관점 (Kezar 2014)을 채택한 고등 교육에 대한 연구는 거의 없으며 소수의 학자 만이 교수법teaching practice와 관련된 교수의 전문직 상호 작용을 조사했습니다 (Brower and Brower, 2013). 더욱이 학자들은 교육자들의 전문 네트워크와 교육 발전 단계 사이의 관계에 거의 관심을 기울이지 않았다. 따라서 교수진의 전문적 상호 작용이 교수 개발을 어떻게 형성 하는지를 이해할 필요가 커지고 있습니다. 이 연구는 교육 및 직장 학습 연구에서 기존 연구를 바탕으로 초심자, 경험이없는 비 숙련자 및 경험 많은 전문 교수진의 교수 학습 네트워크를 비교하는 최초의 사례입니다. 우리는 교수 네트워크의 구조와 다단계 특성을 파악하기 위해 소셜 네트워크 접근법을 사용했습니다. 이를 위해 벨기에 중견 대학교의 30 명의 교수진과 반 구조화 된 인터뷰가 진행되었습니다.



Social network theory provides a valuable lens and the tools to explain the role and nature of professional interactions (Scott 2000). An increase in network research has been described as part of a general shift away from individualist explanations toward more relational, contextual, and systemic understandings (Borgatti and Foster 2003). Network theory offers a powerful framework to capture faculty’s professional interactions. Scholars have demonstrated the importance and power of social networks in the development of professionals at the workplace (Carpenter et al. 2012; Cross and Parker 2004) and, in particular, of educators in K-12 schools and school districts (Carolan 2013). However, there are few studies in higher education that adopt a social network perspective (Kezar 2014), and only a handful of scholars have examined faculty’s professional interactions related to their teaching practice (Brower and Brower 2013). Moreover, scholars have paid little attention to the relationship between educators’ professional networks and stages of instructional development. As such, there is a growing need to understand how faculty’s professional interactions shape their instructional development. Building on existing re- search in educational and workplace learning studies, this study is, to our knowledge, the first to compare the instructional networks of novice, experienced non-expert, and expe- rienced expert faculty. We used a social network approach to grasp the structure and multilevel nature of faculty’s networks. To this end, semi-structured interviews were conducted with 30 teaching faculty members in a mid-sized university in Belgium.



전문가 양성을위한 사회적 조치

A social take on the development of professionals



교원의 교육 수준 향상instructional quality에 대한 조사는 오랫동안 개인 교수진의 개념과 접근 시도에 초점을 맞추어 오랫동안 개인 교수들에게만 국한되어왔다 (Kember 1997, Stes et al 2010, Trigwell et al 1994). 지난 10 년 동안 전문가의 직장 학습workplace learning에 대한 연구는 상호 작용 특성에 초점을 맞춤으로써 전문가 개발에 대한 사회적 관점social perspective을 점차 늘려 가고있다 (Boshuizen 외 2004, Hakkarainen 외 2004). 


Investigations into the development of faculty’s instructional quality in higher education have long been primarily confined to individual faculty members (e.g., by focusing on individual faculty members’ conceptions and approaches to teaching, see Kember 1997; Stes et al. 2010; Trigwell et al. 1994). In the last decade, studies on professionals’ workplace learning are increasingly taking a social perspective on professionals’ development (Tynja¨la¨ 2008)by focusing on its interactive nature (Boshuizen et al. 2004; Hakkarainen et al. 2004). 



이 학자들에 따르면, 능력과 전문 지식은 개인적 level에만 기인하는 것은 아닙니다. 그들은 (높은 성취가) 사회적으로 분산 된 성격을 갖는다는 것과 다른 사람들의 경험을 통한 학습의 중요성을 강조합니다. 높은 성과는 개인의 know-what(무엇을 아는가) (즉, 선언적 지식)와 know-how (절차를 아는가) (즉, 절차 적 지식)뿐만 아니라 know-who (누구를 아는가) (Borgatti and Cross 2003)에 의해 결정됩니다.

According to these scholars, competence and expertise cannot be attributed to the individual level alone. They emphasize the socially distributed nature of high performance and the importance of learning from others’ experiences. High performance is determined not only by an indi- vidual’s know-what (i.e., declarative knowledge) and know-how (i.e., procedural knowl- edge), but also by know-who (Borgatti and Cross 2003).



교육에서 professional development의 social take가 강조되면서, 교육에 대한 개인주의적 규범에 대한 근본적 변화가 필요해졌고, 교육자들의 instructional development에 관한 social perspective가 중요해졌다. (Clement and Vandenberghe 2000; Lieberman and Miller 1999). 고등 교육의 맥락에서 사생활 침해, 감정 교섭, 심지어 교원 고립 문제가 상당히 두드러졌다 (Cox 2004). 교수진은 종종 연구 프로젝트를 위해 협력하지만 대학 교육은 상대적으로 독립적인solitary 업무영역이다 (Gizir and Simsek 2005, Ramsden 1998). 최근에, 학자들은 대학 교육이 사회적으로 영향을 받으면서도 동시에 개별적으로 구성되었다는 것both individually constructed as well as socially influenced을 인정했습니다 (예 : Roxa˚ 및 Ma˚rtensson 2009). 교수진의 공동체 학습 및 학습 공동체에 관한 연구에서 교육 혁신을 위해 교수 간의 사회적 교류가 중요하다는 것을 보여주었습니다 (Anderson and McCune 2013; Furco and Moely 2012). 그러나 지금까지 고등 교육 기관에서 전문적 상호 작용이 어떻게 형성되는지에 대한 연구는 거의 없었다 (Kezar 2005). 그러므로 이제 우리는 고등 교육에서 교수진의 교수 개발을 지원하는 데있어 전문적 상호 작용의 본질과 역할을 탐구하기위한 소셜 네트워크 이론에 대해 자세히 설명 할 것이다.


In education, this social take on professional development resonated in a call for a fundamental change in the individualistic norm of teaching and advocated a social per- spective on educators’ instructional development (Clement and Vandenberghe 2000; Lieberman and Miller 1999). In the context of higher education, issues of privacy, au- tonomy, and even isolation of faculty have been quite prominent (Cox 2004). Faculty members often collaborate on research projects, but university teaching remains a relatively solitary business (Gizir and Simsek 2005; Ramsden 1998). Recently, scholars have acknowledged that university teaching is both individually constructed as well as socially influenced (e.g., Roxa˚ and Ma˚rtensson 2009). Studies on faculty’s communities of practice and learning communities have demonstrated the value of social exchanges be- tween faculty for pedagogical innovation and effective teaching (Anderson and McCune 2013; Furco and Moely 2012). However, to date, there has been little research on how professional interaction at higher education institutions takes shape (Kezar 2005). There- fore, we will now elaborate on social network theory to explore the nature and role of professional interactions in supporting faculty’s instructional development in higher education.



교육에서의 소셜네트워크 이론

Social network theory in education



소셜 네트워크 이론은 전문적인 상호 작용이나 교육자 네트워크를 확보하는 데 유용한 렌즈와 도구를 제공합니다 (Daly 2010, Moolenaar 2012). 네트워크 이론의 주요한 가정 중 하나는 개인의 행동과 수행 능력이 사회적 연결의 더 큰 그물망web of social connections에 묶이는tied 방식에 의해 크게 영향을 받는다는 것이다 (Carrington et al. 2005). 다른 말로하면, 사회적 네트워크 자체의 전반적인 구조와 네트워크 안에서 개인의 위치가 다양한 성과에 영향을 준다(Wasserman and Faust 1994).


Social network theory provides a valuable lens and the tools to capture the professional interactions or networks of educators (Daly 2010; Moolenaar 2012). One of the key as- sumptions of network theory is that individuals’ behavior and performance are significantly affected by the way that they are tied into a larger web of social connections (Carrington et al. 2005). In other words, the overall structure and individuals’ positions in their social networks matter for a range of outcomes (Wasserman and Faust 1994).



교수진의 고등 교육에 대한 사회 네트워크 이해에 대한 연구는 아직 초기 단계입니다. 이것은 K-12 학교 및 학군에 대한 연구 (Moolenaar 2012)와 같은 다른 교육 환경에서의 연구와는 대조적입니다. 최근 사회적 네트워크 이론은 학교 개혁과 개선 (Daly et al., 2010; Penuel et al. 2009), 정책 실행 (Coburn et al., 2004)에 대한 교육자들의 전문적 상호 작용의 중요성을 보여줌으로써 K-12 연구에서 유용성을 입증했다. 2012), 학교 리더십 (Daly and Finnigan 2011, Pitts and Spillane 2009), 전문 개발 프로그램 (Baker-Doyle and Yoon 2011, Hofman and Dijkstra 2010). 

Scholarship on understanding faculty members’ social networks in higher education is still in its infancy. This contrasts with research in other educational settings, such as studies on K-12 schools and school districts (Moolenaar 2012). In recent years, social network theory established its usefulness in K-12 research by demonstrating the importance of educators’ professional interactions for school reform and improvement (Daly et al. 2010; Penuel et al. 2009), policy implementation (Coburn et al. 2012), school leadership (Daly and Finnigan 2011; Pitts and Spillane 2009), and professional development programs (Baker-Doyle and Yoon 2011; Hofman and Dijkstra 2010). 


마찬가지로, 고등 교육 분야의 소셜 네트워크 연구가 견인을 받기 시작했습니다 (Kezar 2014). 고등 교육의 대부분의 네트워크 연구는 학생 네트워크에 초점을 두고 있으며 (Eggens 외 2008, Rienties 외 2013), 교수 네트워크를 연구하는 연구는 주로 연구 네트워크 (Finkelstein 외 2013) 또는 부서departmental 네트워크 (Roebken 2007)에 중점을 둡니다. 그러나 교수의 교수 네트워크에 대한 경험적 연구는 부족하다 (Brower and Brower, 2013). Roxa˚와 Ma˚rtensson (2009)은 교수진에 관한 106 명의 교수진의 상호 작용을 탐구했습니다. 그들은 대부분의 교수진이 중요한 사람들로 구성된 상대적으로 소규모의 네트워크에 의존하여 교수법을 토의하고 있음을 보여주었습니다. Pataraia et al. (2013)은 교수진의 네트워크가 전문적이고 감정적인emotional 지원support을 제공하면서 교수법에 관한 다양한 지식과 기술을 갖추고 있음을 발견했습니다. 또한 교수진의 네트워크 참여 후 교수 및 학습 실습 방식이 변화하였습니다. 다른 연구들은 professional development 활동에서 교수진의 상호 작용을 조사했습니다 (Jippes 외. 2013; Rienties and Kinchin 2014).


Similarly, social network research in the field of higher education scholarship has started to gain traction (Kezar 2014). Most network studies in higher education focus on student networks (Eggens et al. 2008; Rienties et al. 2013), and studies that investigated faculty networks mostly focused on research networks (Finkelstein et al. 2013) or departmental networks (Roebken 2007). There is, however, a scarcity of empirical studies on faculty’s teaching networks (Brower and Brower 2013). Roxa˚ and Ma˚rtensson (2009) explored the interactions of 106 faculty members about teaching. They showed that most faculty members relied on a relatively small network of significant people to discuss their teaching practice. Pataraia et al. (2013) found that faculty’s networks equipped them with a diverse pool of knowledge and skills about teaching, offering both professional and emotional support. Furthermore, faculty’s network participation resulted in changes in their teaching and learning practice. Other studies have examined faculty’s interactions in professional development activities (Jippes et al. 2013; Rienties and Kinchin 2014).



교수의 사회적 네트워크의 성격

Characteristics of faculty’s social networks



교수 네트워크의 특성이 자원에 액세스 할 수 있는지 여부나 자원resource 흐름에서 분리되었는지 여부를 결정합니다. 이 연구에서는 교수 네트워크의 규모, 교수 관계의 강도, 개별 교수 간의 유사성 등 교수 교습의 전문적 상호 작용에 대한 통찰력을 얻기 위해 세 가지 주요 네트워크 특성을 구체적으로 조사했습니다. 

The characteristics of faculty’s networks determine whether they can access valuable resources or whether they are disconnected from the flow of resources. In this study, we specifically explored three key network characteristics to gain insight into faculty’s pro- fessional interactions around teaching: 

    • (a) the size of faculty’s networks, 

    • (b) the strength of faculty’s relationships, and 

    • (c) the similarity between individual faculty members and the people they interacted with.


네트워크 규모는 교직원이 상호 작용하는 사람들의 수로 정의 할 수 있습니다. 직장 학습에 관한 연구에 따르면, 전문가가 많은 수의 사람들로부터 정보 나 피드백을 받으면 더 많은 정보를 얻게됩니다 (Burt 1992; Smither et al. 2005).

Network size can be defined as the number of people with whom a faculty member interacts. Studies in workplace learning have demonstrated that when professionals re- ceived information or feedback froma larger number of people, the information received is richer and more informative (Burt 1992; Smither et al. 2005).


관계의 강도에서 tie는 관계를 의미하며, 네트워크 개념의 '연결의 강도'을 반영합니다 (Granovetter 1973). 타이 강도는 관계의 빈도, 길이 또는 접촉 시간과 같은 관계가 얼마나 가깝거나 강한지를 나타냅니다 (Marsden and Campbell 1984). 강한 관계는 가까운 사람들을 연결하는 반면 약한 관계는 느슨한 접촉 또는 지인을 나타냅니다. 연구에 따르면 암묵적, 비 일상적 또는 복잡한 문제를 해결하기 위해서는 강력한 유대 관계가 필요합니다 (Reagans and McEvily 2003; Uzzi 1996). 대조적으로, 약한 관계는 새로운 아이디어의 형성과 중복되지 않는 non-redundant 정보의 형성에 중요하다는 것이 증명되었다 (Hansen 1999; Levin and Cross 2004).

Strength of relationships reflects the network concept ‘strength of ties’ (Granovetter 1973), where ‘tie’ means relationship. Tie strength denotes how close or strong a rela- tionship is and can be measured by, for instance, the frequency, the length, or the duration of contact (Marsden and Campbell 1984). Strong relationships connect people that are close, whereas weak ties indicate looser contacts or acquaintances. Studies have shown that strong ties are necessary to tackle tacit, non-routine, or complex matters (Reagans and McEvily 2003; Uzzi 1996). In contrast, weak ties have proved to be important for the formation of novel ideas and non-redundant information (Hansen 1999; Levin and Cross 2004).


개개인 간의 유사성은 네트워크 개념 인 '동질성추구homophily'를 반영한다. 또한 '같은 깃털 무리의 새들끼리 모인다'(McPherson et al. 2001)이라는 속담에 의해 인용된다. 연구에 따르면 사람들은 자신과 비슷한 사람들과 관계를 형성하는 경향이 있음을 보여주었습니다 (Marsden 1988). 유사성은 사람들이받는 정보, 그들이 형성하는 태도 및 그들이 겪는 상호 작용에 영향을 미쳐 결국 네트워크 붕괴를 초래할 수 있으며 (Burt 2000),보다 다양한 네트워크를 가진 사람들이 혁신을 증대시키는 경향이 있습니다 (Kilduff and Krackhardt 1994; Mehra et al 2001). 

Similarity between individuals mirrors the network concept ‘homophily,’ also quoted by the proverbial expression ‘birds of a feather flock together’ (McPherson et al. 2001). Studies have demonstrated that people tend to develop relationships with people similar to them (e.g., Marsden 1988). Similarity can influence the information people receive, the attitudes they form, and the interactions they experience, which may eventually cause network decay (Burt 2000), while people with more diverse networks tend to demonstrate increased innovation (Kilduff and Krackhardt 1994; Mehra et al. 2001). 


결론적으로,이 세 가지 주요 소셜 네트워크 특성은 다양한 경력 단계에서 교수와의 전문적인 상호 작용을 탐구하는 데 사용될 수 있습니다.

In sum, these three key social network characteristics may be used to explore faculty’s professional interactions around teaching in various stages of their career.




소셜 네트워크 특성과 ​​개발 단계 사이의 연결

The link between social network characteristics and stages of development


다른 교육 환경에서의 소셜 네트워크 연구는 개인의 발달 단계에 따라 네트워크가 다른 것으로 나타났습니다 (예 : Moolenaar 외 2014). 교육 개발의 여러 단계에서 교수진의 교수 네트워크에 대한 통찰력을 얻으려면 이제 초보자, 경험이없는 비 전문가 및 전문가 네트워크 간의 차이점에 대한 연구를 검토 할 것입니다.

Social network research in other educational settings has indicated that networks differ depending on individuals’ stages of development (e.g., Moolenaar et al. 2014). To gain insight into faculty’s teaching networks in different stages of instructional development, we will now review research on differences between novice, experienced non-expert, and expert networks.


전문가는 종종 특정 분야에서 탁월한 경험이 풍부한 최고 실무자 또는 직업에서 최소한 적당한 정도의 성공을 거둔 전문인으로 정의됩니다 (Boshuizen 외 2004). 직장 내 문학은 초기 전문성 개발 (Hakkarainen et al. 2004)에서 개인적 및 사회적 측면의 결합이 중요하다는 주장이 많아지고 있으며, 따라서 전문가의 성과를 조사하기위한 네트워크 관점을 채택한 여러 연구가있다 (Gruber et al., 2008) . Cross and Thomas (2008)는 전문가expert performer 네트워크의 주요 특징을 확인했습니다. 

      • 전문가들은 전문성을 확장하고 편견과 경력 함정career traps을 배제하는 데 도움이되는 관계에 투자하는 경향이있었습니다. 
      • 그들의 네트워크는 유사성보다는 다양성으로 특징 지어졌습니다. 
      • 또한 전문가들은 대규모large 네트워크가 아닌 고품질 네트워크로 이어지는 행동에 참여했습니다. 
      • 그들은 네트워크의 주요 지점에 자신을 배치하고 계획을 구현할 때 네트워크를 활용했습니다. 

K-12 교육에서 연구는 네트워크 개발에서 핵심 요소 인 '전문 지식 접근성'을 확인하고 (Coburn et al. 2010; Spillane et al. 2003), 교사 네트워크의 전문성에 대한 투명성을 주장했다 (Baker-Doyle 및 Yoon 2010). 그러나 전문 교육자들의 상호 작용에 관한 연구는 거의 없다.

Experts are often defined as experienced top performers who excel in a particular field, or as professionals who achieve at least a moderate degree of success in their occupation (Boshuizen et al. 2004). Workplace literature has increasingly argued that a combination of individual and social aspects is crucial in early expertise development (Hakkarainen et al. 2004), and therefore, several studies have adopted a network perspective to examine expert performance (e.g., Gruber et al. 2008). Cross and Thomas (2008) identified key features of expert performers’ networks. Experts tended to invest in relationships that extended their expertise and helped them avoid learning biases and career traps. Their networks were characterized by diversity rather than similarity. Moreover, experts engaged in behaviors that lead to high-quality networks, not just large networks. They positioned themselves at key points in a network and leveraged the network around them when implementing plans. In K-12 education, studies identified ‘access to expertise’ as a key element in the devel- opment of networks (Coburn et al. 2010; Spillane et al. 2003) and advocated transparency in expertise in teacher networks (Baker-Doyle and Yoon 2010). However, research on expert educators’ interactions is scarce.



높은 수준의 성과를 달성하려면 도메인에서의 광범위한 활동 경험이 필요합니다. 그러나 다년간의 경험을 통해 전문가 수준의 성취를 이끌어 낼 수는 없습니다. 일부 숙련 된 근로자는 경험이 남아 있으며 전문가로 발전하지 못합니다. 그들은 종종 유경험 비-전문가라고 기술된다 (Bereiter and Scar-damalia 1993). 그들의 정체된 발달은 '지된 발달arrested development'이라고 불리우며 자동성automaticity과 관련이 있습니다. 즉, 이들의 행동은 일상화되면서 더 이상의 개선없이 안정된 상태plateau에 도달합니다 (Ericsson 2006). 경험있는 교사에 대한 K-12의 연구는 교수 및 학습에 대한 사회적 교류의 역할을 조사했다 (Bakkenes 외, 2010; Zwart 등, 2007). 그들은 경험을 교환하고 동료들로부터 아이디어를 얻는 것에 대한 가치에 관해 보고했으나 이러한 상호 작용이 어떻게 생겼는지에 대해 자세하게 설명하지 않았으며 교수법과의 관계에 대한 정보는 제한적이었습니다. 

Extensive experience of activities in a domain is necessary to reach high levels of performance. Yet, having many years of experience does not invariably lead to expert levels of achievement. Some experienced workers remain experienced and do not develop into experts. They are often described as experienced non-experts (Bereiter and Scar- damalia 1993). Their stagnated development is called ‘arrested development’ and is as- sociated with automaticity, i.e., their behavior becomes routine and reaches a stable plateau without further improvement (Ericsson 2006). Studies in K-12 on experienced teachers have examined the role of social exchanges on their teaching and learning (Bakkenes et al. 2010; Zwart et al. 2007). They reported on the value of exchanging experiences and getting ideas from colleagues, but did not go into detail on what these interactions look like and provided limited information on the relationship with teaching practices. The comparison of experienced non-expert and experienced expert educators’ professional interactions is an unexplored area, which will be addressed in this study.



초보 교수들은 방금 교육 경력을 시작했기 때문에 교육 경험이 거의 없습니다. K-12 연구에 따르면 선행 적 네트워킹은 초보 교사들에게 교육 경력의 시작 단계에서 더 높은 수준의 지원 (따라서 강한 관계)을 제공했습니다. 게다가, 초보 교사들은 네트워크의 개발과 사용을 통한 광범위하고 지지적인 학습 환경 조성에 능동적이었다 (Fox et al., 2011). 그러나 최신 초등부 교수진 네트워크에 대한 연구는 거의 이루어지지 않고 있습니다.

Novice faculty just started their teaching career and thus have little teaching experience. K-12 research has indicated that proactive networking provided novice teachers with higher levels of support (and thus stronger ties) in the beginning of their teaching career. Moreover, novice teachers were proactive in creating more expansive and supportive learning envi- ronments through the development and use of their networks (Fox et al. 2011). Up to date, however, studies on the networks of beginning faculty members are scarce.



방법

Method


표본

Sample


This study was conducted in a mid-sized, multidisciplinary public university in Belgium, serving 15,000 students and employing 2,855 faculty members, among whom 830 were teaching faculty members (most of them combining teaching and research). A total of 30 faculty members (31 % female, with a minimal teaching appointment of 50 %; one par- ticipant was Russian, and all others were Belgian) were selected (response rate 93,75 %), aiming for maximum variety across different university departments.


자료 수집

Data collection



교육 향상

Instructional development



초보자, 유경험 비 전문가 및 숙련 된 전문가 교사의 3 단계로 구성된 교수 개발 단계의 교수진이 의도적으로 샘플링되었습니다. 우리는 높은 수준과 낮은 수준의 교수 경험 및 전문 지식을 결합하여 이러한 단계를 정의했습니다 (Bereiter andScardamalia 1993, Ericsson2006). 숙련 된 전문가는 높은 교수 경험과 전문 지식을 모두 가지고 있었고 경험이없는 비 전문비가는 높은 교수 경험과 낮은 전문 지식을 가지고 있었고 초보자는 낮은 교수 경험과 낮은 교수 경험을 가지고있었습니다. 교수진의 나이와 교수 경험에 대한 개요가 표 1에 나와 있습니다.

Faculty members in different stages of instructional development were purposively sampled, representing three stages: novice, experienced non-expert, and experienced expert teachers. We defined these stages by combining high and low levels of teaching experience and expertise (Bereiter and Scardamalia 1993; Ericsson2006). 


    • Experienced experts had both high teaching experience and expertise, 

    • experienced non-experts had high teaching experience and low expertise, and 

    • novices had low teaching experience and low teaching expertise. 


An overview of the faculty members’ age and teaching experience is provided in Table 1.





경험 많은 전문가는 적어도 10 년간의 교육 경험이 있었습니다 (Ericsson 2006). 우리는 감독자 지명과 학생 평가를 결합한 교수 전문성을 정의하기위한 철저한 전략을 사용했습니다. 첫째, 교육 위원장과 교육 고문은 자신의 부서에서 4 명의 전문 교사를 지명하도록 요청 받았다. 이러한 명칭은 교육 내용 지식, 주제 지식, 혁신적인 교육 아이디어, 교육위원회 참여 및 학생들에 대한 헌신 (Berliner 2004, Shulman 1987, Tsui 2009)의 5 가지 기준을 기반으로합니다. 둘째, 학생 평가에 대한 교수의 점수가 고려되었습니다. 수업이 끝나면 학생들은 정기적으로 교사의 강의 수행에 관한 설문지를 작성합니다. 그것은 정당한 질문에 관한 것으로, 12 개의 리커트 척도 (Spooren et al. 2007에 근거 함)로 구성된 31 개 항목으로 구성되어 있습니다. '전문 교사Expert teacher'로 선발되기 위해서는 선생님이 학생 평가에 대해 자신의학과 상위 4 분위에 점수를 매기고 교육 위원장이나 고문에 의해 지명되어야했습니다 .1

Experienced experts had at least 10 years of teaching experience (Ericsson 2006). We used a thorough strategy to define teaching expertise that combined both supervisor nominations and student evaluations. 

    • Firstly, the chair of education and the educational advisor were asked to nominate four expert teachers in their department. These nomina- tions were based on five criteria: 

      • pedagogical content knowledge, 

      • subject knowledge, 

      • innovative educational ideas, 

      • involvement in educational boards, and 

      • commitment toward students (Berliner 2004; Shulman 1987; Tsui 2009). 

    • Secondly, faculty’s scores on student evaluations were taken into account. At the end of courses, students regularly fill out questionnaires on their teachers’ teaching performance. It concerns a validated question- naire consisting of 31 items, comprising 12 Likert scales (based on Spooren et al. 2007). To be selected as ‘expert teachers’, teachers both had to score in the upper quartile of their department on the student evaluations and had to be nominated by the educational chair or advisor.1


숙련 된 비 전문가 (Bereiter and Scardamalia 1993)도 최소한 10 년간의 교육 경험을 가졌습니다. 그러나 다년간의 경험만으로는 전문가 수준의 성취를 이끌어 낼 수는 없습니다. 따라서 이 교사들은 더 아래 단계로 선택되었습니다. 그들은 학생 평가에 대한 점수는 학과의 하위 4 분의 1수준이었으며, '전문 교사'로 지명되지 않았습니다. 경험이없는 비전문가 (M = 57.24; SD = 1.02)와 숙련 된 전문가 (M = 62.72; SD = 0.92)는 학생 평가 점수에서 유의미한 차이를 보였다 (p <0.01;

Experienced non-experts (Bereiter and Scardamalia 1993) also had at least 10 years of teaching experience. However, having many years of experience does not invariably lead to expert levels of achievement. Therefore, these teachers were selected on low teaching expertise. They scored in the lower quartile of their department on the student evaluations and were not nominated as ‘expert teacher’. Experienced non-experts (M = 57.24; SD = 1.02) and experienced experts (M = 62.72; SD = 0.92) differed significantly in their scores on student evaluations (p\0.01; see Fig. 1).


초심자는 3 ~ 5 년의 교사 경험을 가진 교사를 시작하고 있습니다. 대부분의 학생들은 (충분한) 학생 평가를받지 못했기 때문에, 부서별로 초심 교사를 무작위로 선발했으며 그 중 어느 것도 전문 교사로 지명되지 않았습니다.

Novices are beginning teachers with three to five years of teaching experience. As most of them had not received (sufficient) student evaluations, we randomly selected beginning teachers across departments, none of which were nominated as expert teacher.



소셜네트워크 자료

Social network data



우리는 소셜 네트워크 분석에 대한 자기 중심적 접근 방식을 취했습니다. 이것은 우리가 개인 (자아)에 중심을 둔 네트워크를 매핑했다는 것을 의미합니다 (Wellman 1993). 개인이 개인 네트워크에서 상호 작용하는 사람들을 변경자 (alters)라고합니다. 자아 중심 분석의 초점은 자아와 일련의 변경자 사이의 관계의 구조와 내용입니다. 이 연구에서는 대학 내 교수 네트워크에 대한 전반적인 설명을 얻는 대신 고유한unique 교수 구성원의 접촉이 개별 분석 수준에서 변수와 어떤 관련이 있는지 이해하는 것이 목표이기 때문에 명시적으로 자기 중심 네트워크 접근 방식을 선택했습니다 (Morrison 2002). . 게다가 자기 중심적 접근 방식은 응답자가 자신의 경계를 정할 수있게 해 주며 (Cross and Cummings 2004), 대학 외부의 전문적인 접촉에 대해 질문 할 수 있게 되었습니다. 자아 - 네트워크는 전형적으로 비공식적이고 구조화되지 않았기 때문에 데이터 수집을 정식 또는 필수 관계로 제한하고 싶지 않았다는 점에서 연구 설계와 일치했습니다 (Palonen 2005).

We took an egocentric approach to social network analysis. This means that we mapped networks that were centered on an individual (ego) (Wellman 1993). The people that an individual interacts with in his/her personal network are called alters. The focus of ego- centric analysis is the structure and content of the relationships between ego and a set of alters. In this study, we explicitly opted for an egocentric network approach as our goal was to understand how a unique faculty member’s contacts relate to variables at the individual level of analysis (Morrison 2002), rather than obtaining an overall description of faculty networks within a university. Moreover, an egocentric approach allows respondents to set their own boundaries (Cross and Cummings 2004), which made it possible to ask about professional contacts outside the university. Ego-networks are typically informal and un- structured, which matched our research design as we did not want to limit our data collection to formal or required relationships (Palonen 2005).


응답자는 반 구조적 인터뷰 가이드 ( "부록, 표 6"참조)를 사용하여 인터뷰했습니다. 인터뷰는 응답자 네트워크의 규모에 따라 45 분에서 90 분까지 지속되었습니다. 사전에 여러 가지 파일럿 인터뷰가 진행되었습니다. 인터 뷰 가이드에는 교수진이 가르치는 방법에 관해 사람들이 알게 된 종류에 대해 통찰력을 얻도록 고안된 질문이 포함되어 있습니다. 인터뷰의 이름 생성 질문은 응답자에게 그들이 가르치는 실습과 관련하여 상호 작용 한 사람을 물었습니다. 그 후 응답자는이 사람들의 이름을 포스트잇 노트에 기록했습니다. 3 개의 동심원이있는 A3 크기의 종이 한 장을 응답자의 자아 - 네트워크를 시각화하기 위해 테이블 ​​위에 놓았다 (그림 2 참조, Hogan 외 2007). 응답자는 포스트잇 노트를 네트워크 맵에 붙여 넣으라는 요청을 받았는데, 각 서클은 연락처와의 친밀도를 결정했습니다. 네트워크 맵이 구축 된 후 네트워크의 크기, 관계의 강도 및 네트워크에있는 사람들의 유사성에 대한 통찰력을 얻기 위해 이름 해석 질문이 나왔습니다. 인터뷰는 그대로 녹음되어 기록되었습니다. 개인 네트워크 맵의 그림은 회원 확인 절차에 사용되었습니다.

The respondents were interviewed using a semi-structured interview guide (see ‘‘Ap- pendix, Table 6’’). Interviews lasted between 45 and 90 min, depending on the size of respondents’ networks. Beforehand, several pilot interviews were conducted. The inter- view guide contained questions designed to gain insight into the kind of people faculty members communicated with about their teaching practice. The name-generating question of the interview asked respondents with whom they interacted in regard to their teaching practice. Subsequently, the respondent noted the names of these people on post-it notes. A sheet of A3-sized paper with three concentric circles was placed on the table to visualize the respondent’s ego-network (see Fig. 2; adapted from Hogan et al. 2007). Respondents were asked to stick the post-it notes onto the network map, where each circle determined the degree of closeness with the contact. After the network map was constructed, name- interpreting questions were asked to gain insight into the size of the network, the strength of the relationships, and the similarity of the people in their network. The interviews were recorded and transcribed verbatim. Pictures of the personal network maps were then used for member checking procedures.


변수

Variables


We measured the size of faculty’s networks by counting the number of people in the networks. 

The strength of ties was measured by three variables: frequency, length, and duration of contact. 

    • Frequency indicates how often teachers communicated with the people in their network, both in general and regarding their teaching. Frequency was coded into a 12-point ordinal scale ranging from daily to yearly communication. 

    • Length of contact implies how many years ago the relationship with this person started. Again, we both asked about contact in general and regarding their teaching. Duration refers to the average amount of time that conversations about teaching lasted. 

    • Duration was coded into an 11-point ordinal scale ranging from short exchanges of 1 min to interactions that lasted an entire day. 

Finally, the similarity between the faculty and the people in their networks was measured by comparing their age, teaching experience, and gender. Age and teaching experience were coded in number of years, and gender was coded as a dummy variable.


분석

Data analysis


To compare the networks of novice, experienced non-expert, and experienced expert faculty, we performed an analysis of variance for the variable network size. Equal vari- ances between the three stages could not be assumed, so nonparametric Kruskal–Wallis and Dunnett C post hoc tests were performed. For the variables regarding strength and similarity, we drew on multilevel analyses (MLWIN 2.25) as these variables concern nested data (people within relationships). Multilevel modeling enabled us to explore both the characteristics of the respondent and of the relationships of the respondent in the same analysis. In network and educational research, there has been a growing awareness of the advantages of using multilevel analysis (Wellman and Frank 2008). ‘‘Multilevel or hierarchical linear models explicitly take into account the nested data and the related dependency structure by allowing unexplained variability between ties (i.e., at level one) and also between egos (at level two)’’ (van Duijn et al. 1999, p. 188). 


The data of this study have a two-level hierarchical structure. The first level reflects characteristics of relation- ships (e.g., strength), whereas the second level involves ego’s characteristics (e.g., teaching experience). Random residuals were estimated for both levels, yielding a variance pa- rameter between egos (i.e., describing differences between faculty members in different stages) and a variance parameter within egos (i.e., describing differences between rela- tionships within the networks of faculty members). In the analyses presented,2 data on a total data of 287 ties and 29 egos were used. We ran separate models for strength and similarity. The first step of the modeling was the estimation of a random intercept null model. This model only contained an estimation of the intercept for the dependent variable (faculty’s network strength, and similarity) and error terms for both levels. The null model acted as a benchmark of comparison for the following models. In the next step, model 1, the independent variable (faculty’s stages of development) was included in the model in order to test whether these three stages differed on average regarding strength and simi- larity. In model 2, a separate level 1 variance was estimated for each of the three stages to explore whether the variance of certain network characteristics within egos differed between stages (e.g., whether the networks of experienced non-expert faculty are characterized by more similarity than networks of novice or experienced expert teachers). In model 3,we examined whether faculty members were similar to the people they interacted with. We elaborated model 2 by adding the similarity characteristics of the ego (i.e., respondent’s age, teaching experience, and gender) as independent variables to the fixed part of the model. These ego characteristics are the counterpart of the dependent variable at alter level (i.e., age, teaching experience, and gender of the alters). For instance, if the independent variable is alters’ teaching experience, then the teaching experience of the ego is introduced as ex- planatory variable. Moreover, we estimated the effects of these characteristics for each group separately. As such, we could examine the extent to which ego’s characteristics differ from their alters’ characteristics (e.g., do faculty have the same teaching experience as the people in their network?), and whether this differed in the three stages. For all models, Chi-square tests were used to test differences within and between the stages.






결과

Results


Network size


Specifically, the experienced non-expert faculty stand out as they had the smallest networks.




Strength


Frequency of contact on teaching


Frequency of contact in general


Length of contact on teaching


Length of contact in general


Duration of contact on teaching


Similarity


Age


Teaching experience


Gender


결론 및 함의

Conclusions and implications



이 연구의 목적은 초보자에서 경험이없는 비 전문가 및 전문 교수진에 이르기까지 교수 개발의 여러 단계에서 교수 네트워크의 특성 (크기, 강도 및 유사성)을 탐색하고 비교하는 것이 었습니다. 본 연구에서 제안한 바와 같이 교수 네트워크 및 교육 개발과 관련된 몇 가지 주요 주제에 대해 논의 할 것입니다.

The aim of this study was to explore and compare characteristics of faculty’s teaching networks (size, strength, and similarity) in different stages of instructional development, from novice to experienced non-expert and expert faculty. We will discuss several major themes related to faculty’s networks and their instructional development, as suggested by our study.



우리의 발견은 네트워크의 발전이 단순한 time-age effect가 아니라는 것을 보여주었습니다. 숙련된 전문 교수진이 가장 큰 네트워크를 가졌고, 그 다음은 초보자와 유경험 비전문가가 교수진이있었습니다. 이는 교육전문성과 네트워크 사이즈와의 연관성을 보여주는데, 네트워크 내에서보다 다양하고 다양한 리소스에 액세스 할 수 있음을 보여주는 교육 외부의outside education 네트워크 연구와도 부합한다. 이러한 네트워크 접근성으로 인하여 전문자가들은 계획을 구현할 때 네트워크를보다 효과적으로 활용할 수 있습니다 (Cross and Thomas 2008). 

Our findings showed that development of networks is not just a time–age effect. Ex- perienced expert faculty had the largest networks, followed by novice and experienced non-expert faculty. This relates teaching expertise to network size, which is in line with network research outside education showing that experts have access to more and diverse resources within their networks, enabling them to more optimally leverage their network when implementing plans (Cross and Thomas 2008). 



유경험 비전문가의 네트워크가 작은 것은 교육에 관해 다른 교수들과 상호작용할 시간이 적거나 혹은 현재 상태에 만족하고 있기 때문일 것이다. 유경험 비 전문가는 작고 균질 한 네트워크에서 얻는 제한된 input 때문에 arrested development로 빠져들 수 있다 (Ericsson 2006). 이것은 고립을 유발할 수 있으며 (Bakkenes 외. 1999), 교육을 향상시키는데 필요한 네트워크 기회와 새로운 impulse을 제한할 수 있습니다. 네트워크는 활발히 work되고 support되지 않으면 정체 상태에 빠질 수 있습니다. 따라서 고등 교육 기관은 잠재적인 arrested development를 극복하고 숙련 된 교수진이 전문 교사가 될 수 있도록 자극하기 위해 교수 네트워크의 개발, 유지 및 다각화를 지원할 것을 권고받을 수 있습니다.

This study nuances previous findings related to network size (Pataraia et al. 2013; Roxa˚ and Ma˚rtensson 2009) by contrasting experienced with non-experienced faculty, and expert with non-expert faculty. The smaller network size of experienced non-expert faculty could be due to less time for interactions on teaching in their career phase or to complacency. Possibly, experienced non-experts lapse into arrested development (Ericsson 2006) because of the limited input they get from their small and homogeneous networks. This in turn may cause isolation (Bakkenes et al. 1999), limiting network opportunities and new impulses to enhance teaching. Networks might settle after a while or become stagnant if they are not actively worked on and supported. As such, institutes of higher education may be advised to support faculty in the development, maintenance, and diversification of their teaching networks in order to overcome potential arrested development and stimulate experienced faculty to become expert teachers.


우리의 결과는 또한 초보자가 큰 네트워크를 가지고 있음을 보여주었습니다. 경험이 부족한 선생님은 자신이 경험이 부족하기 때문에 많은 사람들을 찾는다. 그들의 네트워크는 가르침에 대한 개념을 넓히고 네트워크에서 다른 사람들의 경험으로부터 교육 전략을 습득하는 데 도움이 될 수 있습니다 (Fox et al. 2011). 전문가는 경험과 전문 지식으로 인해 찾는 경향이 있습니다. 둘 다 커다란 네트워크를 낳지 만 다른 이유 때문입니다. 이것은 또한 초보자들은 전문가의 네트워크를 더 풍부하게 만들기 때문에 교육 개발의 여러 단계에서 사람들 사이의 발달적인 접촉이나 접촉에 영향향에 함의를 갖는다. (Fuller and Unwin 2004). 따라서 교수진의 교육 발전을 지원하는 것을 목표로하는 고등 교육 기관은 각기 다른 단계의 교수진들간의 inter-developmental contact을 구체적으로 목표로 할 수 있습니다.

Our results also demonstrated that novices have large networks. Inexperienced teachers have been shown to seek out many people because of their lack of experience. Their network may help them to broaden their conceptions on teaching and provide didactic strategies from experiences of others in their network (Fox et al. 2011). Experts tend to be sought out because of their experience and expertise. Both result in large networks but because of different reasons. This also has implications for inter-developmental contact or contact between people in different stages of instructional development, as novices have been shown to enrich experts’ networks (Fuller and Unwin 2004). As such, higher education institutions that aim to support faculty instructional development may specifically target inter-developmental contact between faculty members at different stages.



숙련 된 전문가는 또한 네트워크에서 다양성을 입증했습니다. 그들은 네트워크에있는 사람들과 그들의 가르침에 관해 이야기하는 데 훨씬 더 많은 시간을 들였고, 가르치는 경험이 많은 사람들뿐만 아니라 가르치는 데 많은 경험을 가진 사람들과 상호 작용했습니다. 이 발견은 높은 수행자가 자신의 능력을 목표로하고 확장하는 다양한 네트워크를 가지고 있다는 연구 결과와 일치합니다 (Cross and Thomas 2008). 보다 다양한 네트워크를 가진 사람들은 (진화 된 교수 개념과 접근법에 대한 전문가의 가르침을 번역 할 수 있는) 더 많은 혁신 (Mehra et al. 2001)을 보여 주었다. 대조적으로, 네트워크 다양성이 부족한 유경험 비전문가 교수는 전문성 개발이 정체될 수 있습니다. 유경험 비전문가 교수들의 네트워크는 복잡한 문제를 논의하는 데 중요한 homophily의 특성을 지녔지만 낮은 다양성으로 인해 네트워크의 쇠락decay이 발생하거나 혁신이 제한 될 수 있습니다 (Burt 2000). 


Experienced experts also demonstrated more diversity in their networks. They took significantly more time to talk to people in their network about their teaching, and they interacted with people that have little teaching experience as well as with people with a lot of experience in teaching. These findings are in line with studies indicating that high performers have diverse networks that target and extend their abilities (Cross and Thomas 2008). People with more diverse networks demonstrated more innovation (Mehra et al. 2001), which could translate to experts’ teaching in terms of evolved teaching conceptions and approaches. In contrast, a lack of network diversity might cause experienced non- expert faculty to stagnate in their development toward expertise. Experienced non-experts’ networks were characterized by homophily, which is important for discussing complex matters, but little diversity may also cause decay of networks or limit innovation (Burt 2000). 


숙련 된 교수진은 네트워크의 동질성으로 인해 소규모 네트워크와 중복 된 지식을 보유했기 때문에 가능한 '네트워크 인지network awareness'를 높이는 것이 정책적 함의 일 수 있습니다. 사람들이 네트워크와 혜택을 더 잘 알고있을 때 적극적으로 형성 할 수 있습니다 (Burt and Ronchi 2007, de Laat 및 Schreurs 2013). 예를 들어, professional development 활동은 교사의 네트워크 인식을 높이고 (Van Waes 외.) 자신의 능력 향상을 위한 충분히 크고 다양한 네트워크를 형성하도록 할 수 있습니다. 일부 학자들은 '네트워크 강화'가 교육 프로그램의 중요한 결과로 간주되어야한다고 제안했다 (Hatala and Fleming 2007, Van den Bossche and Segers 2013).


As experienced faculty had smaller networks and redundant knowledge in their networks due to homophily, a possible policy implication might be to raise their ‘network awareness.’ When people are more aware of their networks and their benefits, they can actively shape them (Burt and Ronchi 2007; de Laat and Schreurs 2013). For example, professional development activities can raise teachers’ network awareness (Van Waes et al. in press) toward shaping sufficiently large and diverse networks that target and extend their abilities. Some scholars suggested that enhanced networks should be regarded as an im- portant outcome of training programs (Hatala and Fleming 2007; Van den Bossche and Segers 2013).





Delimiters and areas for further research


미래 연구는 또한 우리 연구 결과에 대한 인과 적 설명에 의문을 제기해야한다. 전문가는 전문성을 위해 더 많은 것을 찾았 기 때문에 더 큰 네트워크를 가지고 있는가? 아니면이 더 큰 네트워크가 전문가 교사가되기 위해 그들을 더 잘 지원 하는가? 여기에서 연구 된 네트워크의 구조적 특성 외에도, 초심자의 네트워크, 경험이없는 비영리 단체의 네트워크의 질적 차이 (예 : 내용 및 성격)에 대한 이해를 높이기 위해 교수 네트워크의 품질 또한 추가 조사 대상이되어야합니다 

Future studies should also question causal explanations for our findings: Do experts have larger networks because they are sought more for their expertise, or do these larger networks better support them in becoming expert teachers? Besides structural network characteristics as studied here, the quality of faculty networks should also be subject of further examination (Coburn et al. 2012) to increase our understanding of qualitative differences (e.g., the content and nature) in the networks of novice, experienced non- expert, and expert faculty members. Combining structural and qualitative networks methods is recommended to capture networks in their totality (Fuhse and Mu¨tzel 2011). 


Furthermore, it would be interesting to supplement our findings from a social perspective on faculty members’ networks with insights from studies using an individual focus on faculty’s knowledge and skills, to examine the interplay between the knowledge and skills of an individual faculty member and his/her network. 


Finally, we gathered cross-sectional data to examine different developmental stages. This approach is in line with research on expertise development in workplace learning. However, networks are dynamic (Snijders 2005), so longitudinal data may allow us to further grasp the networks in different de- velopmental stages over time and yield additional insight into the social side of faculty’s instructional development.




Table 6 Interview guide 








Higher Education

Volume 70, Issue 5pp 807–826

Know-who? Linking faculty’s networks to stages of instructional development

  • Sara Van Waes
  • Piet Van den Bossche
  • Nienke M. Moolenaar
  • Sven De Maeyer
  • Peter Van Petegem
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Article

DOI: 10.1007/s10734-015-9868-8

Cite this article as:
Van Waes, S., Van den Bossche, P., Moolenaar, N.M. et al. High Educ (2015) 70: 807. doi:10.1007/s10734-015-9868-8

Abstract

Research into faculty members’ instructional development has primarily focused on individual skills and knowledge. As collegial interactions may support or constrain faculty’s professional development in higher education, this study compared and contrasted the networks of faculty members in different stages of instructional development (novice, experienced non-expert, and experienced expert teachers). Faculty networks comprised the relations that teaching faculty members used to communicate about their teaching practice. To capture these networks, a total of 30 faculty members were interviewed. We used an egocentric network approach to examine the differences between the networks in network size, tie strength, and network diversity. Results based on analyses of variance and multilevel analyses suggested three key findings: (a) Faculty members in different stages of instructional development varied in the size of their network; (b) faculty members in different stages of development had access to different types of networks in terms of tie strength; and (c) faculty members in different stages of development varied in the diversity of teaching experience in their networks. Experienced expert teachers had larger, stronger, and more diverse networks compared with experienced non-experts. Novices also had larger networks, but they were characterized by lower tie strength and less diversity. These findings demonstrate that network development is not just a time–age effect, but suggests arrested development for experienced non-experts linked to limited network input. This provides important evidence for the role of collegial interactions throughout faculty’s development as a teacher. We further discuss the implications of this study in light of faculty members’ instructional development.

Keywords

Higher educationFaculty developmentSocial networkExpertExperienced non-expertNovice


CME와 학습자로서의 의사: 근거에 따른 가이드(JAMA, 2002)

Continuing Medical Education and the Physician as a Learner: Guide to the Evidence

Paul E. Mazmanian, PhD; David A. Davis, MD





전문 학교의 한 교수진은 평생 교육을 "창문 밖으로 소리치는 것"이라고 말하면서 그의 기관에서 프로그램에 대한 분석을 통해 자신의 은유에 대한 적절 함을 보여줍니다. 그렇게하도록 설득 할 수있는 교수진은 자신의 과목에 대한 강의를합니다. 자신이 모르는 관객을 선택하고, relicensure 요구 사항을 충족 할 수 있도록 교실 출석에 충분한 시간을두고 싶어하기 때문에 assemble된 관중들. 결과적으로 모든 직업에는 평생교육의 과도한 진흥promotion으로 보이는 것들을 적극적으로 반대하는 회원들이 있습니다.-Cyril O. Houle, 19801

 

One faculty member in a professional school referred to continuing education as "shouting out of windows," and an analysis of the programs at his institution shows the aptness of his metaphor: Faculty members who can be persuaded to do so give lectures on subjects of their own choosing to audiences they do not know, who have assembled only because they want to put in enough hours of classroom attendance so that they can meet a relicensure requirement. As a result, every profession now has members who vigorously oppose what they regard as the excessive promotion of continuing education.—Cyril O. Houle, 19801


 


지난 10 년간의 연구자들은 CME (Continuing Medical Education)에 대한 체계적인 검토와 의사 행동을 바꾸고 환자 결과를 개선하기위한 다른 전략을 만들었습니다 .2-7 검토 주제에는 감사 및 피드백, 차트 기반 알리미, 임상 연습 지침 및 공식 강의. 의사의 행동을 바꾸기 위한 중재라고 정의된 이 전략의 효과는 의사, 설정 및 행동 전반에 걸쳐 일관되지 못했습니다. 결과적으로 품질 개선 및 지속적인 교육의 효과에 대한 현대 토론의 한가운데서 의사 성능 향상을위한 유일하고 효과적인 방법은 없다. 의사들은 자신의 지속적인 학습에 대한 책임을 받아 들여야한다 : 목표를 설정하고 목표를 달성하기위한 교육 활동을 선택해야한다.

Researchers of the past decade produced systematic reviews of continuing medical education (CME) and other strategies intended to change physician behavior and improve patient outcomes.2- 7 The subjects of the reviews included such concepts as audit and feedback, chart-based reminders, clinical practice guidelines, and formal lectures. Defined as interventions to change the behavior of physicians, the effects of those strategies were inconsistent across practitioners, settings, and behaviors.3- 8 As a result, in the midst of contemporary discussions about quality improvement and the effects of continuing education, there is no singularly effective method for improving physician performance.6,8 Physicians must accept responsibility for their own continuous learning: setting goals and selecting educational activities to achieve those goals.

 

 

We searched the Research and Development Resource Base in Continuing Medical Education and the Specialised Register of the Cochrane Effective Practice and Organization of Care group, supplemented by searches of MEDLINE from 1992 to February 2002 for systematic reviews and evidence of CME and its effect on both physicians and CME planners.

 

 



CME의 새로운 정의

A New Definition of CME

 

1992 년에 CME의 전통적인 정의는 50 개의 무작위 통제 시험 (BOX)을 체계적으로 검토 한 결과로 확대되었습니다 .7이 리뷰는 의사와 CME 제공 업체가 기존 강의실을 넘어선 학습 활동에 종사하고 있다고보고했습니다.

  • 의사의 수행 능력을 향상시키기 위해 훈련받은 의료 전문가의 환자 관련 문제, 독서 자료 및 연습장 방문에 대한 컴퓨터 보조 교육은 변화와 추가 학습을 위해 의사를 준비했기 때문에 긍정적 인 CME 개입이라고 설명했습니다.

  • 환자 교육 자료, 임상 진료 지침 및 flow charts는 변화를 만들었습니다.

  • 피드백을 통한 차트 감사, 원하는 임상 활동에 대한 알림, 영향을받는 지역 의사의 의견을 통해 원하는 방향으로 변화가 확인되거나 강화되었습니다.

 

In 1992, the traditional definition of CME broadened as a result of a systematic review of 50 randomized controlled trials (BOX).7 This review reported that physicians and CME providers were engaged in learning activities extending beyond the conventional lecture hall.

  • Computer-aided instruction on patient-related problems, reading materials, and visits to practice sites from health care professionals who were trained to improve physician performance were described as positive CME interventions because they prepared physicians for change and further learning.

  • Patient education materials, clinical practice guidelines, and flow charts enabled change to occur.

  • Chart audit with feedback, reminders about desired clinical actions, and the opinions of influential local physicians confirmed or reinforced change in the desired direction.

 

 

후속 연구 4,5,9는 이러한 활동을 세 가지 주요 일관된 발견과 함께보다 개별적인 개입 (표)으로 확인했습니다. 이 연구에서 가장 효과적인 요인으로는

  • 학습 필요성 평가, 효과적인 CME5- 7에 필요한 Precursor이다

  • 의사와 학습자 간의 상호 작용을 통해 학습 된 기술을 연습 할 수 있습니다 2,3,5;

  • Sequenced and multifaceted 교육활동

Subsequent studies4,5,9 identified these activities as more discrete interventions (Table), with 3 major consistent findings. The factors identified in these studies that are most effective include

  • assessment of learning needs, a necessary precursor to effective CME5- 7;

  • interaction among physician-learners with opportunities to practice the skills learned2,3,5; and

  • sequenced and multifaceted educational activities.3- 5

변화를 가능하게하고 강화시키는 계속되는 의학 교육 전략은 행동에 영향을 미치는 다른보다 전통적인 수동적 활동보다 더 쉽습니다 3-5 의사 - 학습자와 CME 제공자는 개선을 최적화하기위한 전략을 설계하고 선택해야합니다 의사의 성과와 건강 관리 결과 모두.

Continuing medical education strategies that enable and reinforce change are more likely than other more traditional, passive activities to influence behavior.3- 5 Physician-learners and CME providers should design and select strategies to optimize improvement of both physician performance and health care outcomes.


Box. Continuing Medical Education Interventions

  • Educational materials: distribution of published or printed recommendations for clinical care, including clinical practice guidelines, audiovisual materials, and electronic publications

  • Conferences: participation in conferences, lectures, workshops, or traineeships outside the practice setting

  • Outreach visits: use of a trained person who meets with providers in their practice settings to provide information for improving the providers' performance

  • Local opinion leaders: use of providers explicitly nominated by their colleagues as educationally influential

  • Patient-mediated interventions: interventions for which information was sought from or given directly to patients by others (eg, direct mailings to patients, patient counseling delivered by others, or clinical information collected directly from patients and given to the physician)

  • Audit and feedback: any summary of clinical performance of health care over a specified period, with or without recommendations for clinical action; the information may have been obtained from medical records, computerized databases, patients, or by observation

  • Reminders: any intervention (manual or computerized) that prompts the physician to perform a clinical action (eg, concurrent or intervisit reminders to professionals about desired actions such as screening or other preventive services, enhanced laboratory reports, or administrative support [eg, follow-up appointment systems or stickers on charts])

  • Multifaceted interventions: select combinations of the above 7 interventions (eg, outreach visits followed by clinical information collected directly from patients and a computer reminder to counsel certain patients regarding a specific disorder)


요구사정 : 변화의 전구체

Needs Assessment: Precursor to Change

 

효과적인 CME에 대해 학습 요구 평가가 중요합니다 .5-7 의사가 변화를위한 준비, 워크샵 또는 시연, 연습장에서의 변화를 준비하는 회의 또는 읽기에 관계없이 또는 환자의 진행 상황을 평가하기위한 피드백 및 알림을 통한 감사 의사가 자신의 행동, 지식 기반 또는 기술을 변경할 필요성을 인식하는 것이 중요합니다. 병원이나 사무실 기반의 진료, 1 차 진료 또는 전문 진료와 상관없이 의사의 지식 또는 기술 변화는 변화해야하는 이유와 관련되어야 한다.

Assessment of learning needs is crucial for effective CME.5- 7 Regardless of whether physicians are involved in conferences or reading that prepares them for change, workshops or demonstrations enabling change at the practice site, or audit with feedback and reminders to evaluate patients' progress, it is important for physicians to recognize the need to change their behavior, knowledge base, or skills.7 Irrespective of hospital- or office-based practice, primary or specialty care, a change in physicians' knowledge or skills was associated with an identified reason for the change prior to its implementation.5


의사 경험은 학습 경험이 지식 테스트와 임상 실습 요구 사항을 통합 할 때 향상되었습니다 .7 의사 - 학습자는 동기 부여, 문제에 대한 지식 또는 현재의 지식과 기술 사이의 차이에 대한 인식에 따라 자신만의 속도로 진행됩니다.  격차가 입증되고 학습 자원이 학습자를 돕기 위해 전략적으로 확장되면 각 개입 유형 내에서 변화가 더 자주 발생합니다 .5

Physician performance improved when learning experiences incorporated tests of knowledge and assessments of clinical practice needs.7 Physician-learners progress at their own rates, depending upon their motivation, their knowledge of a problem, or the perception of a gap between current knowledge and skills and those that are desired. When gaps are demonstrated and educational resources are extended strategically to help the learner, change occurs more frequently within each type of intervention.5


의사와 CME 제공 업체가 학습 요구를 결정하는 데 도움이되는 다양한 도구가 제공됩니다.

  • 미국의 대부분의 전문 의학위원회는 서면 또는 구술 시험 또는 지식의 두 가지 시험을 제공합니다 .10 이러한 시험은 의사가 필수적인 임상 결정을 알리는 사실과 원칙에 대한 지식을 평가할 수있는 훌륭한 기회를 제공합니다.

  • Benchmarking11은 의사가 자신의 개인 성과를 동료 그룹의 최고 실적자가 시연 한 탁월한 표준과 비교할 수있는 도구입니다. 이 평가 방법은 외래 진료에서 의사의 수행 효율성을 향상시키는 것으로 나타났습니다 .12

  • 사용률 검토는 입원 율, 사망률 및 이환률, 의료 오류율을 기준으로 비교할 수있는 기관 정보를 제공합니다. 그러한 자료는 교육 개입 전후에 공포 된 변화를 성공으로 판단하기 위해 사용될 수있다 .13

  • 개인 학습 포트폴리오는 의사가 유능한 임상 수행을 유지하는 데있어 중요한 대답을하는 중요한 학습 사건을 기술한다.

  • 대학원 의학 교육 인증위원회 (ACGME)는 윤리, 전문성 및 실습에 기반한 학습 및 개선을 염두에두고 연습 의사가 사용하는자가 진단 도구를 열거합니다 .15 의사는 ACGME 웹 사이트를 검색하여 타당성, feasibility, 선택된 자기 평가 도구의 심리 측정 특징, 누가 각 도구를 사용했는지, 몇 번이나, 어떤 설정을 찾을 수 있는지에 대한 설명을 찾을 수 있습니다. 

  • CRI (Change Readiness Inventory)는 340 명의 북미 의사들이 기술 한 775 가지 변화를 분석하여 개발 된 것으로, CME 의사는 임상 수행의 변화를 촉진시킬 수있는 노력 개발에있어 의사들에게 의견을 제시 할 수 있습니다. 규정이나 임상 진보와 같은 변화해야하는 이유, 낮은 동기 부여, 시간 부족, 또는 건강 관리 시스템에서 적절한 장비의 부족과 같은 변화에 대한 장벽은 CRI에서 발견 할 수 있습니다.

A variety of tools is available to help physicians and CME providers determine learning needs.

  • Most medical specialty boards in the United States offer written or oral examinations, or both, of knowledge.10 Such tests present excellent opportunities for physicians to assess their knowledge against facts and principles that inform essential clinical decisions.

  • Benchmarking11 is a tool for physicians to compare their personal performance with standards of excellence demonstrated by top performers in a peer group. This approach to assessment has been shown to enhance the effectiveness of physician performance in ambulatory care.12

  • Utilization review provides institutional information to make comparisons based upon hospital admission rates, mortality and morbidity rates, and medical error rates. Such data may be used before and after educational interventions to judge success in promulgating change.13

  • Personal learning portfolios describe significant learning events,14 enabling physicians to assess—on an ongoing basis—the questions they find important to answer in maintaining competent clinical performance.

  • The Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education (ACGME) lists self-assessment tools for use by practicing physicians as they contemplate ethics, professionalism, and practice-based learning and improvement.15 Physicians can search the ACGME Web site to learn about the validity, feasibility, and psychometric characteristics of selected self-assessment tools. Descriptions of who has used each instrument, how many times, and in what settings also can be found.16

  • The Change Readiness Inventory (CRI),17 developed from analysis of 775 changes described by 340 North American physicians,18 may be used by CME providers to give physicians a voice in the development of efforts that may facilitate changes in their clinical performance. Reasons to change, such as regulations or clinical advances, and barriers to change, such as low motivation, lack of time, or lack of proper equipment in systems of health care, can be discovered with the CRI.

 

CME제공자는 의사가 필요성 평가 및 임상 목표 진도 평가를 포함하여 체계적인 품질 개선 노력을 CME와 통합하도록 도와줌으로써 변화에 대한 전망을 개선 할 수 있습니다 .11,12

Continuing medical education providers can improve the prospects for change by helping physicians integrate systematic quality improvement efforts with CME, including the assessment of need and evaluation of progress toward clinical goals.11,12


 

 




상호 작용하는 학습 및 기회

Interactive Learning and Opportunities to Practice

 

지속적으로 양방향 의사 소통을 통해 CME 교사와 의사 학습자가 아이디어를 하나로 모을 수 있습니다. 환자 교육 자료 나 미리 알림과 같은 실행 전략을 추가하면 연습장에서의 변경을 용이하게 할 수 있습니다 .3,5 강의, 회의 및 단기 코스가 의사를 변화시키기 쉽게 할 수 있지만 Didactic lecture 자체는 의사에게 즉각적인 영향을 미치지 않습니다 2 3,5 사례 토론이나 실무 연습 세션과 같은 대화 형 기술을 사용하는 교육 활동은 일반적으로 행동과 환자 결과를 변화시키는 데 더 효과적입니다 .3 대화식 워크샵은 지식이나 기술을 변화시킬 수 있습니다 ; 교훈적인 세션만으로는 전문적인 실습을 바꿀 수 없다. 2,3,5,7

Two-way communication maintained over time enables the convergence of ideas between CME teachers and physician-learners. Adding enabling strategies such as patient education materials or reminders can help facilitate change at the practice site.3,5 While lectures, conferences, and short courses may predispose physicians toward change, didactic lectures by themselves do not play a significant role in immediately affecting physician performance or improving patient health care.2,3,5 Educational activities that use interactive techniques such as case discussion or hands-on practice sessions generally are more effective in changing behavior and patient outcomes.3 Interactive workshops can result in changes to knowledge or skills; didactic sessions alone are unlikely to change professional practice.2,3,5,7

 

 


 

연속 된 활동과 다면적 활동

Sequenced and Multifaceted Activities

 

2 개 이상의 인터벤션를 사용하도록 고안된 CME 전략은 실천의 변화로 이어질 수있다. 예를 들어, 의사는 생존 확률 측정과 중환자 치료 비용에 관한 교육 자료를 제공하고, , 시험 순서 축소할 수 있다 19. 환자들을위한 교육 자료를받은 의사들, 니코틴 껌을 제공하라는 알림, 금연 조언을위한 상담에 대한 4 시간 교육 세션은 환자가 1 년에 금연하는 것을 돕는 성공률이 더 컸다. 1 차 진료 회의에서 우송 된 자료, 후속 전화 및 프리젠 테이션은 부적절한 의뢰를 크게 줄이고 이비인후과 전문의에게 적절한 추천을 증가 시켰습니다. 의사는 명확한 목표를 가진 교육 활동을 선택하고 그러한 목표 달성을 위해 점진적으로 진보 할 수있는 기회를 가져야합니다

 

Continuing medical education strategies designed to use 2 or more interventions can lead to change in practice.3- 5

  • For example, physicians provided with educational material on the measurement of survival probabilities and the cost of intensive care, followed up by a bedside display of probabilities, reduced test ordering.19

  • Physicians who received educational material for patients, a reminder to offer them nicotine gum, and a 4-hour training session on counseling for smoking cessation advice experienced higher rates of success helping patients to stop smoking at 1 year.20

  • Mailed materials, follow-up telephone calls, and presentations at primary care meetings caused a significant decrease in inappropriate referrals and increased appropriate referrals to otolaryngologists.4,21

Physicians should choose educational activities with clear goals and the opportunity to progress incrementally toward achievement of those goals.



결과 평가

Outcome Evaluation

 

 

전문 자격증이나 자격 갱신과는 별도로, 대학원 의학 교육이 수료되면 학부 및 대학원 의학 교육 졸업 후의 공식 진로 유형은 존재하지 않습니다. 각 의사는 자신의 학습을 모니터링하고 연속성과 효과의 디자인을 관리합니다.

Apart from specialty certification or recertification, the type of progress measured formally by graduation from undergraduate and graduate medical education does not exist when graduate medical education is completed. Each physician monitors his or her own learning, managing the design of its continuity and effects.

 

  • 피드백이 동반된 차트 감사를 통해 임상 행동의 변화를 달성하고 측정 할 수 있습니다 .4,5,7 이 전략은 건강 관리의 지속적인 품질 개선의 핵심입니다 .11

  • 전략의 구성은 Bi-Cycle Approach to Quality Assurance에서 찾을 수 있습니다. 외부 환자 및 건강 관리주기 및 내부 변화 또는 교육주기로 Brown22에 설명되어 있습니다.

  • 결과는 선택된 요법에 대한 환자의 순응도를 높이거나 부적절한 병원 입원 횟수를 줄임으로써 측정 될 수 있습니다. 5,7,24

  • 의사의 행동 변화와 환자의 기능적 결과 개선을 추적하는 데 효과적인 두 가지 도구는 Karnofsky Performance Status Scale, 25는 정상적인 활동을 수행 할 수있는 능력과는 다를 수있는 환자를 모니터링 할 수있게하며, 신체적 및 정서적 복지의 평가를 가능하게하는 Short Form-36,26 .

Changes in clinical behavior can be accomplished and measured through chart audit with feedback.4,5,7 The strategy is central to continuous quality improvement in health care.11 Constructs of the strategy may be found in the Bi-Cycle Approach to Quality Assurance, described by Brown22 as an outer patient and health care cycle and an inner change or education cycle. Outcomes may be measured by improved patient compliance with selected regimens5,7,23 or reduced numbers of inappropriate hospital stays.5,7,24 Two instruments shown to be effective in tracking change in physician behavior and functional outcome improvement for patients include the Karnofsky Performance Status Scale,25 which enables the monitoring of patients whose performance may vary from able to carry on normal activity to unable to work or unable to care for self, and the Short Form-36,26 which enables assessments of physical and emotional well-being.

 

측정의 진실과 결과 평가 방법에 관한 질문은 CME 및 의료 전문가들에게 끊임없는 도전이 된다.

  • 무작위 통제 시험은 계속해서 의사와 CME 제공자가 학습의 효과와 임상 행동의 수행을 조사 할 수 있지만 사소한 임상 적 조치는 종종 공간과 시간에 멀리 떨어져있는 주요 결과를 가져옵니다 .11

  • 무작위 통제 시험이 너무 오래 걸린다 고 생각하는 사람들이 있습니다 코호트 및 Case control 디자인은 품질 개선 연구의 실용성에 더 적합합니다 .11

  • The Cochrane Effective Practice and Organisation of Care group27 은 continuous quality improvement 에 대한 최상의 증거와 전문적인 수행과 환자 결과에 관한 영향에 대한 체계적인 검토를위한 새로운 프로토콜을 승인했습니다.

Questions regarding truth in measurement and methods for assessing outcomes continue to challenge CME and health care professionals.

  • Randomized controlled trials may continue enabling physicians and CME providers to examine the effects of learning and the performance of clinical behaviors, but minor clinical actions often have major consequences remote in space and time.11

  • There are some who believe that randomized controlled trials take too long and that cohort and case-control designs are more appropriate to the practicalities of quality improvement studies.11

  • The Cochrane Effective Practice and Organisation of Care group27 recently accepted a new protocol for a systematic review of the best evidence on continuous quality improvement and its effects on professional practice and patient outcomes.


결론

Conclusios

전통적인 CME는 회의, 워크샵 또는 강의 참석을 위해 수여 된 시간 기반의 크레딧 시스템입니다. CME활동은 일반적으로 수동 교육 모델 (예 : 강의)을 사용하여 교사의 주도로teacher-initiated 시작합니다. 최근 연구 14,28은 의사가 그 다음에 할 학습 프로젝트 또는 질문의 진행 및 개발에 대한 (스스로의) 성찰로부터 배운다benefit고 제안합니다.

Traditional CME is a time-based system of credits awarded for attending conferences, workshops, or lectures. The activities are typically teacher-initiated, using passive educational models (eg, lecture). Recent studies14,28 suggest that physicians benefit from reflection on their progress and development of their next learning projects or questions.

 

의사는 무엇을 할 수 있습니까? 의사는 강의, 그랜드 라운드 또는 의료진 회의만으로 구성된 CME의 관점을 재검토해야합니다. 그들은 전문적인 실천에 대해 생각하고 학습 요구를 확인하는 데 개인적인 참여를 제공하는 교육 활동에 참여해야합니다. CME는 잠재력을 극대화하기 위해 캐주얼, 산발적 또는 기회주의casual, sporadic, or opportunistic가 아닌 진정으로 '계속적'이어야합니다 .1

What can physicians do? Physicians should reconsider the perspective of CME consisting solely of lectures, grand rounds, or medical staff meetings. They should participate in educational activities that offer personal involvement in thinking about professional practice and in identifying learning needs. To achieve its greatest potential, CME must be truly continuing, not casual, sporadic, or opportunistic.1

 

의사는 중요한 질문을 만들고, 새로운 지식을 해석하며, 지식을 임상 환경에서 적용하는 방법을 판단 할 수있는 지속적인 기회를 인식해야합니다. 본질적으로 이것은 CME가 학습 내용 및 컨텍스트 관리를 포함하여 의사가 자기주도적으로 해야 함을 의미합니다. 자기 주도 학습의 기회는 개선과 실행에 대한 비판적 성찰critical reflection을 위해 필요한 지식과 기술을 향상시켜야합니다.

Physicians must recognize the ongoing opportunities to generate important questions, interpret new knowledge, and judge how to apply that knowledge in clinical settings. Essentially, this means that CME must be self-directed by the physician, including management of the content of and context for learning. In turn, the opportunities for self-directed learning must enhance the knowledge and skills required for critical reflection on practice and measurement of improvement.





 2002 Sep 4;288(9):1057-60.

Continuing medical education and the physician as a learner: guide to the evidence.

Author information

  • 1Department of Preventive Medicine and Community Health, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, 23219, USA. paul.mazmanian@vcu.edu
PMID:
 
12204068

[PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]

국제보건전문직교육자를 위한 교수개발프로젝트: 기관 변화의 원동력? (Med Teach, 2012)

Faculty development projects for international health professions educators: Vehicles for institutional change?

WILLIAM P. BURDICK, STACEY R. FRIEDMAN & DEBORAH DISERENS

Foundation for Advancement of International Medical Education and Research, USA





배경

Background

 

프로젝트(정의된 성과를 가진 광범위한 활동)은 보건 전문가 교육에서 FD에 중요한 도구이며, 교수진에게 새로운 기술과 지식을 가르치는 효과적인 방법임이 밝혀졌습니다 (Gusic 외. 2010). 교육 혁신 프로젝트는 국제 의학 교육 연구 진흥 재단 (FAIMER) 및 5 개의 FAIMER 지역 교육 기관에서의 경험 학습에 초점을 두며, 자원이 제한된 지역의 국제 보건 과학 교수를 대상으로하는 2 년간의 파트 타임 펠로우 십입니다. 세계 (Burdick 외. 2006, 2010). 자원이 제한된 지역의 보건 전문가 교육에 대한 도전과 필요가 체계적인 관점에서 기술되었지만 (Supe & Burdick 2006; Burdick 2007; Amin et al. 2010), 어떤 프로젝트를 선택하는가는 (특히 제도적 리더십을 지지하여 프로젝트를 수행 할 때) 기관의 현실에 immerse된 교수의 시각에서 학교의 우선 순위를 이해하는 창을 제공 할 수있다. 마찬가지로 주제 트렌드가 국가 수준에서 볼 때 국가의 보건 전문가 교육 우선 순위 및 제약 사항에 대한 통찰력을 제공 할 수 있습니다.

Projects, extensive activities with defined outcomes, are an important tool in faculty development in health professions education, and have been found to be an effective way to teach faculty new skills and knowledge (Gusic et al. 2010). An education innovation project is the focal point for experiential learning at the Foundation for Advancement of International Medical Education and Research (FAIMER) Institute and the five FAIMER Regional Institutes, two-year part-time fellowships for international health sciences faculty in resource limited parts of the world (Burdick et al. 2006, 2010). While the challenges and needs in health professions education in resource limited regions have been described from a systemic perspective (Supe & Burdick 2006; Burdick 2007; Amin et al. 2010), project choice may provide a window for understand- ing institutional priorities from the perspective of faculty immersed in their institutional realities, particularly when projects are undertaken with endorsement of institutional leadership. Similarly, when topic trends are seen on a national scale, they may offer insight into a country’s health professions education priorities and constraints.

 


FAIMER 커리큘럼에서 프로젝트를 사용하는 것은 프로젝트 기반 학습에 대한 연구에서 파생됩니다. 프로젝트 기반 학습의 강점은 이론과 새로운 정보 사용 경험 (Revans 1982)의 상호 작용뿐만 아니라 프로젝트 구현 중에 발생하는 학습에 대한 반성 (Raelin 2007; Stewart 2007)에서 비롯됩니다. 프로젝트 기반 학습 (DeFillippi 2001)은 Nchinda (2002)와 성인 학습 (Bransford 외. 1999) 및 리더십 개발 (Vicere & Fulmer 1998)의 연구를 통해 제공되는 인적 자원 구축 모델과 일치합니다.

Our use of projects in the FAIMER curriculum is derived from research on project-based learning. The strength of project-based learning emanates from the interplay between theory and the experience of using new information (Revans 1982), in addition to the reflection about one’s learning that arises during project implementation (Raelin 2007; Stewart 2007). Project-based learning (DeFillippi 2001) is consistent with the model of human capacity building offered by Nchinda (2002) and with research in adult learning (Bransford et al. 1999) and leadership development (Vicere & Fulmer 1998).


FAIMER Institute (Philadelphia)는 미국에 기반을두고 있으며 국제적으로 펠로우가 분포되어 있습니다. 인도에는 5 곳의 연구소가 있으며, 인도에 기반을 둔 세 곳은 주로 주변 국가의 인원이 적은 인도인 교수진을 대상으로합니다. 브라질에서 1개 기관, 포르투갈어로 진행되고 브라질 교수진을 섬기고있다. 하나는 남아프리카 공화국, 남부 아프리카에 서비스를 제공합니다. 첫 번째 프로그램은 2001 년에 시작되었습니다. 2005-2008 년의 다른 것들 (Burdick et al. 2006, 2010). 건강 전문가 교수진은 6 가지 프로그램 중 하나에 자신이 선택한 교육 혁신 프로젝트를 제안하지만, 신청 절차에 따라 선발 과정에서 개선 된 지역 사회 건강에 연결되는 프로젝트를 선호한다고 나타났습니다. 신청자는 또한 프로젝트가 왜 중요한지, 달성 될 것인가, 방법, 일정 및 예산뿐만 아니라 프로젝트의 성공 여부를 평가하는 방법을 설명해야합니다. 프로젝트는 기관의 리더십으로부터 서면 지원을 받아야합니다. 제안 된 프로젝트에 대한 설명은 응용 프로그램 점수의 중요 부분입니다. 프로젝트를 검토 할 때 고려해야 할 요소에는 명확성, 실현 가능성, 그리고 기관 및 지역 사회 건강에 대한 잠재적 영향이 포함됩니다.

The FAIMER Institute (Philadelphia) is based in the United States, with an international distribution of Fellows. There are five Regional Institutes: three based in India, serving mainly Indian faculty with a small number from surrounding countries; one in Brazil, conducted in Portuguese and serving Brazilian faculty; and one in South Africa, serving southern Africa. The first program was started in 2001; the others in 2005–2008 (Burdick et al. 2006, 2010). Health professions faculty apply to one of the six programs proposing an education innovation project of their choice, although appli- cation instructions indicate that the selection process favors projects that demonstrate a link to improved community health. Applicants are also asked to describe why the project is important, what will be achieved, the methods, timeline, and budget, as well as how they will evaluate the success of the project. Projects are required to have written support from their institutional leadership. Description of the proposed project is a heavily weighted portion of the application score. Factors considered when reviewing the project include clarity, feasibility, and potential impact on the institution and on community health.

 


펠로우는 프로그램에 따라 1 학년 초에 1-3 주 동안 거주하며 1 년 간의 원거리 학습 세션이 이어지고 1-2 주간 계속되는 2 차 주거 세션2 학년 남은 기간 동안에는 최종 원격 교육 커리큘럼이 있습니다. 첫 번째 주거 세션에서 약 6-10 시간 동안 프로젝트에 대한 소그룹 멘토링이 프로젝트에 대한 프로그램 이론, 프로젝트 결과를 평가하기위한 정교한 평가 계획, 내년 프로젝트 구현을위한 Gantt 차트를 작성합니다. 프로젝트는 종종이 프로세스의 결과로 범위, 타임 라인 및 이해 관계자 참여가 수정됩니다. 커리큘럼은 또한 리더십 및 관리 기술과 같은 프로젝트 구현과 관련된 학습을 제공합니다. 프로젝트 진척 보고서는 2 년 동안 정기적으로 제출되며, 펠로우가 집으로 돌아 왔을 때 프로젝트에서 발생한 변경 사항과 구현 단계를 설명합니다.
Fellows are in residence at the beginning of the first year for 1–3 weeks, depending on the program, followed by a year- long distance learning session, culminating in a second residential session lasting 1–2 weeks, with a final distance learning curriculum for the remainder of the second year. At the first residential session, approximately 6–10 hours of small group mentoring on projects results in a program theory for the project, a refined evaluation plan to assess project outcomes, and a Gantt chart for project implementation for the coming year. Projects are often modified in scope, timeline, and stakeholder involvement as a result of this process. The curriculum also provides learning relevant to project imple- mentation, such as leadership and management skills. Project progress reports are submitted periodically during the 2 years in which Fellows describe steps toward implementation as well as changes that may have occurred in the project when they returned home.




방법

Methods


프로젝트 포커스

Project focus


Table 1 shows the institute names, locations, cumulative number of Fellows/projects, the number of Fellows residing in countries with Regional Institutes, and the class years of the projects included.


Coding of the emphasis of the projects was an iterative process. The three authors (WB, SF and DD) independently coded project emphasis based on project title for 2001–2009 projects for all projects except those from the Brazil institute, using an agreed upon starting list of project emphasis categories. For the Brazil institute, the same process occurred, except with two authors as coders (SF, DD) and the director of the Brazil institute as a third coder, which helped to address language translation issues. Codes were then reconciled through discussion. Discussion yielded the creation of new categories for coding, which led to recoding of projects based on the revised scheme. When reconciliation was not possible the full project description and project abstract were reviewed for further detail about project emphasis. As the project titles became available for the 2010 class of each institute, recon- ciled coding of the projects using the coding scheme was conducted by two of the authors (SF and DD) and the director of the Brazil institute for that institute’s projects and added to the analysis. Each project received up to two project emphasis codes.

 



프로젝트의 기관화, 복제, 효과

Project institutionalization, replication, and impact


The second set of data for this study comes from the FAIMER Professional Development Portfolio. In this online portfolio Fellows document their professional accomplishments and provide follow up reflection and information about various aspects of their FAIMER experience.


결과

Results



프로젝트 초점

Project focus


표 2는 프로젝트 포커스 내용 분석 결과와 각 범주에 코딩 된 프로젝트 포커스 유형의 요약 설명을 보여줍니다. 모든 프로젝트 중 대략 3 분의 1은 새로운 교육 방법 및 모델의 구현에 중점을 두었습니다. 전체적인 주제 중 가장 중요한 주제로 삼고 있습니다. 그러나 휄로우가 가장 많이 거주하는 3 개국을 비교하면 남아프리카 (25 %) 나 브라질 (24 %), 2 (2 %)와 비교하여 인도의 펠로우 스 (52 % ≥26.14, p50.001 (표 3).

Table 2 shows the results of the project focus content analysis along with summary descriptions of the type of project focus coded into each category. Approximately one-third of all projects focused on implementation of new education methods and models, making this the most frequent major topic focus overall. However, comparing between the three countries where most Fellows reside, there was a higher percentage of education methods projects from Fellows in India (52%), as compared with South Africa (25%) or Brazil (24%),  2 (2) ¼26.14, p 50.001 (Table 3).


모든 프로젝트에서 프로젝트 결과 평가가 필요했지만 일부 프로젝트의 초점은 프로그램 평가 (예 : 개입의 설계 또는 구현에 초점을 두지 않고 개입의 효과를 평가하는 데 중점을 둔 프로젝트) 및 이것들은 그렇게 코딩되었다. 모든 프로젝트의 약 5 분의 1은 프로젝트의 초점으로 프로그램 평가가 결정되었습니다. 남아프리카 공화국과 인도의 프로그램 평가 프로젝트의 비율이 상대적으로 높았던 국가의 경우 (2 건의 프로젝트 포커스 (2) = 18.31, p50.001)의 빈도로 국가간에 유의미한 차이가있었습니다 브라질.

Evaluation of project outcomes was required for all projects, however, the focus of some projects was program evaluation (e.g., a project focused on evaluating the effective- ness of an intervention, as opposed to a focus on design or implementation of an intervention) and these were coded as such. Approximately one-fifth of all projects were determined to have program evaluation as a project focus. There was a significant difference between countries in the frequency of ( 2 program evaluation as a project focus (2) ¼18.31, p50.001), with a relatively high percent of program evalu- ation projects from South Africa and India as compared with Brazil.

 

학생 평가 및 보건 시스템과의 Alignment 는 각각 프로젝트의 17 %에 초점을 맞추고있었습니다. 인도와 비교했을 때 남아프리카 공화국과 브라질의 프로젝트가 상대적으로 높은 비중을 차지하고있는 프로젝트 포커스 (2 (2) = 33.45, p = 50.001)로 건강 시스템과 연계되는 빈도가 국가간에 유의미한 차이를 보였다. 주제별로 평가 빈도에있어 국가간에 유의미한 차이는 없었습니다.

Student assessment and alignment with the health system were each a project focus for 17% of projects. There was a significant difference between countries in the frequency of alignment with health systemas a project focus ( 2 (2) ¼33.45, p 50.001), with a relatively higher percent of alignment projects from South Africa and Brazil as compared with India. There was no significant difference between countries on the frequency of assessment as a topic.

 

 

교수진 개발, 거리 및 컴퓨터 기반 학습, 조직 개발, 전문성 또는 학생 문제에 중점을 둔 프로젝트의 10 % 미만. 그러나 브라질, 인도, 남아프리카의 경우 교수진 개발 빈도가 프로젝트 초점 (2 (2) = 7.26, p = 50.05)으로 남아프리카보다 브라질에서 더 빈번히 발생하거나 인도.

Less than 10% of projects focused on faculty development, distance and computer-based learning, organizational devel- opment, professionalism, or student affairs. However, there was a significant difference between Brazil, India, and South Africa in the frequency of faculty development as a project focus ( 2 (2) ¼7.26, p 50.05) with this focus occurring more frequently in Brazil than in South Africa or India.







프로젝트 영향

Project impact

 

 

FAIMER Institute (Philadelphia)의 응답자 중 절반 이상이 교육에서의 교육 및 협업의 질 향상과 관련하여 표 4에서 해당 프로젝트로 인해 학교 또는 지역 사회에서의 변화를 확인했습니다.
More than half of responding Fellows from the FAIMER Institute (Philadelphia) identified changes related to increased quality of teaching and collaboration in education (Table 4) when asked to identify changes in their schools or commu- nities resulting from their projects.

 

 


 

프로젝트의 제도화 및 복제

Institutionalization and replication of projects


(6 개 기관 중 5 개 기관에서) 휄로우가 프로젝트 상태에 관해보고 한 프로젝트의 대다수는 제도화 (교육 과정에 통합되거나 제도적 정책 또는 절차로 통합 됨) (66/117, 56 %) 또는 복제 (휄로우의 기관에서 다른 코스 / 모듈 / 연도, 휄로우의 국가 또는 다른 나라의 환경에서 복제) (72/117, 62 %).
A majority of projects where Fellows (from five of the six institutes) reported on the project status was reported to have been institutionalized (incorporated into the curriculumand/or incorporated as an institutional policy or procedure) (66/117, 56%) or replicated (replicated in another course/module/year at the Fellow’s institution, in another setting in the Fellow’s country, and/or in a setting in another country) (72/117, 62%).



 

결론

Conclusions


프로젝트 초점의 국가 별 차이점은 지역의 여건과 필요에 대한 통찰력을 제공 할 수 있습니다.

National differences in project focus may offer insight into local conditions and needs.

 

브라질의 보건 시스템에 중점을 둔 많은 프로젝트는 브라질 보건부와 보건 복지부 교육의 변화로 인한 것일 수 있습니다. 브라질의 국가 건강 관리 시스템 인 Sistema U'nico de Sau'de (SUS) (Connwall & Shankland 2008)에는 보건 향상을위한 계획의 핵심 구성 요소로서 교수진 개발 및 건강 전문 교육 향상이 포함됩니다. 보건 전문가 교육과 건강 간의 이러한 연계는 정부 (PROU - 보건 전문가의 재교육 프로그램 SAU'DE) (Haddad 외 2010)를 통해 많은 의과 대학에서 보건 및 교육을 조정하기위한 정부 지원 프로젝트에 의해 추진되었습니다. 브라질 교육 인적 자원 개발 사무국 (SGTES)이 주도하는 브라질 FAIMER 지역 연구소의 지원은 물론 의학 교육의 새로운 국가 커리큘럼 (브라질 교육부 외 2001)을 지원한다.

The large number of projects that focus on health systems in Brazil may be partly attributed to the relationship between the Brazil Ministry of Health and changes in health professions education in the country. The Brazilian national healthcare system, Sistema U´ nico de Sau´de (SUS) (Cornwall & Shankland 2008) includes faculty develop- ment and improvement of health professions education as a core component of the plan to improve health. This link between health professions education and health has been promoted by government funded projects to align health and education at many medical schools through the National (PRO´ - Program for Reorientation of Health Professionals SAU´ DE) (Haddad et al. 2010), a new national curriculum in medical education (Brazil Ministry of Education et al. 2001), as well as support of the Brazil FAIMER Regional Institute, which is funded predominantly by the Brazil Secretariat for Health Workforce Development (SGTES).

 

 

아파르트 헤이트가 끝난 후 남아공 고등 교육 및 사회의 주요 변화는 보건 시스템과의 연계, 교육 프로그램 평가와 같은 근본적인 문제에 중점을 둘 수도있다 (Kent & De Villiers 2007). 또한 언어 배경이 넓어지고 1994 년 이후에 입학하여 입학 전형이 달라지면서 입학 정책이 크게 변경되면 교육 방법을 수정해야 할 필요성이 제기 될 수 있습니다 (Colborn 1995, Burch 등 2007). 흥미롭게도 40 개 프로젝트 중 거리 또는 컴퓨터 기반 학습에 중점을 둔 프로젝트가 단 1 개 뿐이며 이는 지역 내 제약 기반 기술 인프라 (Gapminder (a))의 징후 일 수 있습니다.

Major changes in South African higher education and society in general following the end of apartheid may account for an emphasis on fundamental issues such as alignment with the health system, and evaluation of education programs (Kent & De Villiers 2007). In addition, a wider spectrum of language backgrounds, and substantial changes in admission policies resulting in a different profile of preparation by entering students after 1994, may have led to perceived needs in revising education methods (Colborn 1995; Burch et al. 2007). Interestingly, only 1 of 40 projects focused on distance or computer-based learning, which may be a manifestation of the constrained technology infrastructure in the region (Gapminder (a)).

 

 


인도에서는 인도 의학위원회 (Supe & Burdick 2006, Amin et al. 2010)의 가이드 라인에 따른 제약으로 인해 교수진의 절반 이상이 정렬과 같은 구조적인 변화보다는 교육 방법에 초점을 맞추게 될 수도 있습니다 브라질과 남아프리카에서와 마찬가지로 보건 수요가있는 커리큘럼이 필요합니다. 외부적 힘으로부터의 큰 추진력이나 허가가 없어도 되는 영역, 즉 교수진은 그들이 통제 할 수 있다고 생각하는 영역인 교실에서의 교육 방법에 중점을 둘 수 있습니다. 그러나 상당 부분의 프로그램 평가 프로젝트는 교수진이 현 상태를 비판적으로 바라는 동기가 있음을 나타낼 수 있습니다.

In India, perceived constraints by the guidelines of the Medical Council of India (Supe & Burdick 2006; Amin et al. 2010) may have caused over half the faculty to focus their projects on education methods, rather than more structural change, such as alignment of the curriculumwith health needs, as was seen in Brazil and South Africa. Without major impetus, or permission, fromexternal forces, faculty may be focusing on domains they feel they can control, namely education methods in the classroom. The significant proportion of program evaluation projects, however, may indicate that faculty are, nevertheless, motivated to look critically at the status quo.

 


숫자가 너무 적어 특정 프로젝트 주제가 영향을 미치지는 못하지만, 제도화 된 프로젝트의 전체 비율은 펠로우가 펠로우십 프로그램에 지원할 때 학교 리더십에 의한 프로젝트 지원 필요성과 관련 될 수 있습니다. 조사 된 117 개 프로젝트 중 62 %는 펠로우 스 기관 또는 다른 기관의 다른 코스에서 복제되었습니다. 56 %에서 혁신은 제도적 교과 과정, 정책 또는 방법에 통합되었습니다. 이 데이터는 변화 관리에 대한 논의에서 강조되는 제도적 리더십institutional leadership 의 중요성을 강조하고 (Grant & Gale 1989), 다른 프로젝트 기반 교수 개발 개입에 중요한 교훈이 될 수 있습니다.

While numbers are so far too small to relate specific project topics to impact, the high proportion of institutionalized projects overall may be related to the requirement of support for the project by the school’s leadership when the Fellow applies to the fellowship program. Out of 117 projects studied, 62%were replicated by other courses at the Fellows’ institution or at another institution. In 56%, the innovation was incorpo- rated into institutional curricula, policies, or methods. These data highlight the importance of support from institutional leadership emphasized in discussions on change management (Grant & Gale 1989), and may be an important lesson for other project-based faculty development interventions.

 

 

 

보고 된 제도화 및 프로젝트 복제의 상대적으로 높은 발생 가능성에 대한 또 다른 가능한 설명은 효과적인 프로젝트 멘토링 일 수있다. 우리의 동료 선발 과정이나 FAIMER 커리큘럼에서 제공되는 교육 리더십 도구는 성공적인 프로젝트 구현, 제도적 영향 및 다른 환경에서의 후속 채택의 가능성을 높일 수 있습니다.

Another possible explanation for the relatively high inci- dence of reported institutionalization and replication of projects may be effective project mentoring. Our fellow selection process or the tools for education leadership offered in the FAIMER curriculum may also increase the likelihood of successful project implementation, institutional impact, and subsequent adoption in other settings.

 


FAIMER Institute (Philadelphia) Fellows의 데이터에 따르면 전반적인 프로젝트는 지역 사회 건강에 미치는 영향 또는 직접적으로 관련된 것보다 교육, 학습 및 평가의 질에 영향을 미칠 가능성이 높습니다. 응답자의 2/5 이상이 가장 많이 언급 한 영향으로는 교사의 질 (61 %)과 교육 연구 (41 %), 교육의 질 향상 (53 %), 49 %), 부서 간 (53 %), 개선 된 평가 (41 %), 학생 자기 주도 학습 증가 (41 %).

Data from FAIMER Institute (Philadelphia) Fellows indicate that overall projects tended to be more likely to have an impact on the quality of teaching, learning, and assessment than an impact on or directly related to community health. The most frequently cited impacts (endorsed by two-fifths or more of respondents) included increased faculty interest in the quality of teaching (61%) and research in education (41%), improved quality of teaching (53%), collaboration within (49%) and between (53%) departments, improved assessment (41%), and increased student self-directed learning (41%).

 


대조적으로, (응답자의 1/5 이하가지지하는) 가장 적게 언급된 영향은 학생 (22 %)과 교수 (20 %)의 농촌 / 일차 보건 의료에 대한 더 많은 지식, 지역 사회 보건 (16 % ), 학생 간 사회 봉사 전문가 / 근로자 증가 (14 %), 더 나은 인구 수준의 건강 (4 %)을 확인하는 프로젝트 결과가 포함됩니다. 이는 프로젝트 선택과 관련하여 겸손한 정도의 중점을 두었을 때의 결과 일 수 있으며, 프로젝트의 지역 사회 건강이 향상 될 것으로 기대됩니다. 보건 수요에 부합하는 데 중점을 둡니다. (조사 된 프로젝트의 17 %) 지역 사회 건강에 영향을 줄 가능성이 더 높습니다.

By contrast, the least frequently cited impacts (endorsed by one-fifth or fewer of respondents) included more knowl- edge in rural/primary healthcare among students (22%) and faculty (20%), more faculty teaching community health (16%), increased community service professionals/workers among students (14%), and project results that confirm better population-level health (4%). This may be a consequence of the modest degree of emphasis in our selection process placed on the link between their project and improved be expected that projects community health. It would focused on alignment with health needs (17% of projects studied) would be more likely to impact community health.

 

동시에, 교육 프로젝트와 지역 사회 건강 간의 관계를 이해하는 능력에는 한계가 있습니다. 프로젝트에 따라 건강에 미치는 영향은 달성하는데 수년이 걸리는 장기적인 영향 일 수 있습니다. 또한 공중 위생, 물 안전, 문맹 퇴치 및 영양에 대한 공공 정책 변화와 같은 혼동 변수는 건강 결과와 강한 상관 관계가 있으며 (Wilkinson & Marmot 2003, Gapminder (b)) 교육 개입의 영향을 모호하게 할 수있다.

At the same time, there are limitations on the ability to understand the connection between education projects and community health. Depending on the project, effects on health may be a long-term impact that takes years to achieve. In addition, confounding variables, such as public policy changes in sanitation, water security, literacy, and nutrition, have strong correlations with health outcomes (Wilkinson & Marmot 2003; Gapminder (b)) and are likely to obscure the influence of education interventions.



Amin Z, Burdick WP, Supe A, Singh T. 2010. Relevance of the Flexner Report to contemporary medical education in South Asia. Acad Med 85(2):333–339.


Boelen C, Woollard B. 2009. Social accountability and accreditation: A new frontier for educational institutions. Med Educ 43(9):887–894.


Gusic ME, Milner RJ, Tisdell EJ, Tayor EW, Quillen DA, Thorndyke LE. 2010. The essential value of projects in faculty development. Acad Med 85(9):1484–1491.


 

 

 

 




 2012;34(1):38-44. doi: 10.3109/0142159X.2011.558538.

Faculty development projects for international health professions educatorsVehicles for institutionalchange?

Author information

  • 1Foundation for Advancement of International Medical Education and Research, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA. wburdick@ecfmg.org

Abstract

BACKGROUND:

Projects are an important tool in faculty development, and project emphasis may offer insights into perceived education priorities. Impact of projects has been focused on individuals, not institutions or health.

AIM:

Education innovation projects of Fellows in an international faculty development program were examined to better understand perceived needs in health professions education and institutional impact of projects.

METHOD:

Four hundred and thirty-five projects were analyzed to identify focus areas. Fellows were asked to identify changes in their schools and communities resulting from their projects.

RESULTS:

New education methods and curriculum change were common project focus areas. Regional differences were evident with a higher percentage of education methods projects by Fellows residing in India (52%), compared with South Africa (25%) and Brazil (24%). Fifty-six percent of projects were incorporated into the curriculum and/or incorporated as institutional policy. One-third to two-thirds of respondents noted improved teaching quality, collaboration, education research interest, assessment, student performance, and curriculum alignment with community health needs.

CONCLUSION:

National differences in project focus may offer insight into local conditions and needs. High rates of diffusion of projects and impact on faculty, students, and curriculum suggest that faculty development projects may be a strategy for institutional change in resource limited environments.

PMID:
 
22250674
 
DOI:
 
10.3109/0142159X.2011.558538
[PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]


펠로우십 교육을 받은 의학교육자집단 양성: FDP에 대한 프로그램책임자 입장의 관점(Acad Med, 2016)

Creating a Cadre of Fellowship-Trained Medical Educators: A Qualitative Study of Faculty Development Program Leaders’ Perspectives and Advice

Wendy C. Coates, MD, Daniel P. Runde, MD, Lalena M. Yarris, MD, MCR, Steven Rougas, MD, MS, Todd A. Guth, MD, Sally A. Santen, MD, PhD, Jessica Miller, MD, and Jaime Jordan, MD




 

현재 레지던트 졸업생들이 first academic appointment 전에 교수로서 역량을 갖추기 위해 표준화 된 대학원 교육 모델 (각 전문 분야별로 제공되는 교육 모델)은 존재하지 않습니다. 새로운 교육 방식과 이니셔티브가 확장되고 발전함에 따라 엄격한 교육의 필요성이 커졌습니다. 예를 들어, 교육은 더 이상 정보를 전달하는 주요 수단인 대규모 그룹 강의에 의존하지 않으며, 팀 기반 학습, 문제 기반 학습, 시뮬레이션 및 소셜 미디어 지원 학습과 같은 혁신적이고 상호 작용적인 학습 전략으로 옮겨가고 있다.

Currently, no standard postgraduate training model (like those available for each medical specialty) exists for residency graduates to attain competency as faculty members before their first academic appointment. The need for rigorous training has grown as novel educational modalities and initiatives have expanded and evolved. For example, reliance on large-group lectures as the primary means of delivering information has waned in favor of innovative and interactive learning strategies, such as team-based learning, problem-based learning, simulation, and social-media-enabled learning.1–3


의학 교육 현장과 연구분야로 들어오는 교수진에게 필요한 다양한 준비 과정을 위해 몇몇 의과 대학은 자체 집중적 인 교수 개발 프로그램을 수립했습니다 .6-12 이러한 종단 프로그램은 다양한 분야의 다양한 동기 부여를 목적으로 하며, 하나의 교육 기관 내에서 훈련 된 교육리더그룹cadre of education leader를 양성한다.

To address the variable preparation of incoming faculty in medical education practice and scholarship, several medical schools have established their own intensive faculty development programs.6–12 These longitudinal programs serve a diverse group of existing motivated faculty from various disciplines, and they often create within a single institution a trained cadre of education leaders.


Searle 등은 FD 리더에게 커리큘럼에 대해 묻는 설문 조사 결과를 발표했습니다. 프로그램은 공통된 요소를 공유하지만 의학 교육분야의 커리어를 추구pursue하는 교수를 대상으로하는 표준화 된 커리큘럼은 없습니다 .15 프로그램 길이는 다양하며 교사개발부터 교육연구 교육에 이르기까지 다양합니다. 많은 기관들은이 FD프로그램을 "의학 교육 펠로우십"이라고 부릅니다.

Searle and colleagues14 published the results of a survey querying faculty development leaders about their curricula. Although programs share common elements, there is no standardized curriculum for graduates pursuing a career in medical education.15 Program length varies, and the focus of such programs ranges from teacher development to deliberate training in education scholarship. Many institutions refer to these faculty development programs as “medical education fellowships.”


그러한 "펠로우십"은 과거에 스승과 제자 간의 대화를 통해 배웠던 훈련을 간소화streamline한다. 교육 과정 목표 이외에,이 프로그램은 미래 지도자를 창출하고 교육자 공동체를 구축하기 위해 노력합니다 .6-8,15,16

Such “fellowships” streamline training that may have been taught through a mentor– protégé dyad in the past. In addition to the curricular objectives, these programs strive to create future leaders and build a community of educators.6–8,15,16


 



교육 전문 리더십 개발에 PG Training모델 적용

Applying the Medical Specialty Postgraduate Training Model to Educational Leadership Development


전공의 교육 모델에서 분과를 전공specialize하려는 레지던트 졸업생은 교직원 임명 전에 직무를 수행하는 데 필요한 고급 스킬을 습득하기 위해 헌신적인dedicated 펠로우쉽을 완료해야합니다 (예 : 내과의 레지던트 졸업생이 심장 내과 펠로우십을 마치고 심장 전문의가 됨). 대조적으로, 대부분의 academic faculty는 경력을 쌓기 전에 의학교육 테크닉에 대한 공식 교육을받지 않습니다. 교육에 필요한 역량은 "직무 중on the job"에 또는 임용academic appointment후 FD프로그램에 참여함으로써 획득됩니다.

In the medical specialties training model, residency graduates who wish to specialize are required to complete a dedicated fellowship to acquire the advanced skills necessary to perform job tasks prior to their faculty appointment (e.g., an internal medicine residency graduate completes a cardiology fellowship to become a cardiologist). In contrast, most academic faculty do not undergo formal training in medical education techniques prior to beginning their careers. Rather, competency is attained “on the job” or by means of participation in a faculty development program after the academic appointment.

 

 

PG 의학교육 펠로우쉽의 개념은 1970 년대에 가정의학과에서 시작되어 교육자 공동체에 대한 필요성을 인식하고 이를 해결하려는 욕구에서 비롯되었습니다 .17 마찬가지로, 응급 의학 (EM) 교육 지도자는 2012 년 Academic 교육 학자를위한 최적의 교육을 논의하고 유사한 관심사, 기술 및 전문 지식을 갖춘 광범위한 교수진 커뮤니티를 육성하기위한 Academic Emergency Medicine Consensus Conference on Education Research에 모였다. Lin과 동료들은 이러한 목표를 달성하는 최선의 방법을 알리기 위해 심층적 인 요구 평가가 필요하다고 결론 지었다. 최초 교수임용 전에 의학 교육에 대한 훈련을 제공하는 포스트 레지던트 의학 교육 펠로우십 모델을 제안하였다.

The concept of a postgraduate medical education fellowship began within the specialty of family medicine in the 1970s and stemmed from a desire to address a perceived need for a community of educators.17 Similarly, emergency medicine (EM) education leaders convened in 2012 at the Academic Emergency Medicine Consensus Conference on Education Research, to discuss optimal training for education scholars and to foster the development of a broad community of faculty with similar interests, skills, and expertise. Lin and colleagues18 concluded that an in-depth needs assessment was necessary to inform how to best accomplish this goal. A postresidency medical education fellowship model that provides training in medical education before the first faculty appointment was proposed.19

 

연구에 따르면 의학교육에 대한 early training은 acadmic medicine에서의 경력에 ​​대한 욕구를 불러 일으키고 21) 질 낮은 교수법 기술을 배우지 못하게 하는 효과가 있 .22) Prefaculty fellowship training의 영향은 일반적으로 새로운 기술이나 전략에 개방적 초보자에게 의미가 있다.

Research indicates that early training in medical education inspires a desire for a career in academic medicine21 and precludes the development and reinforcement of poor teaching techniques.22 The impact of prefaculty fellowship training may be especially meaningful for novice learners who are typically open to new techniques or strategies.23



방법

Method


연구 대상, 세팅, 윤리

Study population, setting, and ethical approval





연구 프로토콜

Study protocol


We conducted this as a prospective qualitative study, using semistructured telephone interviews, in November 2013. We identified potential participants through an Internet-based search and/or personal knowledge of program leaders.


To render our findings as generalizable as possible, we used purposeful sampling. We wanted not only to ensure representation of individuals who would have extensive knowledge of key elements of the research question but also to gather, if possible, the view of those who might be outliers or have dissenting opinions. To achieve this diversity of expertise and opinion, we considered geographic diversity, institutional funding (private versus state/governmental), and length/focus of program.


Participation was voluntary, and we did not offer participants any incentives. One member of our study team (D.P.R., graduate of a medical education fellowship program) conducted semistructured telephone interviews lasting approximately one hour. We accomplished member checking in real time: The interviewer frequently restated participants’ responses and sought to ensure that he understood their intended meaning. The interviews were recorded with the participants’ permission and transcribed verbatim by a member of the study team (J.M.). Both D.P.R and J.M. had prior acquaintance with one participant (from their home institution).



Instrument


We based the scripting of the questions on recommendations of a subcommittee of scholars with expertise on training educational leaders. We designed the questions, the content of which was specialty independent, using cognitive interviewing methods.26 Semistructured questions sought discrete information but enabled the respondent to offer additional information. Other questions were open-ended, designed both to promote reflective analysis of the program’s impact on the fellows themselves and the institution, and to inspire a vision of the “ideal” fellowship. Finally, we elicited advice for those seeking to create a new program. We read the script aloud to volunteers (i.e., senior educators who lead residency, fellowship, or continuing medical education programs) to assess for response process, clarity, and comprehension. On the basis of their responses, we made minor modifications, including using terminology uniformly, transforming complex questions into shorter segments that allowed a response to each component before offering the next query, and correcting minor grammatical errors. (See Appendix 1 for the interview script.) 



Data analysis


We performed a qualitative analysis using a thematic approach and an interpretivist/constructivist paradigm that sought to understand the views, perceptions, and experiences of faculty development program directors.27 Two investigators (W.C.C., founder of a medical education fellowship program that has graduated fellows since 1996; J.J., graduate of such a medical education fellowship) independently coded the deidentified, transcribed interview data. They examined the data line by line, identifying recurring concepts and assigning codes that were further refined using the constant comparative method.28 They resolved discrepancies through an in-depth discussion. Through consensus, they established the coding scheme which then was applied to all transcripts. A third independent analyst (D.P.R.) who was not involved in the development of the coding scheme then used it to code each interview transcript and achieved 86.3% agreement with the initial two analysts. The three analysts negotiated a final coding scheme through consensus prior to data analysis. We achieved saturation for thematic content after reviewing four transcripts, but we analyzed and reported the data from all interview transcripts.



결과

Results


일반적인 결과

General outcomes

 

 


14 개 프로그램이 포함 기준을 충족했습니다. 우리는 장기간의 교수 개발 프로그램 (범위 = 6-33 세, 평균 = 15.38 년)을 이끄는 8 명의 프로그램 디렉터를 대상으로 인터뷰했습니다. 8 개 (목록 1 참조)는 지리적으로 미국을 대표했으며 공립 / 사립 소유권 측면에서 미국 의대를 대표했습니다.

Fourteen programs met our inclusion criteria. We interviewed a purposive sample of eight program directors who headed long-standing faculty development programs (range = 6–33 years; mean = 15.38 years). The eight (see List 1) were representative of the United States geographically and of U.S. MD-granting medical schools in terms of public/private ownership.

 

 

프로그램 기간은 10 개월에서 2 년 사이였다. 4 개의 프로그램은 2 년의 길이였습니다. 나머지 절반은 1 년 이하였다. 프로그램 당 평균 졸업생 수는 150 명 (60-300 명)입니다. 프로그램은 매년 평균 17 명의 휄로우 (3-25명)를 admit했습니다. 5 개의 프로그램은 오직 교수만을 수용했습니다; 2 명은 코호트, 임상 동료, 간호사 종사자, 또는 불특정 박사 후보자의 10 %에서 15 %로 받아 들여진다. 나머지 프로그램은 매년 코호트 선정을 평가했다.

Program length ranged from 10 months to 2 years. Four programs were 2 years in length; the remaining half were 1 year or less. The average number of total graduates per program was 150 (range 60–300). Programs admitted an average of 17 fellows each year (range 3–25). Five programs accepted only faculty; two accepted, as 10% to 15% of their cohort, clinical fellows, nurse practitioners, or unspecified PhD candidates; and the remaining program evaluated its cohort selection on a yearly basis.

 

프로그램 리더는 커리큘럼재정 구조를 설명하고 프로그램의 가치를 평가하며 새로운 의학교육 펠로우십을 창안하려는 교육자에게 지침을 제공했습니다. 프로그램의 구조와 운영은 독특했지만, 모든 리더들은 특히 리더십 직책을 맡은 졸업생 (예 : 사이트 디렉터, 부서장, 레지던트 프로그램 리더 및 교육 학장)의 prevalence과 관련하여 긍정적 인 결과를보고했습니다.
Program leaders described their curriculum and fiscal structure, appraised the value of their programs, and offered guidance to educators seeking to create new medical education fellowships. While the structure and operation of the programs were unique, all directors reported positive outcomes, especially regarding the prevalence of graduates in leadership positions (e.g., site directors, department chairs, residency program leaders, and deans of education).


 


교육과정 요소

Curricular elements


성인 교육 이론, 교습 기술 (교훈 및 머리맡), 의학 교육에서의 기술 사용, 응용 교육 연구 방법론 및 행정 리더십 기술 개발 (표 1 참조)을 포함하여 기본 교육 과정은 주로 개별 교육 기관의 교훈 프로그램을 통해 이루어졌습니다. . 일부 프로그램은 다른 기관의 교수 개발 프로그램 및 공식 외부 프로그램 (예 : 미국 의과 대학 (AAMC)이 운영하는 의학 교육 연구 인증 프로그램 [MERC])과 협력했습니다 .29

Basic curricular offerings, taught mostly through didactic programs within individual institutions, included material on adult learning theory, teaching techniques (didactic and bedside), use of technology in medical education, applied education research methodology, and administrative leadership skill development (see Table 1). Some programs collaborated with other institutional faculty development programs and formal external programs (e.g., the Medical Education Research Certificate Program [MERC] run by the Association of American Medical Colleges [AAMC]).29



재정

Funding



8 개 프로그램 중 7 개 프로그램은 기관으로부터 부분적인 자금을 지원 받았다. 그러나 이 7 개 기관 중 3 개 기관은 펠로우 본인이나 부서academic department의 투자를 요구했습니다. 8 개 프로그램 모두에서 의학교육FD펠로우십 (예 : 물리적 공간 요구 사항, 지도자, 행정 지원 직원, 컴퓨터 지원, 도서관 자원)의 간접비 중 일부는 학장 사무실에서 발생한 일반 비용으로 접어 들었다fold into.

Seven of the eight programs received partial funding from their institutions; however, of these seven, three institutions required an investment by the fellow or his/her academic department. All eight programs reported that at least some of the overhead costs of the faculty development medical education fellowship (e.g., physical space requirements, leaders, administrative support staff, computer support, library resources) were folded into the general expenses incurred by their deans’ offices.


3 명의 프로그램 책임자는 의대에 대한 보조금이나 프로그램에 대한 특정 보조금을 사용할 수 있다고보고했습니다.

Three program directors reported that grants to the medical school or specific grants for the program were available.

 

그러나 한 프로그램 지도자는 외부 기금에의 의존이 프로그램을 정기적으로 기금으로 모으는 능력을 위태롭게 할 수도 있다고 경고했습니다.

However, one program leader cautioned that reliance on extramural funding might jeopardize the ability to fund the program regularly.

 

한 프로그램은 교수진의 과department가 지불하는 약간의 학비tuition으로 비용을 상쇄합니다.

One program relies on the faculty member’s department to offset the cost with a modest tuition payment.

 

참여교수 각각에게 부서는 소액인 1,500 달러를 제공한다. [This]는 우리 부서의 [Department of Medical Education 's] 비용을 지원하는 데 도움이됩니다.

There’s a small amount, $1,500, that the departments provide for each of the faculty [members who] are participating. [This] helps underwrite our department’s [Department of Medical Education’s] cost.

 

또 다른 학교는 리더 및 코스 코디네이터의 급여 지원을 포함하여 의학교육 펠로우쉽 프로그램과 관련된 비용을 충당하기 위해 참가비용을 부과합니다.

Another school charges for participation to cover costs related to the faculty development medical education fellowship program, including salary support for the leaders and the course coordinator.

 

사람들은 연간 4 천 달러를 지불합니다. 내 생각에 [그들은] 학과장에게 도와줄것인지 말 것인지를 물어볼 것입니다. 어떤 사람들은 그들의 학과장이 학비를 지불하기를 거절했지만 너무나 참여하고 싶었기 때문에 사비로 돈을 지불했습니다.

People pay $4,000 per year. I think [they] make the request to the chairs [who] will support them or not. Some people have paid their own way if their chair has refused to pay their tuition but they really want to come.


 




보호된 시간

Protected time

 

Director들은 의학교육펠로우쉽과 펠로우 자신은 업무 관련 책임과 펠로우쉽에 필요한 시간의 균형을 맞추어야한다고보고했다. 프로그램 디렉터는, 특히 의사가 아닌 디렉터는nonphysicians, 의학 교육 펠로우쉽에서의 교육이 본질적 의무라고 생각한다고 보고했다. 두 명의 프로그램이 임상의에 의해 co-directed 되었으며, 두 경우 모두 임상의는 펠로우십의 의무와 상응하는 임상 적 의무로부터 보호 된 시간을 보전하기 위해 학장의 재정 지원을 받았다. 하나는 15 %의 급여 지원을 받았고 다른 하나는 50 %를 받았다.

Directors reported that both the faculty of the medical education fellowships and the fellows themselves must balance job-related responsibilities with the time commitment needed for the fellowship. Program directors, especially nonphysicians, reported that they consider teaching in the medical education fellowship to be an inherent job duty. Two programs were each codirected by a practicing clinician, and in both cases the clinician received financial support from his or her dean’s office to compensate for protected time from clinical duties commensurate with his or her fellowship obligation; one received 15% salary support, and the other received 50%.

 

보호받는 시간과 재정 지원은 펠로우에게 안정적으로 제공되는 것이 아니었다. 5 개의 프로그램이 규정되어 있지만, 학습자 학과장과의 공식 협약 - "일상적인 책임의 일정 비율에서 석방되어야 한다"라는 협약 - 을 준수하는 것은 종종 suboptimal 했습니다. 협약을 맺은 5 명 중 2 명은 10 %의 헌신을 요구했고, 각각은 20 %와 25 %의 보호 기간을 요구했고, 하나는 펠로우십 프로그램에 종사하면서 의무가 "축소"되어야한다고 규정했습니다. 두 가지 프로그램은 공식적인 합의가 없었으며 나머지 프로그램은 합의가 이루어 졌는지 여부를 명시하지 않았습니다.

Protected time and financial support were less reliable for the fellows. While five programs stipulated, in a formal agreement with learners’ department chairs, that fellows were to be released from some percentage of their usual responsibilities, compliance with this policy was often suboptimal. Of the five with agreements, two required a 10% commitment, one each mandated 20% and 25% protected time, and one stipulated that duties should be “reduced” while engaged in the fellowship program. Two programs had no formal agreement, and the remaining program did not specify if an agreement existed.

 

 

앞서 언급했듯이, 공식적인 합의에도 불구하고 프로그램 디렉터들은 합의 사항이 일관되게 준수되었는지에 의문을 제기했다
As mentioned, despite formal arrangements, program leaders doubted that the agreements were followed uniformly.



 
의학교육연구 트레이닝

Training in education research


대부분의 프로그램 (n = 7)은 교육스칼라십과 관련된 교육을 선택 또는 필수 구성 요소로 제공합니다. 두 가지 프로그램 (각각 길이가 1 년 미만)은 연구 방법론과 문학에 대한 비판적인 검토를 교과 과정 요소로 다루었지만 프로젝트는 필요하지 않았습니다. 세 가지 프로그램이 준수하는 가장 보편적 인 연구 훈련 방법은 (자격을 갖춘 local 교수진이 소속 된 기관에서 또는 외부 회의에서) AAMC의 MERC 커리큘럼을 따르는 것입니다 .- .

Most programs (n = 7) offered—either as an elective or as a required component— training related to educational scholarship. Two programs (each less than one year in length) addressed research methodology and critical review of the literature as a curricular element, but did not require a project. The most common method of research training, adhered to by three programs, was to follow the AAMC’s MERC curriculum29—either at the home institution by local qualified faculty or at an external meeting.



의학교육 펠로우십의 가치

The value of a medical education fellowship


우리는 감독들에게 왜 의학 교육에 중점을 둔 교수 개발 프로그램이 가치가 있다고 생각 하느냐고 물었고, 그들은 동지애의 가장 중요한 이익으로서 같은 생각을 가진 학자scholar 공동체 창설을 만장일치로 인용했다.

We asked directors why they thought a faculty development program focusing on medical education was worthwhile, and they unanimously cited the creation of a community of like-minded scholars as the most important benefit of the fellowship.


[휄로우들]은 서로 연결되어 있습니다 ... 그들이 하고있는 사회 및 학술 네트워킹과 새로운 기술을 시도하고 가르치고 연구하는 방법을 성찰할 수 있는 기회입니다. 심지어 기본적인 과학자들도 "나는 돌아가서 팀 회의를 다르게 운영한다. 나는 나의 기대에 분명하고 나는 사람들이 실패 할 때 붙잡으려고만 하지 않고있다. 저는 그것을 긍정적으로 다시 말했습니다. "우리는 우리 동료들을 정말로 소중히 여기며 존경합니다.

The [fellows] are being connected … it’s the social and academic networking they are doing and the opportunity to try new skills and have time to reflect on their practice of teaching and research. Even the basic scientists say, “I go back and run my team meetings differently. I am clear on my expectations and I’m not trying to just catch people when they fail. I’ve rephrased it to a positive.” We have a great deal of really cherishing and respecting our [fellows].


모두는 그들이 프로그램을 떠날 때 그들이 활력을 되찾고, 재 활성화되고, 가르치기를 좋아하는 사람들과 관련이 있다고 느낍니다. 그들의 열정이지만 반드시 문화적으로 가치있는 것은 아닙니다. 따라서 시스템 내에서 커뮤니티를 만드는 것이 이러한 사람들에게 가장 중요한 이점이라고 생각합니다. 그것은 정말로 소진에 대한 해독제입니다.

Everybody says when they leave the program they feel reinvigorated, reenergized, and connected with people who love to teach. It is their passion, but not necessarily culturally valued. So I think that creating the community within the system is the most important [benefit] for these folks. It’s really an antidote to burnout.

 


다른 주요 테마는 경력 개발 및 프로그램에서 다뤄진 퍼베이시브 역량 강화를 위한 잠재력이었습니다.

Other prominent themes were potential for career advancement and promoting pervasive competency in the domains covered in the programs.

 

프로그램 강점에 관해 질문 할 때, 4 명의 감독은 의학 교육에 대한 인식이 향상되었다고보고했습니다. 모든 것은 그들의 기관 지도자들과 동료들에 의해지지를 받았다.
When asked about program strengths, four directors noticed improved perception of medical education. All felt supported by their institutional leaders and colleagues.





석박사 학위 요구

Advanced degree requirement


 

이러한 오랜 기간의 프로그램을 성공적으로 이수하기 위해 석박사 학위가 필요하지 않았습니다. 대부분의 감독은 학위가 필요하지 않은 이유로 시간 제약과 자원 제한을 언급했습니다.

An advanced degree was not a requirement for successfully completing any of these long-standing programs. Most directors cited time constraints and resource limitations as reasons for not requiring a degree.

 


대부분의 프로그램 디렉터가 고급 학위가 필요하다고 생각하지는 않지만 일부는 그러한 학위가 시장성 증대의 이점을 제공하거나 국가 추세가 장래에 고급 학위를 취득 할 필요가 있다고 믿는 사람들도 있습니다.

Although most program directors did not believe an advanced degree was necessary, some believed either that such a degree might offer the advantage of increased marketability or that national trends might necessitate earning an advanced degree in the future.

 

나는 그것이 정말로 중요하다고 생각한다. 당신이 나라를 들여다 보면 위대한 지도자들 중 많은 사람들이 박사 학위를 소지하고 있습니다. 저는 ... 우리가 말하는 입장에서 경쟁력을 갖춰야한다는 것이 점점 더 일상화되고 있다고 생각합니다. 점점 더 바람직해질 것입니다.

I think it is really important. If you look across the country, many of the great leaders have a PhD or EdD or MEd.… I think it does become more and more common to have that and to be competitive in the positions we are talking about. It will become more and more desirable.





의학교육펠로우십의 과제

Challenges of the medical education fellowship


 

성공적인 프로그램 운영에 대한 질문에 7 명의 펠로우십 디렉터가 자원 문제를 언급했습니다. 두 사람은 프로그램에 대한 더 큰 재정적 지원이 그것을 향상시킬 것이라고 생각했다. 세 사람은 일관된 보호 시간 형태로 더 많은 부서 지원을 원했고 동료 또는 부서가 투자 한 재정적 투자를 상기하며 기관 지원이 이러한 개인과 후원 부서를 더 쉽게 만들 수 있다고 제안했습니다. 3 명의 감독은 시뮬레이션에 대한 액세스와 같이 펠로우를 위한 대화식 기술을 포함하는 것과 같은 코스에 대한 기술적 지원 향상을 기대했습니다. 2 명의 감독은 시간과 재능에 대한 많은 개인적인 투자가 프로그램의 성공의 핵심 이었기 때문에 프로그램의 리더십 양도가 어려웠다 고 지적했습니다. 프로그램에 scholarly project 요소가 필요한 두 명의 디렉터는 적절한 멘토가 있었는데도 일부 펠로우가 완료하지 못했다는 것에 대해 좌절했습니다. 그들은 행정적인 또는 임상적인 의무로부터 보호받는 시간의 부족이 이유일 것이라고 언급했다.

When asked about challenges of running a successful program, seven fellowship directors cited resource issues. Two felt that greater fiscal support of the program would enhance it. Three wished for more departmental support in the form of consistent protected time, and one recalled the financial investment made by the fellows or their departments and suggested that institutional support would make it easier for these individuals and their sponsoring departments. Three directors wished for improved technological support for the course, including interactive technology for the fellows, such as access to simulation. Two directors pointed out that transferring leadership of the program was proving to be difficult because so much personal investment of time and talent were at the core of the program’s success. The two directors whose programs required a scholarly project component were frustrated that some fellows did not complete it despite the availability of appropriate mentors. They cited the lack of protected time from administrative or clinical duties as likely reasons.


한 명의 프로그램 리더는 교육을받은 교육자가 교육 기관을 떠날 때의 좌절감을 나타 냈습니다.
One program leader expressed frustration when trained educators leave the institution.


 

펠로우십 프로그램 졸업생을 위한 꿈과 희망

Hopes and dreams for fellowship program graduates


프로그램 디렉터들은 펠로우 간 관계가 졸업생들의 커리어를 향상시킬 것이라고 일관되게 믿었다. 졸업생은

(1) 리더십 역할을 맡을 수있는 기회,

(2) 학술적 커리어를 추구하는 것,

(3) Scholarship을 창출하는 것,

(4) 각자의 분야에서 국가적 명성을 달성 할 수있는 기회를 얻는

 

...기회가 있을 것이다

Program directors uniformly believed that the fellowship would improve the careers of their graduates. When queried about their hopes and expectations of graduates, four major themes emerged: Graduates have better chances of (1) assuming leadership roles, (2) pursuing an academic career, (3) producing scholarship, and (4) achieving national prominence in their field(s).

 


8 명의 모든 이사는 Local level에서 교육 공동체의 전반적인 개선이 오랜 기간 지속 된 프로그램의 가장 큰 이점 중 하나라고 언급했습니다 (위의 의학 교육 펠로우쉽의 가치 참조).

All eight directors cited general improvement of the educational community at the local level as one of the greatest benefits of their long-standing programs (see The value of a medical education fellowship above).

 

 

새로운 의학 교육 펠로우쉽을 시작하는 사람들에게 주는 조언

Advice to those starting a new medical education fellowship

 

다음과 같은 3 가지 주요 권장 사항을 압도적으로 사용합니다. 그리고

(1) 프로그램의 목표와 구체적인 목표를 명확하게 정의하고,

(2) 모범 사례를 평가하고, Local needs에 가장 잘 맞는 방법을 선택하며, 

(3) 필요한 재정 지원과 기관 지도자의 지지endorsement을 얻는다.

The fellowship directors’ suggestions for those considering developing a new medical education fellowship fell overwhelmingly into three major recommendations: (1) Clearly define the goals and specific objectives of the program, (2) evaluate best practices and choose those that best fit local needs, and (3) garner necessary fiscal support and the endorsement of institutional leaders. One director stated:

 

또 다른 제안은 학자 공동체를 형성하려는 주요 목적이 직접 대면하는 시간이 줄어들면서 어려움을 겪을지라도 교육적 adjunct(예 : 시뮬레이션) 및 원격 회의 또는 비동기 학습을 포함하여 schedule disruption을 최소화하는 테크놀로지을 포함하는 것이 었습니다. 일부는 department가 교육에 대한 투자를 강조하기 위해 교수진이 참석하는데 필요한 tuition을 지불 할 것을 제안했습니다. 그들은 학과장이 자신의 예산을 활용할 때 기대 수준이 높았으며 회의 참석을 위해 더 많은 교직원을 release할 의사가 있다고 언급했습니다. 대부분의 경우에 디렉터들은 protected time이 학습자의 성공을 보장하는 데있어 가장 중요한 요인이었고 attrition은 경쟁적인 임상 또는 기타 부서 요구의 결과라고 느꼈습니다.

Another suggestion was to include technology, including educational adjuncts (e.g., simulation) and teleconferencing or asynchronous learning to minimize schedule disruption—although the major objective of forming a community of scholars might suffer with diminished face time. Some suggested that the departments pay tuition for their faculty to attend to underscore the investment in education. They noted that when the chairs had to tap into their own budgets, they had a higher level of expectation and were more willing to release the faculty for the sessions. Uniformly, directors felt that protected time was the biggest factor in ensuring the success of the learners and that attrition was a result of competing clinical or other departmental demands.

 



 


 


고찰

Discussion


종단 교수 개발 펠로우 십은 의학 교육자 공동체를 육성하여 공통의 목표를 달성하고 오늘날의 학습자의 요구에 부합하는 새로운 이니셔티브를 이끌어냅니다. 가장 일반적으로,이 공동체는 단일 기관 내의 다 학제 기반에서 비롯되며 교수 및 교육 장학금의 이론 지식과 멘토링 된 경험을 갈망하는 기존 교수를위한 것입니다.

Longitudinal faculty development fellowships cultivate communities of medical educators to achieve common goals and lead new initiatives that keep pace with the needs of today’s learners. Most commonly, these communities arise from a multidisciplinary base within a single institution and are intended for existing faculty who yearn for theoretical knowledge and mentored experiences in teaching and educational scholarship.




기관 및 교수진에게주는 혜택

Benefits to institutions and faculty fellows

 

 

교원임명에 앞서 펠로우십 교육을 받는 것은, 펠로우들이 (행정 및 서비스 의무를 최소화하는) 교육 전문가로서의 전문성 개발에 우선 순위를 부여 할 수 있습니다. 졸업생들은 이미 학습 이론의 언어와 문화에 능통 한 지식과 기술의 표준적 기반을 갖춘 상태로 교수로서의 경력을 시작하게됩니다.

Timing the fellowship prior to faculty appointment allows trainees to prioritize their professional development as education specialists, under close mentorship, in a model that minimizes administrative and service obligations. Graduates would begin their faculty careers with a standard foundation of knowledge and skills, already fluent in the language and culture of learning theory.


우리 참가자들에 따르면, 대부분의 펠로우들은 학습에 집중하기 위해 보호 된 시간을 약속 받았지만, 그들의 임상 및 행정 업무는 진전을 방해하고, 때로는 펠로우십 관련 작업, 특히 scholarly products의 완성을 저해했습니다. 의료 전문인 모델과 일치하는 형식으로 의학 교육 펠로우쉽을 완료하면이 문제가 해결됩니다 .19,20,30

Although, according to our participants, most fellows were promised protected time to focus on learning, their clinical and administrative duties impeded their progress and, sometimes, the completion of fellowship-related tasks, especially scholarly products. Completion of the medical education fellowship in a format that aligns with the medical specialties model obviates this problem.19,20,30

 

 

또한 Postgraduate 구조는 여러 layer의 커뮤니티를 제공합니다. 펠로우들은 서로 관계bond를 형성할 수 있으며 전국의 여러 기관에서 자신의 전문 분야에 널리 퍼져있는 커뮤니티를 가질 수 있습니다.

Further, the postgraduate structure affords multiple layers of community. Fellows may forge bonds with one another and have a widespread community within their specialties across multiple institutions nationwide.

 

 


Postresidency의학 교육 펠로우 십 개발을위한 제안

Suggestions for developing a postresidency medical education fellowship

 


펠로우십 프로그램 형식을 고려하도록 명시 적으로 촉구되었을 때, 교육자 또는 지도자가 의학 교육에서 펠로우쉽 프로그램을 시작하는 프로그램 디렉터의 조언은 명확하고 만장일치였다 : 사전에 목표를 정의하고, 모범 사례를 평가하며, 부서장 및 학장을 포함한 주요 전략적 파트너 및 지도자의 서포트를 받아라

 

Program directors’ advice to educators or leaders starting a fellowship program in medical education, when explicitly prompted to consider a postgraduate fellowship format, was clear and unanimous: Define goals in advance, evaluate best practices, and gather support from key strategic partners and leaders, including department chairs and deans.

 

펠로우쉽 내용 및 평가

Fellowship content and evaluation


대화 형 교육 방법, 성인 학습 원칙, ​​커리큘럼 개발, 평가, 리더십 및 장학금을 포함하여 참가자가 보고 한 이상적인 커리큘럼 내용은 education fellowship에 관해 기존에 출판된 문헌에서 나온 핵심 내용과 같다10,11,14,15,31 인터뷰 대상자는 일관된 지식과 전문 지식을 여러 명의 학습자에게 제공하는 것은 지역 교육 사명을 육성하기위한 지지 공동체supportive community를 형성하는 데 중요했습니다.

The ideal curriculum content reported by our participants, including interactive teaching methods, adult learning principles, curriculum development, assessment, leadership, and scholarship, resonates with published core content for education scholarship fellows.10,11,14,15,31 Interviewees reported that providing multiple learners with consistent knowledge and shared expertise was critical in forming a supportive community to foster the local educational mission. 


펠로우십 프로그램 성과에 대한 개선 된 분석에 대한 요구에도 불구하고, 12,32 선행 연구는 프로그램 성공 지표에서 객관적인 결과 데이터를 거의 보여주지 못했습니다 .10,11,33 프로그램 디렉터는 리더십 직책과 학업 성취도에 오른 졸업생에 관한 일화 정보를 전달했습니다 . 성공의 측정 기준은 졸업생에 대한 프로그램 디렉터의 기대에서 추측 할 수 있지만 모범 사례를 알리기위한 비판적이고 양적이며 장기적인 프로그램 평가의 필요성이 여전히 남아 있습니다.

Despite a call for improved analysis of fellowship program outcomes,12,32 prior studies have demonstrated few objective outcome data from metrics of program success.10,11,33 Our program directors relayed anecdotal information about graduates who had risen to leadership positions and scholarly achievement. Although metrics of success can be inferred from program directors’ expectations of graduates, the need for critical, quantitative, long-term evaluation of programs to inform best practices remains.



 

한계

Limitations



우리의 연구 결과는 경험이 풍부한 프로그램 디렉터의 작은 샘플로 제한됩니다; 그러나 샘플링은 제도적 (공공 / 사립) 및 지리적 다양성뿐만 아니라 다양한 프로그램 형식을 포함하는 데 목적이 있습니다. 가능하면 모든 관련 질문을하지는 않았지만 참여자가 개방형 질문 형식을 통해 자유롭게 말하도록 권장했습니다. 우리가 연구를 계획 할 때, 우리는 다양한 의견을 얻고 의견을 표명하기를 희망했습니다. 우리 연구 집단은 교수개발펠로우십 프로그램 디렉터를위한 "모범 사례"가 등장했음을 나타내는 다소 균일 한 응답을 제공했습니다. 초기 프로그램과 중단 된 프로그램의 감독이 추가적인 통찰력을 제공했을 수도 있습니다.

Our findings are limited to a small sample of experienced program directors; however, the sampling was purposeful to include a variety of program formats, as well as institutional (public/private) and geographic diversity. Possibly, we did not ask all the relevant questions, but we encouraged participants to speak freely through our open-ended question format. When we planned our study, we hoped that we would gain a variety of opinions and dissenting viewpoints. Our study population provided rather uniform responses, perhaps indicating that “best practices” for program directors of faculty development fellowships had emerged. Directors of nascent and discontinued programs may have provided additional insight.

 

인터뷰 담당자와 필사자가 전문적으로 감독 중 한 명을 알았지 만, 맹검 된 검토자는 식별되지 않은 transcript를 사용하여 코딩과 분석을 수행했습니다. 우리는 의학 교육이 확고하게 수립 된 분야 인 미국 이외의 프로그램, 특히 캐나다에서의 독특한 관점을 생략했을 수도 있습니다. 우리는이 프로젝트를 특정 관점에서 시작했습니다. 이 연구에 참여한 우리 모두는 EM 의사입니다. 그러나 우리는 상당한 집단 의학 교육 경험과 지식을 프로젝트에 적용했습니다. 우리 중 세 명은 교육에 대한 추가 교육을 받았으며 Postgraduate 의학교육/펠로우십 리더십 (W.C.C., S.A.S., L.M.Y.)에 참여했으며 네 명은 의학 교육 펠로우쉽을 완료했습니다 (D.P.R., S.R., T.A.G., J.J.). 우리 그룹은 여러 전문 분야에 적용 할 수있는 기존의 교수진 개발 프로그램을 모방하기 위해 의학 교육에서 대학원 친목의 광범위한 모델을 창출하려는 의도로이 연구에 접근했습니다. 중요한 것은 응답자 중 응급 의사가 아니며 특정 질문에 초점을 맞춘 질문이 없습니다.

Although our interviewer and transcriber knew one of the directors on a professional basis, blinded reviewers performed the coding and analysis using deidentified transcripts. We may have omitted unique points of view from programs outside of the United States, particularly in Canada, where medical education is a firmly established discipline. We embarked on this project from a particular perspective. All of us involved in this study are EM physicians; however, we applied our considerable collective medical education experience and knowledge to the project. Three of us have additional training in education and are involved in postgraduate medical education/fellowship leadership (W.C.C., S.A.S., L.M.Y.), and four of us have completed a medical education fellowship (D.P.R., S.R., T.A.G., J.J.). Our group approached this study with the intent of creating a broad model of a postgraduate fellowship in medical education to mimic existing faculty development programs that would apply to multiple specialties. Importantly, none of our respondents were emergency physicians, and none of our questions focused on any particular medical specialty.


 

 

Directions for further study


예를 들어 답을 구하는 한 가지 질문은 동료에게 감독과 멘토링을 제공하기 위해 얼마나 많은 full-time exempt employees 이 필요한지입니다. 평가할 다른 영역은 자금 지원 및 fellowship structure입니다.
One question to answer, for example, is how many full-time exempt employees would be required to provide supervision and mentorship to fellows. Other areas to assess are financing and fellowship structure.



Conclusions




Appendix 1 Semistructured Telephone Survey Question Guide, 2013a


1. How long has your program been in existence?

2. What is the duration of your program?

3. Do you notice any trend in enrollment among faculty in basic science, primary care, or those in surgery or other subspecialties?

4. How many candidates can participate in the program each year?

5. How many faculty have graduated from your program since it began?

6. What types of positions do your graduates currently hold? (If clarification was sought by respondent, the following choices were offered:

administrative roles, department chairs, deans, residency or clerkship leadership, core academic faculty, and others you might recall.)

7. How do you address (if at all) each of the following curricular elements: adult learning theory, teaching methods, research and scholarship,

administrative skills, and/or leadership development? Are there other curricular elements you offer?

8. Do you require an advanced degree, e.g., masters, PhD, EdD? If yes, what benefit do you see from this option? If not required: Would you like to

offer this option? If yes, what are the main obstacles? If no, why not?

9. Do you think an advanced degree is/will be necessary? Why/why not?

10. Do the faculty enrolled in your program participate in any other organized educational activities other than a degree program? (If clarification

was sought by respondent, the following choices were offered: AAMC program, university program, specialty-specific organization program such

as CORD-EM Course “Navigating the Academic Waters.”)

11. How is your program funded?

12. Is there release time for the fellowship director? Supporting faculty?

13. Do faculty participants (those enrolled) receive support in the form of protected time or other compensation?

14. Do you offer the participants any additional support/opportunities?

15. Why do you think a faculty development program is worthwhile?

16. What do you view as the strengths of your program? Why do you think it is successful?

17. Do you feel supported by the person to whom you report at your institution? By your colleagues in your department? Beyond?

18. What are the major challenges you face in running your fellowship program?

19. Do you feel you currently have the “ideal” program? How would you change it to make it ideal? Is there anything holding you back from having

the ideal program?

20. What is your assessment of the level of performance of the faculty currently enrolled in your program? How do you feel this compares to those

faculty at a similar academic level who are not enrolled in the program?

21. What are your hopes for the graduates of your program? How do you think their careers will be affected by their participation?

22. Do you have any concerns about the future of your faculty development program?

23. What advice do you have for someone who hopes to create a new faculty development program in medical education?

24. What advice do you have for someone who hopes to create a medical education fellowship for residency graduates in a given specialty? (At this

time, it was disclosed that the specialty affiliation of the interviewer was EM but that the answer would ideally focus on any specialty. If unclear,

the interviewer described the possibility of mimicking the typical postresidency medical specialty fellowship model.)

25. Is there anything else you would like to share about your experience as the director of a medical education fellowship for faculty?


Abbreviations: AAMC indicates Association of American Medical Colleges; CORD, Council of Residency Directors; EM, emergency medicine.


a Respondents were free to expand on answers to each of the questions. A single interviewer asked appropriate follow-up questions for clarification or expansion in the normal flow of conversation. Respondents were program directors of faculty development medical education fellowship programs in 2013.



18 Lin M, Santen SA, Yarris LM, et al. Development of a training needs assessment for an education scholarship fellowship in emergency medicine. Acad Emerg Med. 2012;19:1419–1424.


19 Coates WC, Lin M, Clarke S, et al. Defining a core curriculum for education scholarship fellowships in emergency medicine. Acad Emerg Med. 2012;19:1411–1418.


28 Bradley EH, Curry LA, Devers KJ. Qualitative data analysis for health services research: Developing taxonomy, themes, and theory. Health Serv Res. 2007;42:1758–1772.


29 Association of American Medical Colleges. Medical education research certification (MERC) program. 2015. https://www.aamc.org/members/gea/merc/  Accessed December 1, 2015.






 2016 Jan 27. [Epub ahead of print]

Creating a Cadre of Fellowship-Trained Medical Educators: A Qualitative Study of Faculty DevelopmentProgram Leaders' Perspectives and Advice.

Author information

  • 1W.C. Coates is senior education specialist, Department of Emergency Medicine, Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, and professor of medicine, University of California, Los Angeles David Geffen School of Medicine, Los Angeles, California. D.P. Runde is assistant program director and assistant professor of emergency medicine, Department of Emergency Medicine, University of Iowa Hospitals and Clinics, Iowa City, Iowa. L.M. Yarris is associate professor, Department of Emergency Medicine, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, Oregon. S. Rougas is assistant professor of emergency medicine, Alpert Medical School of Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island. T.A. Guth is emergency medicine clerkship codirector and associate director, Clinical Skills in Foundations of Doctoring Course, Department of Emergency Medicine, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado. S.A. Santen is assistant dean, Educational Research and Quality Improvement, University of Michigan Medical School, and professor, Department of Emergency Medicine and Department of Learning Health Sciences, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan. J. Miller is an emergency medicine resident, Penn State Hershey Medical Center, Hershey, Pennsylvania. J. Jordan is assistant director, Residency Training Program, Department of Emergency Medicine, Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, and assistant professor of medicine and vice chair, Acute Care College, University of California, Los Angeles, David Geffen School of Medicine, Los Angeles, California.

Abstract

PURPOSE:

Well-trained educators fill essential roles across the medical education continuum. Some medical schools offer programs for existing faculty to enhance teaching and scholarship. No standard postgraduate training model exists for residency graduates to attain competency as faculty members before their first academic appointment. The objective of this study is to inform the development of postgraduate medical education fellowships by exploring perceptions of educational leaders who direct well-established facultydevelopment programs.

METHOD:

The authors undertook a qualitative study, using purposeful sampling to recruit participants and a constant comparative approach to identify themes. They conducted semistructured telephone interviews with directors of faculty development fellowships using an interpretivist/constructivist paradigm (November 2013). Questions addressed curricular and fiscal structure, perceived benefits and challenges, and advice for starting a postgraduate fellowship.

RESULTS:

Directors reported institutional and participant benefits, notably the creation of a community of educators and pool of potential leaders. Curricular offerings focused on learning theory, teaching, assessment, leadership, and scholarship. Funding and protected time were challenges. Advice for new program directors included evaluating best practices, defining locally relevant goals; garnering sufficient, stable financial support; and rallying leaders' endorsement.

CONCLUSIONS:

Medical education fellowships cultivate leaders and communities of trained educators but require participants to balance faculty responsibilities with professional developmentAdvice of current directors can inform the development of postgraduate programs modeled after accredited clinical specialty fellowships. Programs with the support of strategic partners, financial stability, and well-defined goals may allow new faculty to begin their careers with existing competency in medical education skills.

PMID:
 
26826070
 
DOI:
 
10.1097/ACM.0000000000001097
[PubMed - as supplied by publisher]


교육현장에서의 실천공동체: 교수개발프로그램 평가(Med Teach, 2016)

Communities of teaching practice in the workplace: Evaluation of a faculty development programme

MARIE-LOUISE SCHREURS, WILMA HUVENEERS & DIANA DOLMANS Maastricht University, The Netherlands




도입

Introduction

 

의학 교육 영역에서 Staff development와 Faculty development(FD)는 상호 교환 적으로 사용됩니다. 일관성을 유지하기 위해 이 논문 전반에서 FD이라는 개념을 사용합니다. FD는 사고 방식과 실제 교육 행동을 변화시키는 방향으로 교사의 지식, 기술 및 개념을 강화하고 확대하는 것을 목표로 하는 활동의 coherent sum이다 (Fenstermacher & Berliner 1985). 공식 워크샵에 국한되지 않고 교사의 아이디어 협력 및 교환과 같은 비공식 학습 경험도 포함될 수 있습니다 (Fullan 1990, Steinert 2010). 왜냐하면 공식적, 비공식적 활동 모두가 교수의 교육행동을 변화시켜 학생의 학습을 향상시키고 대학에서의 교육 및 학습의 질을 보호하는 것을 목적으로 하기 때문이다 (Devlin 2006).

In the medical education realm, the concepts of staff devel- opment and faculty development (FD) are used interchange- ably. For the sake of consistency, we cleave to the concept of faculty development throughout this article. Faculty develop- ment involves the coherent sum of activities targeted at strengthening and extending the knowledge, skills and con- ceptions of teachers in a way that will change their way of thinking and their actual educational behaviour (Fenstermacher & Berliner 1985). It is not confined to formal workshops, but can also include informal learning experi- ences, such as cooperation and exchange of ideas by teachers (Fullan 1990; Steinert 2010), as they both aim for a change in teaching practice to improve student learning and safeguard the quality of teaching and learning in universities (Devlin 2006).


최근에는 교수 개발의 초점이 개인 수준에서 그룹 수준으로 옮겨졌습니다. 예를 들어, Steinert (2010)는 개별 경험에서 교사 팀에 의한 그룹 학습으로의 이동을 구분했습니다. O'Sullivan과 Irby (2011)는 또한 그룹 차원에서 FD에 중점을 두었습니다. 그들은 두 가지 실천 공동체를 구별했다. 하나는 FD 프로그램 참여자들 사이에 만들어졌고 다른 하나는 교습이 실제로 이루어지는 직장 (교실 또는 클리닉)에서의 교수 연습의 공동체였다.

Recently, the focus of faculty development has shifted from an individual level to a group level. Steinert (2010), for instance, discerned a movement away from individual experi- ences to group learning by a team of teachers. O’Sullivan and Irby (2011) also laid a greater emphasis on FD at group level. They distinguished between two communities of practice: one created between participants in FD programmes, the other being a community of teaching practice in the workplace (classroom or clinic) where the teaching is actually effected.


그럼에도 불구하고 어떤 실천 공동체에서나 마찬가지인 것은 참여와 학습이 사회적 요인에 달려 있다는 것입니다. 초대 환경을 조성하고, 지도guidance를 제공하고 개인적인 참여를 고무함으로써 공동체 내의 관계가 참여를 향상시킬 수 있습니다.
Yet, what holds true for any community of practice is that participation and learning hinge on social factors. By creating an inviting environment, providing guidance and encouraging personal engagement, relationships within the community can enhance participation.






직장에서의 멘토링 및 코칭

Mentoring and coaching in the workplace

 


Eraut (2007)에 따르면 멘토 또는 코치의 지원 및 피드백은 직장에서의 학습을 위해 매우 중요하며 동료와 상담하고 일하는 기회가 증가함에 따라 향상 될 것입니다. 멘토링은 FD에서 명시적인 접근 방식으로 고려되어야합니다. 멘토는 다양한 설정에서 교수진에게 지침, 지침, 지원 또는 전문 지식을 제공 할 수 있기 때문입니다. 또한 교사는 자신이 일하는 조직 문화를 이해하고 소중한 전문 네트워크에 소개 할 수 있습니다 (Walker 외. 2002).

According to Eraut (2007), support and feedback by a mentor or coach are critically important for workplace learning which will be enhanced by increasing opportunities for consulting with and working alongside colleagues. Mentoring should be considered as an explicit approach in FD, for mentors can provide guidance, direction, support or expertise to faculty members in a variety of settings. They can also help teachers understand the organizational culture in which they work and introduce them to invaluable professional networks (Walker et al. 2002).


Doppenberg (2012)는 코칭 및 협동 방문(collegial visitation)이 다른 협업 팀 활동과 다른 특정 협업 환경에서 이루어짐을 발견했습니다.

Doppenberg (2012) found in her study that coaching and collegial visitation take place in a specific collaborative setting which differs from that of other collaborative team activities.


임상 교사의 참여를 높이기 위해 Steinert et al. (2010)는 멘토링 동료의 친구 시스템을 제안하여 교수진을 '낚기'를 유도했습니다.

To raise involvement of clinical teachers’, Steinert et al. (2010) suggested a buddy system of mentoring colleagues to get junior faculty members ‘‘hooked’’.

 


직장에서의 관계와 네트워크

Relationships and networks in the workplace

 


Doppenberg (2012)는 동료와 협력하여 교사 학습 활동의 범주에 대한 개요를 제공했습니다. 나열된 각 활동에 대해 그녀는 서로 다른 공동 작업 환경에서 발생 빈도를 조사했습니다. 교환, 청취 및 평가는 가장 빈번하게보고 된 활동으로 나타납니다.

Doppenberg (2012) provided an overview of categories of teacher-learning activities in collaboration with colleagues. For each activity listed, she investigated the frequency of its occurrence within different collaborative settings. Exchanging, listening and evaluating emerged as the activities most frequently reported.

 


Steinert et al. FD (2010)는 FD가 개인적이고 전문적인 성장(personal and professional growth)을 가능하게 하며, 교수가 이것(PPD)를 인정appreciate하고, 그것이 필요에 부합한다면 참여 가능성이 더 클 것이라고 주장했다. 다른 내재적인 동기가 가르침과 자기 개선을 필요로 하는 것이 네트워크 기회와 결합 될 수 있습니다.

Steinert et al. (2010) by extension argued that FD enables personal and professional growth and that faculty might be more likely to participate whether they appreciated this and considered it relevant to their needs. Other intrinsic motiv- ations could be their appreciation of teaching and self- improvement, coupled with the opportunity to network.

 


비슷한 맥락에서, Lave와 Wenger (1991)는 실천공동체의 성공에 대한 관계와 네트워크의 중요성을 강조했으며, 커뮤니티 구성원들 간의 관계와 외부 네트워크 참여의 중요성을 강조했다.

In a similar vein, Lave and Wenger (1991) stressed the importance of relationships and networks to the success of a community of practice, and they deemed importance of both the relationships forged between community members and participation in external networks.


직장 내 조직, 시스템 및 문화

Organization, systems and culture in the workplace


Teunissen (2014)은 실습을 통해 배우는 것은 사람들로 하여금 특정한 맥락에서 일하고, 수행하고 생각하고 상호 작용하는 법을 배울 수 있다고 주장했다. 그러나 동시에 학습은 고도로 맥락적인 특성highly contextual nature를 갖기 때문에 교육적 환경을 만드는 것은 어려울 수 있습니다.

Teunissen (2014) argued that learning from practice enables people to learn how to perform, think, and interact in ways that work for their specific context. At the same time, however, the highly contextual nature of learning from practice makes it a challenging educational environment.

 


다른 각도에서, Eraut (2007)은 상호 지원과 학습의 문화culture of mutual support and learning를 발전시키는 관리자 역할의 중요성을 주장했다. 관리자는 숙련 된 근로자와이 역할을 공유해야하며 이것은 분산 된 리더십distributed leadership의 한 형태이다. 이러한 역량을 바탕으로 이들은  직무 내용을 훨씬 뛰어 넘어 직장 내 학습과 문화에 큰 영향을 미칠 수 있다. Handelzalts (2009)는 실제로 학교 관리자의 적극적인 참여가 교사의 교육 혁신에 대한 기여를 강화할 수 있다고 언급했다. 경영 역할 외에도 조직의 학습 분위기는 필수 변수입니다 (van Rijdt 외. 2013). 예를 들어, Lave와 Wenger (1991)는 공동체는 언어, 스토리 및 실천practice을 포함하여 공동의 자원을 공유하는 레퍼토리를 필요로한다고 주장했다. 또한 활동의 반복적 패턴을 통해 사회적 및 문화적으로 의미있는 구조의 공유되고 협상 된 시스템‘‘shared and negotiated system of socially and culturally meaningful structures’’ 이 있어야 한다. 이것에 의해, Teunissen은 직장 환경에서 변화에 저항하는 안정된 구조를 언급했다.

From a different angle, Eraut (2007) asserted the import- ance of the managerial role, which is to develop a culture of mutual support and learning. Managers should share this role with experienced workers and this implies some form of distributed leadership. In this capacity, they have a major influence on workplace learning and culture that extends far beyond their job descriptions. Handelzalts (2009) indeed mentioned that active involvement by school managers can bolster teachers’ commitment to educational innovation. Beside the managerial role, also the learning climate of the organization is an essential variable (van Rijdt et al. 2013). Lave and Wenger (1991), for instance, argued that a community requires a shared repertoire of common resources, including language, stories and practice. What is desirable, moreover, is a ‘‘shared and negotiated system of socially and culturally meaningful structures’’ resulting from recurrent patterns of activities (Teunissen 2014). By this, Teunissen referred to stable structures in the workplace environment that are resistant to change.



직장 내 업무 및 활동

Tasks and activities in the workplace

 

Doppenberg (2012)는 팀 간 협업을 통해 교사가 교육적 과제에 대한 책임을 분담하거나 새로운 교육적 접근 방식을 구현함으로써 교수 학습을 촉진 할 수 있다고 전했다. Lave와 Wenger (1991)는 또한 학습 과정에서 직장에서의 newcomers의 공통된 활동의 중요성을 강조했다. Fuller와 Unwin (2003)은 조직의 주변부에서 주류에 이르는 과정에 이르는 과정을 설명하였다. 경험 많은 동료와 함께 일하고 상호 작용하는 것은 커뮤니티의 관행에 참여함으로써 학습을 유도합니다. Handelzalts (2009)는 교사가 새로운 커리큘럼을 디자인 할 목적으로 팀과 협력하는 방식에 대한 연구에서 공동 작업의 이점을 환영했습니다. 교사는 자신의 지식을 결합하고 적절한 방법으로 과제를 수행하기 위해 새로운 지식을 창출합니다. 따라서 팀 활동은 협력적 문화 육성의 의지/헌신/동기와 같은 essential attribute뿐만 아니라 교사의 전문 학습professional learning에 강력한 역할을합니다.

Doppenberg (2012) posited that collaboration in teams can foster teaching learning, for instance by giving teachers the shared responsibility for an educational task, or by imple- menting a neweducational approach. Lave and Wenger (1991) also stress the importance of the shared activity of newcomers at the workplace in the learning process. Fuller and Unwin (2003) describe the process from peripheral to mainstream participation in an organization. Working alongside and interacting with experienced colleagues leads to learning by engagement into the practices of the community. Handelzalts (2009) hailed the benefit of collaboration in his study into the way teachers collaborate in teams for the purpose of designing a new curriculum; it results in teachers combining their knowledge and creating new knowledge to fulfil their task in an appropriate way. Hence, team activities play a powerful role in professional learning by teachers, above essential attributes, such as motivation, commitment and willpower to nurture a collaborative culture.


Focus of the study



Research question




Methods


Setting


The FD programme under scrutiny in this study concerns a University Teaching Qualification (UTQ) programme offered by the Faculty of Health, Medicine and Life Sciences (FHML) at Maastricht University, the Netherlands. It is directed at staff members who are responsible for various educational tasks, such as delivery, developmental and assessment tasks.


Intervention


FD프로그램 개요

As previously mentioned, the FD programme under scrutiny in this study concerns a so-called UTQ course, which forms part of the opportunities for faculty development offered by the FHML at Maastricht University in the Netherlands. The programme is intended for teachers and for faculty members who want to improve their educational skills and expertise.

The full UTQ programme spans a period of one year and involves 185 hours of study, including formal and informal learning and training activities (like workshops, sessions with experts and exchange of experiences during teaching prac- tices, portfolio learning, workplace learning and coaching).

 

In the workplace, course participants are assisted by a formally appointed coach who acts as a facilitator and provides supervision on the job.

  • The coaches, who had been trained in coaching skills, conduct reflection and feedback meetings with the trainees depending on their needs, but meet at least two times per year.

  • The purpose of the introduction of formally appointed coaches was to stimulate application of newly learned competencies in daily practices.

포트폴리오

Throughout the course, participants compile a portfolio in which they demonstrate their progress in teaching competencies, which is discussed individually with their coach and forms the basis of their final assessment (Schreurs & de Grave 2010).


The development of UTQ competencies depends on participants’ present competencies, learning objectives and their learning in authentic settings in educational practice.

 

 

교육 구성

  • Over a period spanning five months, participants partake in five compulsory training days, during which they discuss competencies (developing of teaching, teaching delivery, assessment and testing, self-reflection and cooperation) – for which they do a literature reading in advance-, they share knowledge and experiences, practice teaching roles and reflect on their competencies.

  • In between sessions, partici- pants can apply and test their newly acquired knowledge in their work environment. This perfectly fits the notion of a community of teaching practice as defined by O’Sullivan and Irby (2011): the community in the workplace where the teaching is actually affected, which forms an indispensable part of the UTQ course.



Subjects


Respondents were 23 teachers (10 women, 13 men) from the Maastricht University FHML, selected by purpose sampling (Stalmeijer et al. 2014) from a total of 102 teachers who attended and successfully completed the UTQ programme.




Instrument


포커스그룹

For this evaluation study, we used the focus group method. According to Morgan (1998), focus groups of six to eight participants are useful for evaluation research to explore topics that are poorly understood. The group discussions create a process of sharing and comparing among the participants and they explore the contexts in which they operate for us as researchers. We convened four focus group sessions of two hours each with six participants, which were facilitated by a moderator and assistant moderator, to discuss and explore the relevant themes. Both were skilled in group dynamics and the subject matter under discussion and had a background in educational psychology. The role and responsibilities of the moderator and assistant moderator were consistently divided across all focus groups (Stalmeijer et al. 2014).


The format was semistructured and departed from four questions about coaching, networks, organization and activities in the workplace that guided the discussion; the questions were derived from the framework of O’Sullivan and Irby (2011) (Appendix). We discussed the questions in the research team and we pilot tested them in the first focus group with the participants. The moderator systematically went through the questions and gave time to the participants to collect and express their thoughts. Participant verification took place by summarizing the main results from each question, before moving on to the next. After the session the moderators took time to debrief, compare field notes and discuss first impressions and highlights. These steps in by systematic focus group interviews were described Krueger (1998).



Analysis


The sessions were taped and summarized by a research assistant. All participants were informed about the use of the tapes and the confidentiality of the data and were explicitly asked for agreement of the procedure. Two researchers (Marie-Louise Schreurs & Wilma Huveneers) independently analysed the summaries. To trustfully conduct the process of analysis, we started to analyse the first focus group, by reading the transcript carefully and coding relevant quotes to identify key themes independently. We compared the results, resolved discrepancies by discussion and fine-tuned our strategy for further analysis of all four groups. Afterwards, we had a comparison discussion and selected the relevant quotes in our research team to verify the results.


The process of analysis has been carried out systematically following the steps identified by Krueger (1998). Corrective feedback was obtained from participants, for example, the summaries were sent to all participants for approval to ensure that our results were valid and members from the research team by critically discussing the findings as recommended by Stalmeijer et al. (2014).



Results

 

 

포커스 그룹 토의를 통해 우리는 교수 연구 개발 프로그램을 마친 후 코칭, 네트워킹, 조직 및 활동을 통해 직장에서의 교수법을 어떻게 촉진하거나 손상시키는 지 연구 질문에 답하고자했습니다. 이 주제의 결과는 다음 4 가지 가이던스에 따라 토론됩니다.

By means of the focus group discussions, we have sought to answer the following research question: How do coaching, networking, organization and activities in the workplace facilitate or impair teaching practice after completion of a faculty development programme? The results from these theme, discussions will be grouped according to guiding which were the following four:


(1) 코칭이 성찰과 피드백에 미치는 긍정적 인 효과.

(2) 교육 네트워크에 대한 참여 증가.

(3) 조직 정책에 대한 인식 제고

(4) 교육 과제 및 활동을 수행함에있어 더 많은 자신감.

(1) The positive effect of coaching on reflection and feedback.

(2) Increased participation in educational networks.

(3) More awareness of organizational policies.

(4) More confidence in fulfilling educational tasks and activities.





(1) 코칭이 성찰과 피드백에 미치는 긍정적 인 효과.

Coaching enhances reflection and feedback


주제별 분석에 따르면 교육 문제를 코치와 상의 할 수있는 기회가 높아지면 통찰력이 향상되고 성과가 향상됩니다. 코치는 반성을 자극하고 피드백을 제공함에 따라 교사는 자신의 교육 관행에 대해 더 많이 반영하고 대체 전략을 계획 했으므로 결과적으로 새로운 교습 행동을 적극적으로 실험했습니다. 참가자들이 종종 언급 한 것은 그들이 학습 과정에서 피드백의 가치에 대해 더 나은 평가를 받았다는 것입니다. 선생님은 동료와 학생 모두에게 더 많은 양질의 피드백을 제공하고 요청했습니다. 일부 UTQ 회원은 또한 자신의 학과 내 다른 사람들을위한 코치 역할을 수행했습니다. UTQ 자격이없는 동료들이 교육 질문에 대한 조언을 구했습니다.

The thematic analysis revealed that the opportunity to discuss educational questions with a coach led to elevated levels of insight and improved performance. As the coach stimulated reflection and provided feedback, teachers reflected more on own teaching practices and planned alternative strategies, and, consequently, experimented actively with new teaching behaviour. What the participants often mentioned was that they gained a better appreciation of the value of feedback in the learning process. Teachers gave and solicited more and qualitatively better feedback to/from both colleagues and students. Some UTQ members also served as a coach for others within their department: colleagues who were not UTQ-qualified called on them for advice on educational questions.



(2) 교육 네트워크에 대한 참여 증가.

Increased participation in educational networking enhances consultation among teachers


거의 모든 참가자가 교육 네트워킹의 증가를 보고했습니다. 즉, 그들은 동료들에게 그들의 교육 활동에 관해 더 자주 질문했다. 그렇게함으로써 그들은 UTQ 과정에 참여한 동료뿐만 아니라 교수와 관련된 다른 동료들에게도 호소called upon했습니다. 그러나 이것은 주로 비공식적으로 이뤄졌습니다. 참여자들은 프로그램이 끝난 후에도 UTQ 회원과의 접촉이 강화 된 것으로 인식하고 UTQ가 아닌 동료와의 의사 소통의 어려움이 더욱 분명 해졌다. 이것은 이전 UTQ 과정 참가자들이 공통된 교육 틀을 공유했기 때문이라고 볼 수 있습니다. 일부학과에서는 UTQ 회원이 자격을 갖춘 교사의 역할 모델이되어 다른 사람들도 UTQ 프로그램에 참여하도록 유도했습니다. 일부 UTQ 회원은 교육을 전문으로하고 FHML이 제공하는 보건 전문 교육에서 석사 학위를 취득 할 계획을 가지고있었습니다.

Nearly, all participants reported an increase in educational networking; that is, they indicated that they consulted colleagues about their teaching activities more frequently. In doing so, they not only called upon colleagues with whom they had participated in the UTQ course, but also on other colleagues involved in teaching. However, this mainly hap- pened on an informal basis. Participants also perceived an intensification of contacts with UTQ members, even after the trajectory had ended, while difficulties in communicating with non-UTQ colleagues became more apparent. This could be ascribed to the fact that former UTQ-course participants shared a common educational framework. In some departments, UTQ members served as a role model of qualified teachers and inspired others to participate in the UTQ programme as well. Some UTQ members even had plans to specialize in education and to take the master’s in health professions education offered by the FHML.


(3) 조직 정책에 대한 인식 제고

Increased awareness of organizational educational policies


포커스 그룹에서는 몇 가지 촉진적 & 억제적 조건이 논의되었습니다. 참가자들이 주로 말한 것은 교육 경력에 호의적인 교수진 내에서 향상된 교육 문화를 체험하게되었다. 그러나 일부 학과장은 교육 전문가에게 더 자주 상담했지만 일부 다른 교육자는 교육에 많은 관심을 보이지 않았습니다. 동시에 대부분의 참가자들은 교육 정책과 교육 조직의 복잡성에 대해 더 많이 알게되었다고 보고했습니다. 또한, 그들은 교육 부서의 역할에 대한보다 분명한 시각을 얻었고, 조언을 구하기 위해 쉽게 부서로 찾아갔습니다turned to. UTQ 과정에서 참가자들에게 더 많은 교육적 역할을 수행하고 교육 경력을 쌓을 의무가 있다는 사실 또한 조직 문화의 변화를 촉발 시켰습니다. 따라서 faculty board에서는 UTQ 프로그램을 교수진 내 미래의 교육 지도자를 양성 할 수있는 장으로 여기는 이유가 있습니다. 교수진 이사회는 자격을 갖춘 프로그램 디렉터의 임명에 대한 책임이 있습니다. 참석자들은 각 부서가 새로운 교육 통찰력을 거의 수용하지 못하는 것을 장애요인으로 지적했다. 그러한 불일치로 인해 몇몇 참가자들은 과거의 행동으로 되돌아 갈 것을 두려워했다. 이 참가자들은 특히 새로 습득 한 행동을 고수하기위한 후속 활동이나 프로그램에 의지했습니다.

In the focus groups, several favourable and inhibiting condi- tions were discussed. What came to the fore was that partici- pants experienced an improved educational culture within the faculty in favour of educational careers. However, this did not particularly hold for all departments: while some department chairs consulted participants more often for their teaching expertise, other chairs did not showmuch interest in education. At the same time, most participants reported that they had become more aware of educational policies and the complexity of the educational organization. Moreover, they gained a clearer viewof the role of the educational department and more readily turned to the department for advice. The fact that the UTQ course obliged participants to fulfil more educational roles and to opt for an educational career also triggered a change in organizational culture. Hence, it is with reason that the faculty board in a way regards the UTQ programme as a breeding ground for future educational leaders within the faculty. The faculty board is among others, responsible for appointments of qualified programme directors. As regards barriers encoun- tered, participants pointed out that their departments were little receptive to new educational insights. Because of such indif- ference, a few participants feared that they would slide back into old behaviours. These participants in particular resorted to follow-up activities or programmes to hold on to their newly acquired behaviour.


(4) 교육 과제 및 활동을 수행함에있어 더 많은 자신감.
More confidence in fulfilling educational tasks and activities



포커스 그룹은 또한 직장에서 teacher learning 측면에서 몇 가지 동기 부여를 언급했습니다. 참가자들은 교육 과제 및 활동에 대해 더 높아진 인식수준과와 분석 능력을 언급했습니다. 교육 전달 및 교육 활동 계획 과정에서의 교육적 행동은 긍정적으로 변화했는데, 예를 들면 불확실성이 감소했다는 것 등입니다. 또한 팀 내에서의 협력이 강화되어 교육적 임무와 활동에 대해 동료로부터 피드백이나 도움을 더 쉽게 구하게 되었습니다. 마찬가지로 참가자들은 팀 책임team responsibilities이 증가했다는 점을 지적했다. 일부 기획 그룹은 새롭게 습득 한 교육 지식을 즉각적으로 프로그램의 재 설계 과정이나 교육적 접근법에 통합 시켰습니다. 따라서 FD는 참가자의 PPD Personal and Professional growth를 촉진합니다. 실제로, UTQ 프로그램을 수강하지 않은 직장 동료들은 가지고있는 사람들의 지식을 인정했습니다.

 

The focus groups also addressed several motivational aspects of teacher learning in the workplace. Participants reported more awareness and analytical ability with respect to the educational tasks and activities. Their educational behaviour during delivery of education and planning of educational activities had changed positively, for example in terms of reduced uncertainty. Moreover, collaboration within teams had intensified, as participants for instance more easily solicited feedback or assistance from colleagues about educa- tional tasks and activities. Likewise, participants noted an increase in team responsibilities; some planning groups immediately incorporated the newly acquired educational knowledge into the redesign process of a programme or into an educational approach. Hence, FD facilitates personal and professional growth. In fact, colleagues in the workplace who had not taken the UTQ programme recognized the knowledge of those who had.



Discussion and conclusion


 

포커스 그룹 토론의 결과에 따르면 FD 프로그램은 직장 환경에 긍정적인 영향을 미쳤다. 즉, 교사와 동료들 간의 의사 소통이 강화되었고, FD 프로그램에 참여한 사람들 사이에서는 더욱 그러했다. 가르침에 대한 피드백도 요청되었고 더 쉽게 그리고 더 자주 주어졌습니다. 이것은 O'Sullivan과 Irby 's (2011)의 FD 프로그램 참여자들이보다 강렬하게 의사 소통하고 교육에 대한 열정을 공유하는 새로운 교사 커뮤니티에 입장enter한다는 주장과 잘 어울립니다. 전반적으로 코칭과 네트워킹은 커뮤니티 형성의 촉매제 역할을하는 것으로 보였다. 코칭은 비공식적이고 암묵적인 학습에 대한 인식을 제고하고 그것을 작동operationalize하는 것을 돕는 것처럼 보였습니다. 같은 이유로, 교수진은 교육 조직과 문화를 더 잘 알게되었습니다. 이러한 효과의 합은 교육에보다 우호적인 분위기를 불러 일으켰고 교육 실습 공동체를 탄생 시켰습니다.

The results from the focus-group discussions reveal that the FD programme had a positive impact on the teaching workplace environment: it involved teachers in more intense communi- cation with colleagues and even more with those who had also partaken in the FD programme. Feedback on teaching was also solicited and given more easily and more frequently. This ties in nicely with O’Sullivan and Irby’s (2011) contention that participants in a FD programme communicate more intensely and enter a new community of teachers who share a passion for education. Through the whole, coaching and networking seemed to function as a catalyst for community formation. Coaching appeared to raise awareness of informal and tacit learning and help to operationalize it. By the same token, faculty became more aware of the educational organization and culture. The sum of these effects invoked an atmosphere that was more favourable to education and gave birth to a community of teaching practice.

 

그러나 동시에,  학과장마다 서로 다른 태도로 인해 부서간에 상당한 차이가있었습니다. 따라서 중요한 장애물은 아직 해결되지 않은 것이다. Teunissen (2014)는 조심스럽게 다음과 같이 말했다. "healthcare workplace는 변화에 저항하는 경향이있는 상대적으로 안정된 환경이다. 이는 개인의 저항 때문 만이 아니라 비슷한 목표를 가진 비슷한 일을하는 비슷한 집단의 사람들을 갖는 연습의 오랜 전통 때문이다". 그러므로, 교육과 연구 간의 관심에 대한 균형을 잡으려면, 인증 된 UTQ 스태프의 어느 정도비율로 고용해야하는 것이 이상적인가? 또한 이미 연구에 대해 그러한 것처럼, 교수진이 교육에 대한 책임accountability for education을 지도록 해야 한다. 이것은 또한 전통적인 관행이 여전히 흔들리는 부서에서 문화적 변화에 중요한 역할을 할 수 있습니다.

At the same time, however, significant differences existed between departments due to diverging attitudes adopted by the chairs. Hence, an important hurdle has yet to be taken, a concern that has been deftly voiced by Teunissen (2014) who posited that ‘‘healthcare workplaces are relatively stable environments that tend to resist change; not necessarily because of individual resistance but because of a practice’s longstanding tradition of having similar groups of people involved in similar tasks with similar goals’’. It is therefore suggested that further research be conducted that seeks to answer the following question: What proportion of certified UTQ staff should a department ideally employ so as to redress the balance of attention between education and research that has hitherto favoured the latter? We also recommend that departments hold faculty account- able for education, in line with procedures that are already in place for research. This can also mark an important agent for cultural change in departments where traditional practices still hold sway.

 

그러나 그러한 노력은 공동 목표를 공유하지 않는 공동체가 있다는 사실을 고려해야한다. 일부 동료나 부서는 교육 과제 및 활동의 실행을 금지합니다. 왜냐하면 연구보다는 교육에 대한 가치가 낮기 때문입니다. 이것은 대학의 커리큘럼 변화의 역사적 발전과 커리큘럼 개혁에 있어 연구에 대한 가치 제안value proposition이 강력한 저항을 일으킨다는 것을 조사한 Cuban (1999)의 연구와 일치합니다. 참여자들은 실제로 FD에 회의적인 여러 사례를 보고했다. 그들은 직업과 연구에 너무 많은 관심을 기울 였고 교육 과제와 활동은 거의 존중하지 않았습니다.

Such endeavours, however, should take into account the fact that there are communities that do not share a common goal; some colleagues, or even entire departments, inhibit the execution of educational tasks and activities, because they attach lesser a value to education than they do, for example, to research. This is in line with the work of Cuban (1999) who investigated the historical development of cur- riculum change in universities and the role of strong research value propositions in the resistance to curriculum reform. Participants indeed reported several instances of colleagues being sceptical about faculty development; they focused too much on career and research, and paid little respect to educational tasks and activities.




Appendix


Questions that guided the focus group discussions.


The goal of the focus group discussions was to investigate the impact of a faculty development programme on teachers’educational workplace environment. Guiding questions were as follows: 


(1) How did formal and informal coaching affect teaching practice after completion of the UTQ programme? 


(2) In what ways did your participation in formal and informal educational networks change? 


(3) Which factors facilitated and inhibited teaching practice in the department and the organization? 


(4) How did the UTQ programme affect your tasks and activities in the workplace? 





 2016 Aug;38(8):808-14. doi: 10.3109/0142159X.2015.1112892. Epub 2015 Nov 26.

Communities of teaching practice in the workplaceEvaluation of a faculty development programme.

Author information

  • 1a Maastricht University , The Netherlands.

Abstract

BACKGROUND:

The focus of faculty development (FD) has recently shifted from individual and formal learning to formal and informal learning by a team of teachers in the workplace where the teaching is actually effected. This study aimed to evaluate the impact of a faculty development programme on teachers' educational workplace environment.

METHODS:

We invited 23 teachers, who had successfully completed a University Teaching Qualification (UTQ) programme, to evaluate the faculty development programme and participate in focus group discussions. This UTQ programme spanned one year and covered 185 hours of formal and informal learning and training activities and formal coaching.

RESULTS:

After having obtained their UTQ, teachers reported that coaching enhances reflection and feedback, to participate more frequently in educational networks, which enhances consultation among teachers, increased awareness of organizational educational policies and more confidence in fulfilling educational tasks and activities.

CONCLUSION:

The evaluation of the UTQ programme demonstrated to enhance the development of a community of teachers at the workplace who share a passion for education and provide each other with support and feedback, which triggered a change in culture enhancing improvement of education. However, this did not hold for all teachers. Inhibiting factors hold sway, such as a prevailing commitment to research over education in some departments and a lack of interest in education by some department chairs.

PMID:
 
26610150
 
DOI:
 
10.3109/0142159X.2015.1112892


개발도상국의 의사역량 향상모델: 라오스의 3년 PG Training 프로그램 (Acad Med, 2006)

A Model for Improving Physician Performance in Developing Countries: A Three-Year Postgraduate Training Program in Laos

Gregory Gordon, JD, MD, Eksavang Vongvichit, MD, PhD, Visanou Hansana, MD, and Kristine Torjesen, MD, MPH





국제기구는 개발 도상국의 헬스케어를 향상시키는 데 상당한 자원을 사용합니다. 이 기금 중 상당 부분은 지역 의료 제공자를 훈련시키는 데 사용됩니다. 의사, 간호사 또는 약사와 같은 전문가, 특정 질환을 인식하고 치료하기위한 제한된 훈련을받은 의료 보조원(substitute health workers), 특정 절차를 수행하도록 교육받은 외과 또는 산부인과 기술자, 출생 승무원, 심지어는 가족 등을 훈련시킨다. 이 프로그램은 일반적으로 두 가지 전략 중 하나에 의존합니다.

  • 즉, 외국 전문가가 개발 도상국으로 방문하여 짧은 기간 동안 짧은 훈련 과정이나 강좌를 제공하거나

  • 개발 도상국의 소규모 학생을 대상으로 더 광범위한 교육을 받을 수 있는 해외 연수자금 제공.

전자와 같은 방식의 프로그램은 현지 조건에 적합하지도 않고 오랜 시간 동안 참가자가 보유한 정보를 제공할 수도 없다는 것에 대해 비판을 받아 왔습니다.

후자의 프로그램은 수년간의 교육을 마친 후 최고 교육을받은 의료 종사자가 출신 국가로 돌아 가지 않는 "두뇌 유출 (brain drain)"을 촉진하는 것으로 비난 받았다.

International organizations spend substantial resources to improve health care in developing nations. Much of these funds are spent on training local health care providers; either professionals, such as physicians, nurses, or pharmacists, or “substitute health workers,” such as medical assistants with limited training to recognize and treat specific diseases, surgical or obstetric technicians taught to performspecific procedures,1 birth attendants,2 or even family members.3 These programs usually rely on one of two strategies: either foreign experts travel to developing nations for brief periods to give short training courses or lectures,4 or funding is provided for a small number of students from developing nations to travel abroad to get more extensive education. The former programs have been criticized for providing information that is often neither suitable for local conditions nor retained by the participants for an extended period of time. The latter programs have been criticized for promoting “brain drain,” in which the best-educated health workers do not return to their country of origin after completing years of training.


파트너십의 목표는 현지 라오스 의사들의 핵심 그룹이 국제 표준에 맞는 치료를 제공하고, 다른 사람을 훈련시킬 수 있도록 준비하는 것입니다.

The goal of the partnership is to prepare a core group of local Lao physicians to deliver, and train others according to, an international standard of care.


파트너십 프로그램은 두 가지면에서 예외적입니다.

첫째, 대부분의 훈련이 라오스에서 실시되도록 설계되었습니다. 이것은 개발 도상국의 국민이 해외에서 훈련 할 때 발생할 수있는 "두뇌 유출"을 방지합니다. 또한 훈련은 현지에서 이용할 수있는 인력, 시설 및 기술을 사용하기 때문에 프로그램 진행자는 자신의 상황에 효과적이고 적절한 방식으로 라오스 사람들의 요구에 부응 할 수 있도록보다 잘 준비됩니다.

The partnership’s programs are exceptional in two respects. First, they are designed so that the vast majority of the training takes place in Laos. This avoids the “brain drain” that can occur when nationals of developing countries train abroad. In addition, because the training uses personnel, facilities, and technology available locally, the programgraduates are better prepared to serve the needs of the Lao people in a manner that is effective and relevant to their situation.


둘째, 파트너십은 대부분의 개발 프로그램에 있어서 제한요인이 되는 funding cycle과는 독립적인이며, 본질적으로 모두 자원 봉사로 이뤄져서 장기간에 걸쳐 committed 된다. 이 파트너십은 미국인에서 교육받은 내과 및 소아과 의사를 제공합니다. 이들은 최소 1 년 동안 라오스에 거주하며 라오스 참가자들과 매일 일하게 된다. 이를 통해 프로그램 참여자는 새로운 지식을 습득하고 강화하며 테스트 할 수있는 긴 시간을 갖게됩니다. 또한 현지 상황 및 현지에서 사용 가능한 기술을 사용하면서도 증거 기반 의료 접근법을 모델링 할 수있는 미국인 동료를 이용할 수 있습니다.
Second, the partnership is essentially an all-volunteer effort, committed to a long- termundertaking, and independent of the funding cycles that constrain most development programs. The partnership provides volunteer American-trained internists and pediatricians, who live in Laos for at least a year and work with the Lao participants on a daily basis. This gives the program participants a long period of time to acquire, reinforce, and be tested in new knowledge. It also makes available to them American colleagues who can model an evidence-based approach to medical care, while still working in local conditions and with locally available technologies.


 



배경

Background


라오스는 동남아시아의 작고 가난한 내륙국이다. UN이 개발 도상국으로 선정한 177 개국 중 133 개국이 유엔 개발 계획 (UNEP)의 인간 개발 지수 (Human Development Index) 5 위를 차지했다. 가장 최근의 휴먼 개발 보고서 (Human Development Report)에 따르면 라오스 인구의 73 % 하루에 2 달러, 하루에 1 달러 미만으로 26 %에 해당합니다. 현재이 나라에는 10 만명당 59 명의 의사가 있습니다.

Laos is a small, poor, landlocked nation in Southeast Asia. It is defined as a least developed nation by the United Nations, ranking 133 of 177 countries on the United Nations Development Programme Human Development Index.5 According to the most recent Human Development Report, 73%of the population of Laos lives on less than the equivalent of two U.S. dollars per day, with 26%below one dollar per day. Currently, there are 59 physicians per 100,000 people in the country.

 

전통적으로 라오스에서는 의료 훈련과 의료 수행이 분리되었습니다. 의사로서 교육과 실습 사이에 전환기가 없었습니다. 그 대신에, 의대를 졸업하자마자, 학생은 보건부에 의해 건강 관리 시스템의 직책을 맡게됩니다.

Traditionally in Laos, there has been a separation between medical training and the beginning of medical practice. No transition period existed between education and practice as a physician. Instead, immediately upon graduating from medical school, a student is assigned a position in the health care systemby the Ministry of Health.

 

1991 년 라오스 국립 대학교 의과 대학 (FMS-NUOL)의 Faculty of Medical Sciences는 Health Frontiers를 통해 Case Western Reserve University (Case)와 파트너십을 시작했습니다. 초기 초점은 라오스의 교수 개발 및 의대생 훈련이었습니다. 1992 년 FMS-NUOL의 학장은 3 년간의 소아과 교육 프로그램 개발에 도움을 요청했습니다.

In 1991, the Faculty of Medical Sciences of the National University of Laos (FMS- NUOL) began a partnership with Case Western Reserve University (Case) through Health Frontiers, The initial focus was on faculty development and medical student training in Laos. In 1992, the dean of the FMS-NUOL requested assistance in the development of a three-year pediatric training program.



 

 

내과학 수련 프로그램 

The Internal Medicine Residency Program



라오스의 보건 전문가를위한 교육 프로그램은 근본적인 문제가 많이 있습니다. 이러한 부적절 함은 매우 심각하여 FMS-NUOL을 졸업 한 많은 의사들이 복잡한 의료 서비스 요구에 대응하는 것은 물론 기본적인 의료 서비스를 제공 할 수 없습니다. 파트너십의 훈련 프로그램이 수립 될 때까지 의사들이 의대를 마친 후에는 의사가 PT training을받을 수있는 기회가 없었습니다.

Education programs for health professionals in Laos suffer from many fundamental inadequacies. These inadequacies are so severe that many doctors graduating fromthe FMS-NUOL are unable to provide basic medical care, let alone respond to complex health care needs. Until the establishment of the partnership’s training programs, there were no opportunities for physicians to pursue ongoing postgraduate medical training in the country after finishing medical school.


라오스에서 내과 프로그램을 디자인하는 것은 독특한 도전이었다. 프로그램이 시작될 당시에는 내과학의 개념이 없었으며 "내과 의사"도 없었습니다.

Designing an internal medicine program in Laos presented unique challenges. At the time of the program’s conception, there was no concept of internal medicine in the country, and there were no “internists.”

 
 
 

교육 기반 모델

A training-based model

 

수련생에게 주어지는 실제 환자에 대한 책임을 제한하면서, 환자를 안전하게 치료할 수 있도록 감독하고 평가하는 것을 기본으로 한 PG training 교육 모델을 FMS-NUOL 설계에 활용하였다.

The partnership helped the FMS-NUOL design a model of postgraduate education based on supervised and evaluated training to allow participants to safely get experience treating patients while limiting their actual patient responsibility.

 
FMS-NUOL의 교수진은 프로그램을 실행하기 위한 기획위원회를 선정했습니다. 위원은 훈련 장소로 사용될 3 개의 라오스 병원의 고위 의사와 의대의 행정 교수들이었다. 라오스의 수도 인 비엔티안은 세 곳의 host입니다. 이들은 수도에서 가장 큰 3 대 병원입니다 : Mahosot, Mittaphab 및 Setthatirat 병원.

The faculty of the FMS-NUOL selected a planning committee to implement the program. The members were drawn from senior physicians at the three Lao hospitals that would be used as training sites, and fromthe administrative faculty of the medical school. The capital of Laos, Vientiane, is host to three of the sites. These are the three largest hospitals in the capital: Mahosot, Mittaphab, and Setthatirat hospitals.


네 번째 임상 사이트는 콘켄 대학교 병원입니다. 참가자들은 태국에서 3 년 동안 6 개월 동안 훈련을하고,

The fourth clinical site is Khon Kaen University hospital. The participants spend six months of their three years training in Thailand,


이것은 참가자들이 라오스보다 의료 검사와 기술의 폭이 넓어 질 수있는 환경에서, 라오스에서는 아직 이용 가능하지 않은 의료 세부분야 경험을 제공합니다.

This gives the participants experience in medical subspecialties not yet available in Laos, in a setting in which a wider array of medical testing and technology is available than in Laos.


이 프로그램은 참가자들에게 주간 영어 강좌와 컴퓨터 및 인터넷 사용법을 제공합니다. 그들은 또한 개인적인 용도로 의학 교과서를 구입할 수있는 연간 봉급을받습니다. 의사들은 프로그램에 들어가기 전에 일한 병원에서 정상적인 급여를 받으며, 완료되면 이전 직책으로 복귀 할 약속을받습니다.

The program also provides participants with weekly English language classes and instruction in using computers and the Internet. They are also given a yearly stipend with which they can purchase medical textbooks for their personal use. The doctors continue to receive their normal salary fromthe hospitals for which they worked prior to entering the program, in exchange for a promise to return to their prior positions upon completion.



커리큘럼 개발

Curriculum development

 
가장 큰 의료 부담을 유발하는 라오스의 질병은 다른 지역의 질병과는 다르며 각기 다른 지역에서 다를 수 있습니다. 빈곤 때문에 농촌 인구는 수도로 여행하는 데 어려움을 겪으므로 더 질병이 악화된 상태로 중앙 병원에 방문합니다. 전문가 부족으로 인하여 다양한 의료 문제를 다룰 수 있는 내과 의사가 필요하지만, 진단 및 치료 옵션이 부족하고 일반 국민의 빈곤이 빈곤하여 지구상의 다른 나라나, 심지어 지역 내에서도 결정의 위험, 혜택 및 비용 효율성이 각각 다르다.

The diseases in Laos that cause the greatest health care burden are different than those in other parts of the world, and can vary in different regions of the country. Due to poverty, the rural population has difficulty traveling to the capital, and thus often present at the central hospitals with more advanced disease. The lack of specialists necessitates that an internist be trained to handle a wider array of medical problems, but the lack of diagnostic and treatment options, and the general poverty of the people, makes the risks, benefits and cost- effectiveness of each decision different than elsewhere in the world or even the region. 

 

KKU 교수진은 라오 어 언어와 비슷한 태국어로 워크숍을 이끌었고, 이 덕분에 라오스 의사가 워크숍을 영어로 진행하는 것보다 이해하고 참여하기가 더 쉬워졌습니다
KKU faculty led these workshops in the Thai language, which is similar to the Lao language, making it easier for the Lao physicians to understand and participate than if the workshops had been held in English.





프로그램 평가

Program Evaluation

 

내과의 프로그램에 참여한 라오스, 태국 및 미국의 동료들은 라오스 프로그램 참가자들의 환자 치료 개선에 관해보고했다.

Lao, Thai, and American colleagues involved with the internal medicine programhave reported improving patient care by the Lao program participants.


이 프로그램의 초기 참가자는 남성 4 명, 여성 2 명이었으며 연령대는 33 세에서 48 세 사이였다 (표 1 참조).

The initial participants in the program were four men and two women, whose ages ranged from33 to 48 years old (see Table 1).

 

MCQ 시험과 OSCE의 평균 점수는 처음에 프로그램이 끝날 때 훨씬 높았습니다 (표 2 참조).

The average score on both the MCQ examand the OSCE was significantly higher at the end of the programthan at the beginning (see Table 2).

 

또한, 참가자의 MCQ 시험 점수는 3 년 과정 전반에 걸쳐 전반적으로 향상되었습니다 (표 3 참조).

Furthermore, participants’ scores on the MCQ exam improved overall in all three years of the program(see Table 3).

 

질적 평가에서 6 명의 참가자 모두 프로그램 시작과 비교하여 의사로서 자신감을 가지며 프로그램이 끝날 때 진단 검사 및 약물 치료의 용도와 한계를 더 잘 이해할 수 있다고 답했다. 참가자 중 3 명은 이 프로그램에 참여하기 전에는 환자에게 specific하지 않은 혈액 검사의 표준 배터리를 주문하도록 지시 받았다고 전했다. 2 명의 참가자는 프로그램 이전에 종종 결과를 해석 할 수 없다는 것을 알면서 혈액 검사를 지시했다.

On the qualitative assessment, all six participants said that compared to the start of the program, they felt more confident as physicians and had a better understanding of the uses and limitations of both diagnostic tests and medications at the end of the program. Three of the participants said that prior to the program, they had been taught to order a standard battery of blood tests that were not specific to the patient. Two participants stated that prior to the program, they often ordered blood tests knowing they would not be able to interpret the results.

 


약물에 대해 이야기 할 때, 두 명의 참가자는 프로그램 이전에는 치료를 선택하기 전에 clinical diagnosis를 시도한 적이 없었지으며, 대신 증상을 치료하기 위해 약물만을 선택했다고 밝혔습니다. 한 참가자는 약물의 위험 또는 부작용에 대해 이전에 결코 배웠던 적이 없다고 말했다. 한 참가자는 라오스에서 쉽게 구할 수없는 최신 약물의 사용에 관한 현재의 증거를 제시 한 강연에 특히 감사한다고 전했다.

When talking about medications, two participants stated that prior to the program they had never tried to make a clinical diagnosis before choosing a treatment, but instead had chosen medications solely to treat symptoms. One participant said that she had never before been taught about the risks or side effects of medications. One participant said that he particularly appreciated lectures that gave current evidence on the use of newer medications, information not easily available in Laos.

 


프로그램을 개선하기 위한 대부분의 제안에는 외국 전문가들, 특히 현재 내분비학 및 류마티스학과 같이, 라오스가 전문가를 보유하지 못한 영역에서 외국 교수들이 교육하는 양을 증가시키는 것이 있었다. 2 명의 참가자는 훈련이 더욱 rigorous해질 필요가 있다고 말했다. 2 명의 참가자는 교수진에 단 한 명의 long-term 외국의사 만으로는 충분하지 않다고 제안했다. 한 참가자는 이 프로그램이 저널에서 새로운 정보에 액세스하는 방법을 가르쳐 주었지만 라오스에서는 이 정보를 실용화하기가 어렵다고 말했습니다. 그녀는이 분야에서 더 많은 초점을 제안했습니다.

Most of the suggestions for improving the program involved increasing the amount of teaching by foreign experts, especially in areas where there are currently no specialists in Laos, such as endocrinology and rheumatology. Two participants stated that the training needed to be more rigorous. Two participants suggested that having only one long-term foreign physician on the faculty was not enough. One participant stated that the program had taught her how to access new information from journals, but she found it difficult to translate this information into practice in Laos. She suggested more focus in this area.

 




고찰

Discussion

 

 

파트너십이 내과 프로그램을 디자인했을 때, 목표는 라오스 사람들이 가진 어마어마한 건강요구를 해결할 수 있는 잘 훈련 된 내과의 핵심 그룹을 라오스에 제공하는 것이 었습니다.

When the partnership designed the internal medicine program, the goal was to provide Laos with a core group of well- trained internists who could address the overwhelming health care needs of the Lao people.


반 구조화 된 인터뷰는 지식과 기술의 습득이 있었고, 더불어 참가자의 자신감이 주관적으로 향상되었음을 보여줍니다. 프로그램에 참여한 모든 의사는 진단 검사 및 약물 사용법을 잘 알고 있었으며 일반적으로 의사로서 자신감을 얻었습니다.

The semistructured interviews show that the gain in knowledge and skills has been accompanied by a subjective increase in the participants’ confidence. All of the physicians in the programfelt they had a better understanding of how to use diagnostic tests and medications, and generally felt more confident as doctors.

 

이 프로그램을 평가하려는 우리의 시도에는 몇 가지 중요한 제한이 있습니다. 개발 도상국의 의료 종사자에 대한 지식을 테스트하기 위한 reliable and valid 도구를 만드는 것이 어렵다는 점을 지적했다 .2 라오스에서는 진단 및 방사선 검사, 약물 치료, 개입 등이 제한적으로만 가능하다. 이러한 조건에서 건강 관리가 어떻게 제공되는지 평가할 수있는 도구는 거의 없습니다. 개발 도상국에서는 조건이 매우 다양하므로 "올바른"의료를 구성하는 요소에 대한 보편적 인 표준은 없습니다. 의약품 및 개입의 위험, 혜택 및 비용 효율성은 현지 조건에 따라 다릅니다. 라오스 의사가 테스트에 대한 질문을 쓰는 것은 지역 조건과 관련된 도구를 만드는 이점이 있지만 이러한 시험을 검증 할 방법이 없습니다. 현재 라오어로 유효한 시험은 없으며 건강 검진을 번역 할 자격이있는 사람은 거의 없습니다. 도구를 번역하면 또 다른 잠재적 오류가 발생할 수 있습니다.

There are some significant limitations in our attempt to evaluate this program. Other authors have noted the difficulty of creating reliable and valid instruments for testing the knowledge of health workers in developing nations.2 In Laos, there is limited availability of diagnostic and radiologic tests, medications, and interventions. Few instruments are designed to assess how health care is provided under these conditions. Within the developing world, conditions vary widely, so there are no universal standards as to what constitutes “correct” medical care. The risks, benefits, and cost-effectiveness of medications and interventions vary depending on local conditions. Relying on Lao physicians to write questions for the tests has the advantage of creating instruments relevant to local conditions, but there is no way to validate these exams. Currently, there are no validated exams available in the Lao language, and there are few people who are qualified to translate a medical exam. Having an instrument translated would introduce another forumfor potential error.

 

의사의 지식을 향상시키는 다른 프로그램과 비교하여 이 프로그램의 비용 효율성을 언급하지 않았습니다. 흔히 장기간 훈련 프로그램이 비용면에서 너무 비싸다고 가정하나 이것이 반드시 그렇지는 않다. 개발 도상국에서 일하는 데있어 가장 비용이 많이 드는 것 중 하나는 의사 나 직원을 프로젝트 현장으로 보내거나 개발 도상국의 의사를 미국이나 유럽으로 다시 데려 오는 비용입니다. 짧은 훈련 과정이나 세미나의 경우, 여러 사람이 1 년에 여러 번 방문해야 합니다. 이와 대조적으로, 개발 도상국에서 (일정 기간) 의사를 지원하는 것은 이들 국가에서 저렴한 생활비로 인해 놀랍게도 저렴합니다. 따라서 FMS-NUOL이 사용하는 모델은 개발 도상국에서 의사를 훈련시키는 데 일반적으로 사용되는 다른 전략보다 비용 효율적일 수 있습니다.

We have not addressed the cost- effectiveness of this programas compared to other programs to improve physician knowledge. The frequent assumption that a long-termtraining programis too expensive to be cost-effective is not necessarily correct. One of the most expensive aspects of working in developing nations is the cost of sending physicians or employees to the project site, or bringing doctors fromthe developing nation back to the United States or Europe. For a short training course or seminar, this is often required multiple times a year for multiple people. In contrast, supporting a physician to live in the developing world is surprisingly inexpensive due to the low cost of living in these countries. Therefore, the model used by the FMS-NUOL may be more cost-effective than other commonly used strategies to train doctors in the developing world.

 


마찬가지로, 개발 도상국의 의사보다 의료 보조원이나 외과 기술자와 같은 대체의료종사자(substitute medical workers)를 훈련시키는 것이 비용면에서보다 효율적이라고 종종 생각됩니다. 대체 의학 종사자 교육 프로그램은 일반적으로 필요한 교육이 더 짧고 복잡한 지식과 커리큘럼이 필요하기 때문에보다 일반적입니다 .1 또한 대체 근로자를 교육해야하는 사람들은 짧고 단순한 교육을 요구합니다.

Likewise, it is also often assumed that it is more cost-effective to train substitute medical workers such as medical assistants or surgical technicians than physicians in the developing world. Currently, programs to train substitute medical workers are more common, since the training they need is generally shorter and requires less complex knowledge and curricula.1 Also, the people needed to train substitute workers require shorter and simpler education themselves.

 

그러나 개발 도상국에서 의사를 훈련시키는 데는 장점이 있습니다. 의사는 질병에 대한 깊이 있고 복잡한 이해를 바탕으로보다 다양한 건강 문제를 처리 할 수 ​​있습니다. 의사는 국가의 질병 부담 변화 또는 진단 또는 치료의 발전과 같은 의료 환경의 변화에 ​​적응할 수있는 준비가 되어 있습니다. 라오스와 같은 계층적hierarchical 사회에서 의사들은 다른 보건 전문가들보다 (정부와 유엔기구에 의한) 인구의 요구에 대한 옹호자로 간주 될 가능성이 더 큽니다. 마지막으로, 의사를 교육시키는 프로그램은 국가에 잘 훈련된 그 나라의 교육자들을 제공하여, 이들이 다시 다른 의사를 대체하거나 의료 종사자를 양성할 수 있게 된다.

Yet there are advantages to training physicians in developing countries. Physicians, given their deeper and more complex understanding of disease, can handle a wider variety of health concerns. Physicians are better prepared to adapt to changes in the medical environment, such as changes in the disease burden of a country or advances in diagnosis or treatment that may become available over time. In a hierarchical society such as Laos, physicians are more likely than other health professionals to be heeded as advocates for the needs of the population by the government and by United Nations agencies. Finally, a programto educate physicians can provide a country with a pool of well-trained, native educators who in turn are prepared to train other physicians or substitute medical workers.


 


 


 2006 Apr;81(4):399-404.

model for improving physician performance in developing countries: a three-year postgraduatetraining program in Laos.

Author information

  • 1Harvard Vanguard Medical Associates, 133 Brookline Avenue, Boston, MA 02215, USA. gregory_gordon@vmed.org

Abstract

The Faculty of Medical Sciences of the National University of Laos, in partnership with Health Frontiers, an American nonprofit organization, Case Western Reserve University of Cleveland, Ohio, and Khon Kaen University of Khon Kaen, Thailand, administer a postgraduate internal medicine training program for Lao physicians. Begun in 2001, the program admits six participants per year; participants complete clinical rotations in three hospitals in Vientiane, Laos, as well as one other clinical site. The goal of the program is to prepare a core group of local physicians to deliver healthcare, and train others according to an international standard of care. The program has two exceptional features. First, the vast majority of the training takes place in Laos. This avoids the "brain drain" that can occur when nationals of developing countries train abroad. In addition, because the training uses personnel, facilities, and technology available locally, graduates are better prepared to serve the needs of the Lao people. Second, the partnership is an all-volunteer model, committed to a long-term undertaking. American-trained specialists who live in Laos are available to work with the participants on a daily basis. Participants have a long period of time to acquire, reinforce, and be tested in new knowledge and benefit from learning from American colleagues who model an evidence-based approach to medical care, while still working in local conditions. As more Lao physicians receive this level of training, the program will become locally sustainable and help break a cycle of dependency on foreign expertise within the Lao health care sector. Preliminary results suggest that the program is succeeding, and could be replicated elsewhere.

PMID:
 
16565196
[PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]


성과로직모델(Outcomes-Logic-Model)을 활용한 교수개발 프로그램 평가(Acad Med, 2006)

Using an Outcomes-Logic-Model Approach to Evaluate a Faculty Development Program for Medical Educators

Elizabeth G. Armstrong, PhD, and Sylvia J. Barsion, PhD





의사와 CME를 위한 FD에는 교실이나 침상 옆에서 지식과 지혜를 전수하는 전문가로서 교사를 인정positioning하는 오랜 전통이 있습니다. 그러한 전통으로 인해, CME나 FD 프로그램을 평가하는 주요 척도는 종종 참여 의사의 만족도였으며 코스 개발자는 전문 개발 경험을 평가하고 개선 방법을 모색하기 위해 평가 계획과 적절한 결과 측정을 작성하지 못하는 경우가 종종있었습니다.

Faculty development for physicians and continuing medical education (CME) each has a long tradition of positioning the teacher as an expert passing on knowledge and wisdom from the front of a classroomor the foot of a hospital bed. Concomitant with that tradition, the key metric for evaluating these programs has often been the satisfaction of participating physicians, and course developers have often failed to create assessment plans and appropriate outcome measures to evaluate the professional development experience and pave the way for improvements.

 


지난 10 년 동안 의학 교육은 의사-학습자가 자신의 학습에 적극적으로 참여할 수 있도록 지원함으로써 학습을 촉진하는 교육을 강조하기 시작했습니다. 엄격한 연구를 통해 입증 된 교육 원칙을 바탕으로 한 이 "과학적 가르침Scientific teaching"의 예가 더욱 널리 알려지고 구현되었습니다 .2

In the past decade, medical education has begun to shift froman emphasis on instruction to a facilitation of learning by providing support for the physician learner as an active participant in his or her own learning. This example of “scientific teaching,” based on educational principles shown through rigorous research to be effective, has become more widely known and implemented.2

 

여기에서 우리는이 평가 접근법을 Harvard Macy Institute for Physician Educators (HM-PE) 프로그램에 적용했습니다. 하버드 의과 대학 (HMS)에서 1994 년에 시작된 HM-PE 프로그램은 Multidisciplinary한 교수진에 의해 만들어지고 구현되었으며 이전에 HMS에서 제공 한 다른 FDP으로부터 dramatic departure을 설계되었습니다. *

Here we have applied this evaluative approach to the Harvard Macy Institute Programfor Physician Educators (HM-PE). The HM-PE program, launched in 1994 at Harvard Medical School (HMS), was created and implemented by a multidisciplinary faculty, and designed to be a dramatic departure fromother faculty development programs previously offered by HMS.*

 

* 일반적으로 HM-PE 프로그램은 내부 HMS 지원자를 위해 약 20 %의 인원을 할당하지만 나머지 80 %는 전국 및 전세계 의료 기관의 의사입니다. 이 보고서에 기술 된 연구가 수행 된 이후, HM-PE는 최근 의학 교육자 및 지도자로 봉사하는 다양한 의료 제공자의 참여 증가를 반영하기 위해 Program for Educators in the Health Professions으로 개명되었습니다 .

*Generally, the HM-PE program reserves approximately 20%of spaces for internal HMS applicants, but the other 80%of participants are physicians from medical institutions across the country and worldwide. Since the study described in this report was conducted, the HM-PE has been renamed the Program for Educators in the Health Professions, in order to reflect the increased participation in recent years of a wider set of health care providers serving as medical educators and leaders.

 


이 프로그램은 "Transformational learning"을 촉진하기 위해 설계되었다.

  • (1) 능동적 학습 방법을 사용하는 교육자로서의 더 큰 역량,

  • (2) 전국적으로 그리고 세계적으로 다양한 교육 기관에서의 의학 교육 방식에 대한 새로운 이해,

  • (3) 의학교육과 의학교육자로서 보다 확고한 헌신

  • (4) 교차 전문, 기관 간 공동체 천공동체에 대한 지속적인 참여.

The program was designed to foster “transformational learning”4 to propel participants toward

  • (1) greater capability as educators using active learning methods,

  • (2) new understanding of ways medical education is implemented in diverse institutions nationally and globally,

  • (3) firmer commitment to the field of medical education and their identity as medical educators, and

  • (4) ongoing involvement in cross-specialty, cross-institutional communities of practice.

 

성과로직모델 연구를위한 연구대상은 HM-PE 국제 프로그램에 참여한 HMS의 의학 교육자들로 구성되었습니다. 우리는이 의사들의 sample을 연구하여 (참여자 중 80 %가 다른 기관에서 참여한) FDP에 참여하는 것이 위의 네 가지 측면에 대한 경험에 영향을 주었는지 여부를 알아 냈습니다. HMS의 의사 대다수가 의사 교육자와 동일한 집중적인 교육을 받지 않은 경우에도 학습 경험이 진정으로 transformational 할 수 있을까?

The population for our outcomes-logic- model study consisted of medical educators at HMS who were participants in the HM-PE international program. We studied a sample of these physicians to learn whether participation in this faculty development program—held at their own institution but with 80%of participants fromother medical institutions—affected their experience as it pertained to the four dimensions above. Could the learning experience be truly transformational when the majority of physicians at HMS were not being exposed to the same intensive approach to being a physician educator?


성과로직모델에서 선행 연구에 의해 원하는 결과를 예측할 것으로 나타난 Activities를 식별한다. 일부 Outcome은 즉각적으로, 즉 프로그램 종료 후 또는 실행 중에 측정 할 수 있습니다. 성과로직모델은 중간 또는 장기 결과를 위해서 즉각적인 결과가 먼저 달성되어야한다고 가정합니다. HM-PE의 초기 결과 논리 모델 (표 1 참조)

In the outcomes logic model, activities are identified that have been shown by prior research to be predictive of the desired outcomes. Some outcomes are immediate, that is, measurable during orsoon after the programends. The outcomes logic model posits that these immediate outcomes must first be achieved in order to set the stage for intermediate or longer-range outcomes. A beginning outcomes logic model for HM-PE (see Table 1)









Method

 

 

표 1의 각 Outcome에 대해 우리는 프로그램 결과가 어느 정도 달성되었는지에 대한 증거를 제공하는 측정 지표를 만들었습니다. 측정 지표를 만들려면

  • (1) Outcome의 성취를 나타내는 관찰가능하고 측정가능한 특성이나 변화를 정의하고

  • (2) Outcome을 보여주는 참가자의 수 및 비율과 같은 특정 통계를 확인함으로써

...프로그램의 기준선과 목표를 설정하고 성취 수준을 요약하는데 활용한다.

 

이 연구의 성과로직모델은 프로그램의 효능을 검사하고 개인 성과를 평가하기위한 것이 아님을 알아 두는 것이 중요합니다.

For each outcome from Table 1, we created a measurement indicator to provide evidence as to what degree the programoutcome has been achieved. To create a measurement indicator, we needed to (1) define the specific observable, measurable characteristic or change that will represent achievement of the outcome, and (2) identify the specific statistic, such as number and percentage of participants attaining the outcome, that the programwill use to set baselines and targets as well as summarize its level of achievement. It is important to note that the outcomes logic model in this study examines the efficacy of the programand is not intended to assess individual performance.

 

 

결과 논리 모델은 표 1의 즉각적인 결과와 중간 결과가 참가자들에 의해 어느 정도 달성되었는지를 문서화하고자한다. HM-PE 프로그램을 시작하고 유지하기 위해서는 상당한 자원 (투입물)이 필요했고, 상당수의 HMS 및 그 이상의 의사 교육자들이 참여했습니다 (산출물).

The outcomes logic model seeks to document to what extent the immediate and intermediate outcomes in Table 1 were attained by participants. Significant resources (Input) were needed to start and sustain the HM-PE program, and significant numbers of physician educators fromHMS and beyond have participated (Outputs).



활동 : 프로그램은 임무를 수행하기 위해 투입물input을 가지고 무엇을합니까?

Activities: What does the program do with inputs to fulfill its mission?


50 개의 무작위 대조 연구 (randomized control studies)로부터 교수를 위한 Professional development에서 효과적인 학습 경험을 위해 필요한 4 가지 구성 요소를 확인했습니다 :

  • (1) 학습 요구 평가,

  • (2) 순서가 잘 배열된 다양한 활동,

  • (3) Interactive한 학습 및 연습 기회,

  • (4) 성과 평가.

HM-PE 프로그램은 다음과 같이 이들 구성 요소를 주소 지정합니다.

A summary of 50 randomized control studies7 identified four components required for effective learning experiences in professional development for medical faculty:

  • (1) assessment of learning needs,

  • (2) sequenced and multifaceted activities,

  • (3) interactive learning and opportunities to practice, and

  • (4) outcome evaluation.

The HM-PE programaddresses these components as follows:

 


▪ 요구사정. HM-PE에 합격 한 각 참가자는 부서장 또는 학장이 승인 한 의료 교육 프로젝트를 확인하여 자신의 기관에서 시행해야 합니다. HM-PE의 기획자는 HM-PE 프로그램을 참가자의 요구에 tailor 하기 위해 이 프로젝트에 대한 서술 된 설명을 사용합니다.

▪ Needs assessment. Each participant accepted into the HM-PE is required to identify and pursue a medical education project, approved by the department chair or dean, to be implemented at his or her own institution. The HM-PE’s planners use written descriptions of these projects to tailor the HM-PE programto the needs of the participants.

 

연속적이고 다면적인 활동. HM-PE 프로그램은 10 일간의 겨울 세션과 1 주일간의 봄 세션으로 두 번의 집약적 인 집중 체험을 제공합니다. 각 의사의 프로젝트는 겨울 세션 동안 동료 및 교수진과 논의되며, 이메일이나 전화 대화는 봄 학기 이후로 계속됩니다. 소그룹 인터랙티브 세션 및 비공식 회의는 참가자 간의 대화를 원활하게하기위한 프로그램 일정의 일부이며 전 세계 동료들의 학습 가치를 강조하기 위해 고안되었습니다.

▪ Sequenced and multifaceted activities. The HM-PE programhas as its anchors two intensive immersion experiences in residence: a ten-day winter session and a one-week spring session. Each physician’s project is discussed with peers and faculty during the winter session, with e-mail or telephone dialogue continuing into the spring session and beyond. Small-group interactive sessions and informal meetings are part of the program schedule to facilitate conversations among participants and are designed to emphasize the value of learning from colleagues worldwide.

 

 

▪ Interactive, Practice-based 학습 기회. HM-PE 교수진은 참가자들이 교수법을 연습하고, 협상을 탐구하고, 전략을 변경하고, 각 의사의 제도적 프로젝트를 조사하고 개선하고자하는 소그룹을 지원합니다. 실습 활동을 비디오로 녹화하고 동료 평가를 실시합니다. 프로그램 교수는 능동 학습 방법과 다 분야 접근법을 모델링 할 것으로 예상됩니다.

▪ Interactive, practice-based learning opportunities. The HM-PE faculty scholars facilitate small groups in which participants practice teaching methods, explore negotiation and change strategies, and examine and seek to improve each physician’s institutional project. The practice teaching activities are videotaped and followed by peer review. The programfaculty are expected to model active learning methods and a multidisciplinary approach.

 

▪ 평가. 평가는 교육 전략이 선택된 이유와 프로그램이 교과 과정의 의도 된 목표를 얼마나 성공적으로 수행했는지에 대한 증거를 얻는 것으로 시작됩니다. 이 보증이 없으면 성과로직모델이 중단됩니다. HM-PE 커리큘럼과 활동이 계획대로 수행되었는지 여부를 결정하기 위해 참여자 평가가 완료되고 두 차례의 거주residence 기간이 끝날 때 분석됩니다. 또한 HM-PE 프로그램의 책임자는 프로그램 종료 후 몇 개월 간 의사 교육자가 제출 한 프로젝트 업데이트에 대한 보고서를 검토합니다.

▪ Evaluation. Evaluation begins with obtaining evidence as to why the educational strategies were selected, and how successfully the program implemented the intended goals of the curriculum. Without this assurance, the outcomes logic model breaks down. To determine whether the HM-PE curriculumand activities were implemented as planned, participant evaluations are completed and analyzed at the end of both residence periods. In addition, the director of the HM-PE programexamines reports of project updates that are submitted by physician educators months after the program ends.

 

 


 

산출물 : 프로그램 활동의 직접적인 결과는 무엇인가?

Outputs: What are the direct outputs of program activities?




산출물은 1998 년, 1999 년, 2000 년 HM-PE 프로그램에 참여한 HMS 의사의 코호트입니다.이 프로그램은 12 년 동안 존재했으며 현재 29 개국에서 1,200 명 이상의 의사와 기타 건강 관리 서비스를 제공했습니다. 그 의사들 중 약 5 분의 1은 HMS에서 왔습니다.

The outputs are cohorts of HMS physicians who participated in the HM- PE programin 1998, 1999, or 2000. For the 12 years the programhas been in existence, it has served more than 1,200 physicians and other health care providers from29 countries. Of those physicians, about a fifth have been from HMS.

 

 

결과 : 프로그램 활동 중 및 후에 참가자들에게 어떤 혜택이 있습니까?

Outcomes: What are the benefits for participants during and after program activities?


결과를 결정하기 위해 우리는 이전 연구뿐만 아니라 프로그램 디렉터 및 이해 관계자의 프로그램, 목표 및 설정에 대한 지식을 사용했습니다. 그 다음과 중요한 단계는 결과 지표Outcome indicators를 확인하는 것이 었습니다. 즉, 과정 책임자 및 기타 이해 관계자가 동의 한 결과가 달성되었다는 증거로 사용되었습니다. 결과에 대한 "올바른"지표는 없지만 지표는 신뢰성 있고 관찰 가능해야하며 결과가 달성되면 변화 할 것으로 예상되는 행동을 측정해야합니다 .3

To determine the outcomes, we used prior research as well as course directors’ and stakeholders’ knowledge of the program, goals, and setting. The next and critical step was to identify outcome indicators: measures that course directors and other stakeholders agree serve as evidence that an outcome has been attained. There is no one “right” indicator for an outcome, but the indicator should be credible and observable, and measure behavior that is expected to change if the outcome is achieved.3


수치 적 지표가 달성되지 않았다면, 이는 의도했던 결과, 프로그램 전달, 측정 방법이 일치하지 않거나 프로그램 평가 방법이 개선되어야 한다.

If a numerical indicator was not achieved, this would suggest that the desired outcome, the programdelivery, and/or the measurement approach could be out of sync, or that the programor assessment method needs improvement.3,8

 

 

즉각적인 결과. 두 가지 즉각적인 결과가있었습니다.

Immediate outcomes. There were two immediate outcomes:


▪ Active learning methods에 대한 지식이 증가하고 학습자 중심의 교육자가 될 수있는 역량이 증가합니다.

=> 결과 지표 : HMS 참가자의 4 분의 3 이상이 적극적인 학습 방법에 대한 새로운 지식과 학습자 중심의 교육자가 될 수있는 더 큰 능력을보고합니다.

▪ Increased knowledge about active learning methods and greater capacity to be learner-centered educators. Outcome indicator: Over three quarters of the HMS participants will report new knowledge about active learning methods, and greater capacity to be learner-centered educators.

 

▪ 전국 및 전 세계적으로 의료 교육을 실시하는 방법에 대한 새로운 이해.

=> 결과 지표 : HMS 참가자 중 최소 4 분의 3은 FDP에 직접적으로 관련된 benefit이 무엇인지 알게 될 것이다. 80%의 참가자는 전국 및 전세계의 다양한 의료기관에서 근무하는 사람들이기 때문이다.

▪ New understanding of ways medical education is implemented in institutions nationally and globally. Outcome indicator: At least three quarters of the HMS participants will identify benefits they directly relate to being in a faculty development program where 80%of physicians are from diverse medical institutions, nationally and worldwide.

 

 

중간 결과. 두 가지 중간 결과가있었습니다.

Intermediate outcomes. There were two intermediate outcomes:



▪ HM-PE 프로그램은 일차 진로 방향으로서의 의학 교육에 대한 의지의 증가와 의학 교육자로서의 강한 정체성으로 이어지는 "변형적transformational" 프로그램이라고 믿는다.

=> 결과 지표 : HMS 의사 중 적어도 4 분의 3은 프로그램 직후에 의학 교육 분야에 대한 강한 의지를보고하고 5 년 후까지 유지될 것이다.

▪ Belief that the HM-PE programwas “transformational,” leading to an increased commitment to medical education as a primary career direction, and stronger identity as a medical educator. Outcome indicator: At least three quarters of the HMS physicians will report a stronger commitment to the field of medical education immediately after the program and five years later.


▪ 가상 커뮤니티, 전자 메일 및 공동 작업을 통해 의사 교육자와의 의사 소통 및 의사 소통을 지속적으로 확대합니다.

=> 결과 지표 : HM-PE 의사 중 4 분의 3은 프로그램이 시작된 후 상호 및 HM-PE 교수진과의 지속적인 관계를 유지하면서 프로그램 기간에 시작된 "가상 커뮤니티"를 포함한 광범위한 의학 교육자 네트워크를 구축 할 것입니다.
▪ Expanded network of colleagues in medical education and ongoing communications with like-minded physician educators, e.g., via virtual communities, e-mails, and collaborative activities. Outcome indicator: At least three quarters of the HM-PE physicians will continue their involvement with each other and/or HM- PE faculty after the programends, creating an expanded network of medical educators, including “virtual communities,” begun during the program.



 
 



Results

즉각적인 성과 달성

Achievement of immediate outcomes


 ▪ 13 명의 참가자 (81 %)는 학생들을 적극적 학습자로서 보는 관점을 넓어졌다고 답했다.

 ▪ 10 명의 참가자 (63 %)는 더 많은 교육 방법을 알게되었다고 답했습니다.

 ▪ 10 명의 참가자 (63 %)는 강의 횟수를 줄이고 다양한 교수 전략을 사용한다고 답했습니다.

 ▪ 13 명의 참가자 (81 %)는 Interactive 학습 사용에 자신감이 있다고 응답했습니다.

  ▪ Thirteen participants (81%) said they had an expanded view of students as active learners.

 ▪ Ten participants (63%) said they became aware of a greater array of teaching methods.

 ▪ Ten participants (63%) said they use lectures less often and use varied teaching strategies.

 ▪ Thirteen participants (81%) said they are confident in using interactive learning.

 

 

2004 년 조사에서 응답자들 각각은 미국과 전세계의 의사들의 참여가 이 프로그램의 중요하고 종종 예상치 못한 이점을 제공한다는 데 의견을 같이했습니다. 그들은 많은 이점을 확인했습니다. 외부 교수가 참여한 것의 장점은..

  • (1) HMS 참여자에게 의료 교육 관행이 전 세계적으로 어떻게 다른지에 대한 노출

  • (2) 아웃 - 오브 - 더 - 박스 (out-of-the-box) 사고를 조장하고, 인터뷰 대상자 몇 명이 제안한 것처럼 "하버드 대 밖에서"생각했다.

  • (3) 교수 지원 및 자원과 같은 문제에 대한 광범위한 시각;

  • (4) 참가자가 자신의 교육 및 훈련을 향상시키는 데 도움이되었다.

  • (5) 과정을 보다 신뢰성있게 만들었습니다.

  • (6) 의사 교육자와 자원 및 연결의 글로벌 네트워크를 만들었습니다. 그리고

  • (7) HMS 참가자들이 본 적 없는 의학 교육 모델을 제공했다.

 

In the 2004 survey, each of the respondents agreed that the participation of physicians fromacross the United States and around the world provided an important and often unanticipated benefit of the program. They identified numerous advantages; the participation of faculty fromoutside HMS

  • (1) exposed the HMS participants to how medical education practices differ worldwide;

  • (2) fostered thinking out-of-the-box and, as a couple of interviewees suggested, thinking “out-of-the-Harvard way”;

  • (3) broadened perspectives on issues such as faculty support and resources;

  • (4) helped participants improve their own teaching and training;

  • (5) made the course more credible;

  • (6) created a global network of resources and connections with physician educators; and

  • (7) provided models of medical education the HMS participants otherwise would not have seen.


 

중간 결과의 성취

Achievement of intermediate outcomes

 


HM-PE 프로그램은 의학 교육에 대한 의사의 열정과 헌신을 촉발시키는 촉매제로 설계되었습니다. 의학교육은 (Funding을 마련하고 테뉴어를 위한 학술활동을 해야하는 어려움으로 인해) 전국적으로 많은 의사들에게 쉽지 않은직업 선택이되어 왔습니다 .5

The HM-PE programwas designed to be a catalyst to spark physicians’ enthusiasm for and commitment to medical education. Nationally, this has been a challenging career choice for many physicians, pressured by the need to generate funds for the medical institution and produce scholarly work en route to tenure.5


의학 교육 분야에 대한 헌신은 다음과 관련되어 있었다.

  • (1) 교육자로서의 자기 인식 / 정체성과 그들이 "올바른"분야에 있다는 느낌,

  • (2) 다른 의사들이 비슷한 관심사를 공유한다는 인식,

  • (3) 마음이 맞는 의사의 지속적인 공동체에의 개입,

  • (4) 궁극적으로 경력 교육으로서의 의학 교육의 인정과 실행 가능성 .9

Research has demonstrated that commitment to the field of medical education is related to: (1) self-perception/identity as an educator and the feeling that they are in the “right” field, (2) appreciation that other physicians share similar interests, (3) involvement in an ongoing community of like-minded physicians, and, (4) ultimately, recognition and viability of medical education as a career path.9


HM-PE 프로그램은 참여한 해에 상관없이 2001 년 인터뷰 한 대다수의 의사의 삶에서 중요한 역할을 담당했습니다. 인터뷰 자료를 통해 참가자가 프로그램에 미치는 영향을 설명하는 세 가지 범주가 식별되었습니다.

The HM-PE program played a significant role in the lives of the vast majority of physicians interviewed in 2001, regardless of the year in which they participated. The interview data resulted in the identification of three categories to describe the program’s impact on the participants:

 

경력 변화적. 의사의 약 3 분의 1에 해당하는 프로그램은 매우 강력하여 경력 경로가 바뀌 었습니다. 그들은 그것을 자신의 커리어에서 "결정적인"또는 "변혁적" 포인트라고 부르며 의학 교육에 전념하게했습니다.

Career-altering. For about a third of physicians, the programwas so powerful that it changed their career paths. They referred to it as a “seminal” or “transforming” point in their careers, leading themto commit themselves to medical education.
 

경력 확신적, 경력 확장적. 16 명의 참가자 중 9 명은 경험적으로 활발한 학습, 조직 변화, 의학 교육의 실습 및 평가 원칙에 대한 지식과 편안함을 제공 할뿐만 아니라 열정에 대한 열정에 긍정적 인 영향을 미쳤습니다. . 그것은 "활력을 되찾기"와 "교수진을 교육자로 만드는 과정"으로 묘사되었습니다.

Career-affirming and expanding. For nine of 16 of the participants, the experience provided not only increased knowledge about and comfort with the principles of active learning, organizational change, and the practice and evaluation of medical education, but also had a profound and positive effect on their enthusiasmfor medical education. It was described as “reinvigorating” and a “course that makes educators out of faculty.”

 

경력 중립적. 인터뷰 한 두 명의 의사 만이 프로그램에 대한 자신의 경험을 겸손하게 긍정적이거나 중립적 인 것으로 묘사했으며 일상적 업무 나 미래 계획에 거의 영향을 미치지 않는다고보고했습니다.

Career-neutral. Only two of the physicians interviewed described their experience in the programas modestly positive or neutral and reported that it had little effect on their day-to-day work or future plans.

 

 

두 번째 중간 결과, 의학 교육 및 지속적인 의사 소통에서 의사 네트워크의 확장과 관련하여, 참가자의 대다수는 프로그램의 비공식 커리큘럼이 공식 커리큘럼만큼이나 중요하고, 우정Camadarie이 강력한 효과가 있었다고 했다. 같은 생각을 가진 동료들의 지원을 경험하는 것은 13 명의 의사 (81 %)가보고 한 이점이었습니다.

Regarding the second intermediate outcome, the expansion of the physicians’ network of colleagues in medical education and continued communication, the vast majority of participants reported that the program’s informal curriculumwas clearly as important as the formal curriculum, and that the camaraderie that developed had a powerful impact. Experiencing the support of like-minded colleagues was a benefit reported by 13 physicians (81%).


2001 년 인터뷰 대상자의 4 분의 3은 이 프로그램에 의해 폭 넓은 접촉 네트워크가 형성되었다고 말했다. 의사는 전자 메일을 통해 유지 관리되는 연락처 외에도 의료 회의에서 전화를 하거나, 드물게는 다른 의료기관을 방문한다고 보고했습니다.

Three fourths of the 2001 interviewees said the programhad resulted in a broadened network of contacts. In addition to contacts maintained through e-mail, physicians reported meeting at medical conferences or speaking on the telephone, and, more rarely, travel to another medical institution.

 

2004 년 자료에 따르면 16 명의 응답자 중 14 명 (90 %)은 HMS 외부에서 HM-PE 프로그램을 통해 만난 의사들과 연락을 취했고 13 명 (81 %)은 설문 조사에 앞서 12 개월 동안 연락을 취한 것으로 밝혀졌습니다 . 따라서 원래의 연결은 프로그램 완료 이후 몇 년 동안 계속되었습니다.
The 2004 data revealed that 14 of 16 respondents (90%) had been in touch with physicians they met through the HM-PE program from outside of HMS, and 13 (81%) had been in touch during the 12 months prior to being surveyed. Thus, the original connections had continued for years beyond the completion of the program.

 





Discussion

 

이 발견은 비슷한 목표와 비슷한 교수 전략을 가진 의학 능력 개발 프로그램의 평가 데이터와 일치합니다. Pololi 등의 FDP에서 참가자의 학습 환경에 대한 인식 (특히 학습자 중심의 교수 방법, 개인적 성찰 및 교수 공동체faculty collegiality)이 긍정적 변화와 관련이 있었다.

This finding is consistent with evaluation data frommedical faculty development programs with similar goals and comparable teaching strategies. Pololi et al.10: Their faculty development program was associated with positive changes in participants’ perceptions of the learning environment, especially learner-centered teaching methods, personal reflection, and faculty collegiality.


또한 데이터는 자기보고식 데이터였다. 또한 성과로직모델은 여기에 설명 된 것보다 훨씬 복잡 할 수 있습니다.

Additionally, the data are self-reported: Also, the outcomes logic model can be much more complex than depicted here.

 

2001 년과 2004 년의 데이터에는 사실 정보 ( "이 과정을 수강 한 동료와 연락을 한 적이 있습니까? 그렇다면 얼마나 자주합니까?")에 대한 응답과 지각 ( "당신은 어떻게 영향을 설명하겠습니까? 이 프로그램 중 당신의 가르침 기술에 관한 것이 있습니까? "). Maxwell11은 질적 데이터는 "통계적 또는 실험적으로 통제 할 수없는 맥락적 요인의 영향을 확인하고, 특정 상황에서의 독특한 프로세스를 이해하고, 참가자의 신념과 가치가 결과 형성에 미치는 역할을 설명하기위한 뚜렷한 이점이 있다"를 제시하고 양적 및 질적 연구의 조합이 인과 관계를 가장 잘 이해할 수 있도록한다.

Data from2001 and 2004 include both factual information (in response to “Have you been in touch with colleagues who took the course with you and if so, how often?”) and perceptions (in response to “How would you described the impact, if any, of this programon your teaching skills?”). Maxwell11 argues that qualitative data “have distinct advantages for identifying the influence of contextual factors that can’t be statistically or experimentally controlled, for understanding the unique processes at work in specific situations, and for elucidating the role of participants’ beliefs and values in shaping outcomes,” and that a combination of quantitative and qualitative research offers the best understanding of causality.


여기에 제시된 결과 논리 모델과 결과는 논리적으로 장기간 결과에 대한 미래 연구로 이어지며, 프로그램 참가 후 더 많은 시간이 지나면 더 많은 다른 요인이 인과 관계로 들어설 수 있음을 명심하십시오.

The outcomes logic model and findings presented here lead logically to a future study of longer-termoutcomes, keeping in mind that the more time that elapses following participation in the program, the more other factors enter into the causal path.


연구하고, 더 많은 환자를 만나고, 변화하는 의료 시스템을 다루는 것에 대한 강한 압박이있는시기에, 의사 교육자는 헌신적으로 활력을 잃지 않게됩니다. 심슨 (Simpson) 등 13)은 가정의학과 의사 교육자에게 중요한 활력소를 발견했다. 이들은 "협업, 협의 및 지원"을 위한 지속적인 지원 시스템을 갖고, 이것이 임상 또는 연구 환경에서 의사에게 제공되는 동일한 수준의 인정과 지원을 받을 때, 의사-교육자에게는 활력이 강화 될 것이라 했다.

In times of intense pressure to teach, conduct research, see more patients, and deal with a changing health care system, physician educators are challenged to remain committed and energized. Simpson et al.13 identified key sources of vitality for physician educators in family medicine. The researchers suggest that vitality is enhanced for physician educators who have an ongoing support systemof colleagues for “collaboration, consultation, and support,” and who receive the same level of recognition and support provided to physicians in clinical or research settings.


 






7 Mazmanian PE, Davis DA. Continuing medical education and the physician as a learner: guide to the evidence. JAMA. 2002; 288:1057–60.



13 Simpson DE, Rediske VA, Beecher A, et al. Understanding the careers of physician–educators in family medicine. Acad Med. 2001;76:259–64.


 




 2006 May;81(5):483-8.

Using an outcomes-logic-model approach to evaluate a faculty development program for medicaleducators.

Author information

  • 1Harvard Medical School, Harvard-Macy Institute, Boston, Massachusetts, USA. elizabeth_armstrong@hms.harvard.edu

Abstract

PURPOSE:

This study used an outcomes-logic-model approach to examine the impact of participating in a nontraditional professional development program. Building and using a logic model provides a structure for the program to examine the degree that the desired learner outcomes, the program delivery methods, and the measurement approaches are aligned.

METHOD:

Structured telephone interviews were conducted in 2001 with 16 Harvard Medical School (HMS) participants in the Harvard Macy Program for Physician Educators (HM-PE): five who completed the program in 1998, five in 1999, and six in 2000. Interviews were also conducted with four Faculty Scholars, alumni of the HM-PE program who taught in subsequent programs. In 2004, online questionnaires were sent to the 16 participants and four Faculty Scholars. Immediate outcomes, such as greater use of active learning principles, and intermediate outcomes, such as commitment to medical education, were examined.

RESULTS:

Of those interviewed in 2001, 80% responded to the 2004 online questionnaire. Thirteen of 16 (81%) HMS respondents reported increased knowledge about and confidence using learner-center teaching methods; 10 of 16 (63%) said they gave fewer lectures and added alternative educational methods. Thirteen of 16 (81%) reported a stronger commitment to the field of medical education: almost one third felt the HM-PE program was a turning point in their careers.

CONCLUSIONS:

The outcomes logic model provided data to judge how well the program mission and plan were implemented, and whether outcomes had been attained.

PMID:
 
16639210
 
DOI:
 
10.1097/01.ACM.0000222259.62890.71
[PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]


의과대학 간 국제협력: 이득과 위협? (Acad Med, 2010)

International Collaborations Between Medical Schools: What Are the Benefits and Risks?





Editorial


여러 나라 의대 의과 대학 간 협력이 늘어나고 있습니다.

There are a growing number of collaborations between medical schools in different countries.


일부는 다른 기관과의 파트너십이 분명히 옳은 결정이라는 확신을 가지고 이러한 이니셔티브에 참여합니다. 의사 교육의 시스템을 개선하고 새로운 지식을 발견하기 위해 열심히 노력하고있는 다른 나라를 도울 수있는 기회가 있다면 무엇이 더 고귀한 행동 일 수 있습니까? 다른 한편으로, 나는 또한 어떤 사람들이 "왜 우리가 경쟁 할 사람들에게 지식과 노하우를 제공 할까?"라고 의문을 갖는 것을 듣습니다.

Some engage in these initiatives with the conviction that partnering with other institutions is clearly the right thing to do. If there is an opportunity to help another country that is working hard to improve its systemof educating physicians and discovering new knowledge, what could be a more noble deed? On the other hand, I also hear some individuals wonder “Why would we provide knowledge and know-how to those who will then compete with us?”

 

물론, 개인, 의과 대학, 사회 및 세계에는 수많은 잠재적 이익이 있습니다. 첫째, 협력해야 할 인도주의적 이유가 있습니다. 의사와 과학자의 교육 향상에 대한 헌신은 인류의 복지에 기여할 수 있습니다.

Certainly, there are a number of potential benefits to individuals, medical schools, society, and the world. First, there are humanitarian reasons to collaborate. A commitment to improving the education of physicians and scientists can contribute to the welfare of a population.

 

둘째, 협력은 모든 사람의 건강에 도움이 될 수 있습니다. 더 나은 치료를받을 수있는 사람들은 일반적으로 더 건강합니다. 질병에는 국경도 정부도 존재하지 않기 때문에 특정 국가의 의사와 과학자에 대해 잘 교육 받고 잘 훈련 된 의사집단은 한 지역의 질병이 다른 지역으로 전염되는 것을 예방하는 데 더 효과적 일 수 있습니다.

Second, collaboration can be beneficial to the health of all. Individuals who have access to better medical care usually are healthier. Since disease respects neither national boundaries nor government mandates, a better-educated, well-trained cadre of physicians and scientists in a particular country can be more effective in preventing the spread of disease to other parts of the world.

 

셋째, 협력은 다른 문화권에서 건강과 질병에 대해 더 많이 배울 것을 요구합니다. 이것은 의학 실습에 대한 우리의 이해를 알려주고 풍부하게하며 생물 의학 분야의 중요한 새로운 문제에 대한 토대를 제공합니다.

Third, collaboration requires learning more about wellness and illness in other cultures. This informs and enriches our understanding of the practice of medicine and provides a basis for important new questions in biomedical science.

 

넷째, 교육적인 이점이 있습니다. 파트너 학교들은 서로 학생, 레지던트 및 교수진에게 다른 학교의 국가에서 새로운 학습 기회를 제공 할 수 있습니다.

Fourth, there are educational benefits. Each partner school can offer to its students, residents, and faculty new learning opportunities in the other school’s country.

 

다섯째, 공동 작업은 파트너 중 하나 또는 두 파트너에게 재정적 이익을 줄 수 있습니다.

Fifth, collaboration can be of financial benefit to one or both partners.


여섯째, 공동 작업을 통해 파트너 중 하나 또는 두 파트너 모두의 평판을 높일 수 있습니다. 예를 들어, 세계적 건강 교육에서 혁신적인 것으로 보이는 학교에서 혜택을 볼 수있는 반면, 다른 학교는 잘 알려진 기관과 제휴하여 진보적 인 것으로 간주 될 수 있습니다. 더 나은 평판은 학교가 경쟁력있는 교수진, 레지던트 및 학생을 채용 할 수있게합니다.

Sixth, collaboration can enhance the reputation of one or both partners. For example, a school may benefit frombeing seen as innovative in global health education, while another school may be seen as progressive by associating with a well-known institution. A better reputation can enable a school to recruit more competitive faculty, residents, and students.


일곱째, 특정 지역 또는 국가에서 훈련 된 의료 인력을 보유하는 것은 다른 나라의 의료 종사자를 산발적이고 제한된 기간 동안받는 것보다 비용이 적게 들고 효과적입니다. 또한 클린턴 (Clinton) 등은 이 문제를 지적하면서 모국의 개인을 훈련하면 해당 국가의 의료 종사자 보 유를 향상시킬 수 있다고합니다.

Seventh, having a trained health care workforce in a particular region or country is less costly and more effective than receiving health care workers from other countries sporadically and for limited periods of time. In addition, as Clinton and colleagues point out in this issue of the journal, training individuals in their home country may improve retention of health care workers in that country.1

 


마지막으로 공동 작업은 새로운 맥락에서 의학에 대해 배우고, 다른 나라를 탐험하고, 새로운 언어를 배우는 사람들에게 동기 부여가 될 수 있습니다

And finally, collaborations can be motivating to individuals who enjoy learning about medicine in a new context, exploring other lands, and learning new languages.



 


물론 의과 대학 간의 국제 관계에는 위험 요소가 있습니다. 예를 들어 협업에 시간을 할애하면 학교가 지역Local의 필요와 우려에 적절히 대응하지 못하게 될 수 있습니다. 기회 비용을 포함하여 시간과 경제적 비용을 산정하는 타당한 방법을 개발하는 것이 매우 중요합니다.

Of course, there also are risks in an international relationship between medical schools. For example, devoting time to a collaboration has the potential to distract a school from attending adequately to local needs and concerns. It is critically important to develop sound ways of estimating time commitments and costs, including opportunity costs.

 

다른 위험은 "경쟁자를 훈련"하는 것입니다. 이것이 이론적으로는 유효할지 몰라도, 진정한 위협이라고 볼 수는 없습니다. 지식은 세계 전역에서 매우 빠르게 움직입니다. 특히 오늘날의 소규모 세계에서는 지식에 대한 접근을 통제하는 ​​데 오히려 더 많은 시간과 비용이 소요될 수 있습니다.

Another risk is “training the competition.” Although this is a valid theoretical concern, I amnot convinced that it is a real threat. Knowledge moves around theglobe so fast, especially in today’s smallerworld,2 that it can be time-consuming and expensive to control access to it.

 

다른 위험은 협업이 실패 할 수 있다는 사실입니다. 한 파트너 또는 두 파트너가 관계를 맺기 전에 재정적으로 어려울 수 있으며, 둘 다 향후 사기에 대한 관심을 떨어 뜨릴 수있는 사기 감소로 고통받을 수 있습니다. 또한 상호 문화적 오해 (양측이 이러한 오해를 최소화하기 위해 해야할 일을 하지 않으면 발생할 수 있음)는 교감을 약화 시키거나 심지어 협력을 망쳐놓을 수 있습니다.

Other risks include the fact that collaborations could fail. One or both partners could be worse off financially than they were before they entered into a relationship, and both could suffer diminished morale, which could discourage interest in future opportunities to collaborate. Also, cross- cultural misunderstandings (which can occur if both parties have not done their homework to minimize such misunderstandings) can weaken or even doom a collaboration.

 

또한 위험하거나 정치적으로 불안정한 지역에서 일하는 데 따르는 위험이 있으며 물론 학교에서는 예기치 않은 재난을 처리해야 할 수도 있습니다. 이 저널의 이슈에서 Steiner와 동료들은 국제 보건 선택 과목의 맥락에서 세 가지 위기를 설명합니다. 이는 국제 협력과 관련이 있습니다 .3
There also are risks inherent in working in dangerous or politically unstable parts of the world and, of course, schools may need to deal with unexpected disasters. In this issue of the journal, Steiner and colleagues describe, in the context of global health electives, three such crises, which are relevant to international collaborations as well.3



 



3 Steiner BD, Carlough M, Dent G, Pen˜a R, Morgan DR. International crises and global health electives: Lessons for faculty and institutions. Acad Med. 2010;85: 1560–1563.




 2010 Oct;85(10):1547-8. doi: 10.1097/ACM.0b013e3181f818ab.

International collaborations between medical schools: what are the benefits and risks?

PMID:
 
20881666
 
DOI:
 
10.1097/ACM.0b013e3181f818ab
[PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]


사하라 이남 아프리카(SSA) 국가와의 의학교육 파트너십: 효과적 협력의 근거를 찾아서(Acad Med, 2012)

Perspective: Partnering for Medical Education in Sub-Saharan Africa: Seeking the Evidence for Effective Collaborations

Joseph C. Kolars, MD, Kathleen Cahill, MPH, Peter Donkor, MDSc, Ephata Kaaya, MD, PhD, Aaron Lawson, MD, PhD, David Serwadda, MBChB, and Nelson K. Sewankambo, MBChB




미국과 캐나다의 의과 대학에서 글로벌 건강 이니셔티브에 대한 관심이 증가하고 있습니다. 4 년도 채 못되어, 글로벌 건강을위한 컨소시엄(Consortium of Universities for Global Health)은 50 개 이상의 미국 및 캐나다 기관에 글로벌 건강 프로그램을 제공하도록 성장했습니다 .1 이러한 프로그램은 종종 "센터"라고 불리는데 이는 전통적인 부서 및 학교와 같은 학술 단위를 뛰어 넘는 학제 간 접근 방식 때문입니다.

Interest in global health initiatives among medical schools in the United States and Canada is increasing. In less than four years, the Consortium of Universities for Global Health has grown to include over 50 U.S. and Canadian institutions that offer global health programs.1 These programs are often referred to as “centers”1 because of the interdisciplinary approaches they embrace which transcend traditional academic units such as departments and schools.


연구 기관의 경우 특히 사하라 사막 이남 아프리카 (SSA)와 같은 저개발 지역의 HIV, 결핵 및 말라리아와 같은 질병에 대한 연구에 상당한 자금 지원이있었습니다 .2-4 점점 더 많은 세계 보건 계획이 추진되고 있는데, 이들은 점점 더 많은 미국의 의과대학생 및 레지던트들이 개발 도상국에서의 국제 경험을 요구하고 있는 추세와 관련이 있습니다.

For research institutions, substantial funding has been available, particularly for work on diseases such as HIV, tuberculosis, and malaria in underresourced regions such as Sub- Saharan Africa (SSA).2–4 Another driver of the increasing number of global health initiatives pertains to the demand fromU.S. medical students and residents for international experiences in the developing world.5–7

 

미국, 캐나다 및 서유럽에있는 많은 학술 기관 (이후 North *라고 함)은 자신의 이익 추구를 위해 SSA의 underresourced 영역에있는 학부 또는 기관과 파트너십을 맺습니다. 이러한 파트너십의 일부는 연구자-연구자 간 관계에만 국한되어 있으며, 일부는 기관 대 기관 간 관계를 통한 보다 광범위한 이니셔티브를 포함하여 더 광범위합니다 .9 "자매 결연"이라는 용어는 상호 이익을 도모하고자하는 shared project를 지칭하는 경우가 많다 .10) 그러나 대부분의 경우 파트너십은 자본을 댈 수 있는 "North"의 기관들에 의해 주도되며, 이후 어떤 작업이 이루어질 것인가도 이들에 의해서 정해지곤 한다.

In pursuit of their interests, many academic institutions in the United States, Canada, and Western Europe (subsequently referred to as the North*) establish partnerships with academic faculty or institutions in underresourced areas of SSA. Some of these partnerships are limited to focused investigator-to- investigator relationships, and some are more expansive, including a broader array of initiatives through institution-to- institution relationships.9 The term “twinning” has been used for initiatives that are shared projects intended to be of mutual benefit.10,11 Most often, however, partnerships are driven by institutions in the North that are able to leverage the funding that, in turn, dictates the work that is to be done.12

 


취약지역의 기관에 미치는 영향을 조사한 측정 지표는 거의 없습니다. 저소득 국가의 기관이 고소득 국가의 연구자에 의해서 연구를 위한 "부속 연구지"가 될 수있는 위험이 제기되었으며, 저소득 국가의 인력을 높은 연봉을 구실로 유혹해서 빼내가는 장소가 될 수 있다는 우려가 있다.12

Few metrics have examined the effects on the institutions in underresourced areas. Concerns have been raised about the risk for these institutions to become either “annexed research sites” for researchers from high-income countries or venues managed by expatriates that often employ staff who have been lured away from the local institutions with inflated salaries.12

 


 



SSA의 보건 과학 기관의 필요성

The Needs of Health Science Institutions in SSA

 

SSA는 역사, 문화 및 언어가 식민지 지배력의 영향을받은 다양한 국가를 대표합니다. 이러한 역사에서 성장한 의과 대학 및 보건 시스템은 공통된 과제, 특히 숙련 된 의료 종사자의 상당한 부족 문제를 공유하지만, 언어 및 문화는 매우 다양합니다. SSA는 세계 질병 부담의 24 %이지만 세계 보건 의료 노동자의 3 % 만 차지합니다 .14 이러한 불일치는 보고서 작성과 행동 촉구의 증가로 화제가되고 있지만, 15-18 인력을 지원하는 재정 지원 건강을 개조하는데 필요한 것은 상대적으로 빈약 한 것입니다.

SSA represents a diverse collection of countries whose histories, cultures, and languages have been influenced by colonial powers. The medical schools and health systems that have grown out of these histories are as diverse as their languages and cultures,13 although they do share some common challenges, notably the profound lack of skilled health care workers. SSA is home to 24% of the world’s disease burden but only 3%of the world’s health care workers.14 Although this discrepancy is the topic of a growing number of reports and calls to action,15–18 the financial support to provide the workforce necessary to transformhealth is relatively meager.

 


상황은 식민지 시대의 유산인 불충분한 의학 교육 시스템에 의해서 더 악화된.19-22 SSA 학교의 수는 상대적으로 적으며 졸업하는 학생 수도 적다. 또한 대부분의 학교는 인프라, 교수, 정보 기술 네트워크 및 커리큘럼 부족으로 어려움을 겪고 있습니다 .23

The situation is exacerbated by an inadequate medical education system, which, some have argued, is a legacy dating back to colonial times.19–22 The number of schools in SSA is relatively few—as is the number of students that they graduate.23 Further, most schools suffer frominsufficient infrastructure, faculty, information technology networks, and curricula.23

 

(지방 정부, 특히 교육부와 보건부에서 다루어져야 할) SSA의 건강에 영향을 미치는 다른 요소에는 졸업하는 의사를 적절히 고용 할 수 없다는 것, 보건의료인력을 적절하게 분배하는 비 효과적인 메커니즘, 두뇌유출이 있다 24) 유사한 소규모 지역에서 온 의사들과 같은 의사들과 간호사들은 종종 더 풍족한 국가들로 떠나거나, 같은 국가 내에서도 다른 도시나 다른 행정 또는 비정부기구의 직책에 유혹 당한다.

Other factors affecting health in SSA that need to be addressed by local governments, especially the ministries of education and of health, include

  • the inability to appropriately employ the physicians who do graduate,

  • ineffective mechanisms to properly distribute health care workers,16–18 and

  • brain drain.24,25

Doctors and nurses from SSA (like those from similarly underresourced places12) are often lured away to more affluent countries—or to cities and administrative or nongovernmental organization positions within their own countries.24,25

 

 

또한 SSA의 의과 대학과 보건부와 같은 정부 부문의 요구도 간의 조화는 종종 suboptimal하다. 일반적으로 커리큘럼은 workplace에서 필요한 역량과 연결되어 있지 않습니다 .18 SSA 의과 대학은 또한 의사가 사회의 요구 사항과 국가적 우선순위에 더 잘 대처할 수 있도록 졸업생 교육을 향상시킴으로써 사회적 책임 성을 높이려고합니다. .26

Additionally, the alignment of medical schools in SSA with the needs of governmental sectors such as the ministry of health is often suboptimal. Typically, the curriculumis not linked to the competencies needed in the workplace.18 Medical schools in SSA also face the challenge of increasing their social accountability by improving the education of their graduates so that doctors can better deal with the needs of society and respond to relevant national priorities.26

 

SSA의 다른 의학 분야도 개혁을 필요로합니다. SSA는 보건 의료 종사자 팀의 coordinated approach을 포함하는 시스템을 개발할 필요가 있지만 SSA에서 효과적이고 팀 기반의 정책에 관한 증거는 부족합니다 .27 SSA를 포함한 전 세계 여러 지역에서 의사는 리더십 직책을 맡지만 관리나 리더십 부분의 적절한 훈련은 받지 않습니다. 마침내 SSA의 전문직 학회professional societies 는 보건 시스템에서 회원들의 역할을 보호하는 것에만 관심을 가지며, 다른 직종에게 업무를 전환하려는 노력을 차단하려고합니다 .18

Other areas of medicine in SSA also require reform. There is a substantial need in SSA to develop systems involving a coordinated approach by teams of health care workers, but evidence regarding effective, team-based policies in SSA is lacking.27 In many areas of the world, including SSA, doctors assume leadership positions in health care systems without having received adequatetraining in management and leadership.28Finally, some professional societies in SSA seek to protect their members’ roles in the health systemand block efforts to shift tasks to other cadres.18 




 

Partnering for Education and System Strengthening


"North"의 의과 대학은 수십 년간 SSA 의대와 제휴했다. 몇몇 관계의 구성에 관해서 몇 가지 우려가 제기되었다.

  • 첫째, 언급 한 바와 같이, 이러한 관계의 일부는 SSA의 이해 관계자의 필요를 간과 할 수있는 "North"의 의제에 의해 추진됩니다. 적절히 구축되지 않았다면 이러한 관계는 파트너 SSA 기관의 의존성 또는 두뇌 유출을 낳는다.29 의도가 좋더라도 이런 이니셔티브 중 다수는 neo-colonialism의 또 다른 형태로 볼 수 있습니다 .20,21

  • 둘째, 이러한 관계는 일시적 관계게 그칠 수도 있는 위험을 감수해야 하는데, 이는 재정출처가 시간-제한적이기 때문이거나 (예 : 5 년 보조금), 보다 전형적으로는, 성취 지향적 연구 (예 : 질병 과정이나 개입에 대한 더 큰 이해) 때문이다. 일반적으로 장기간의 노력이 필요한 교수 개발이나 교과 과정 개혁을 통한 제도적 강화에 초점을 맞추지 않습니다.

  • 셋째, 이러한 관계의 일부는 "North"의 연수생이나 일시적인 근로자가 환자에게 의료 서비스를 제공하는 구성 요소를 포함한다 .30) 이것이 유익 할 수도 있지만, 많은 사람들이 제대로 정의되지 않은 목표와 부적절하게 감독 된 연수생을 가진 "교육적"경험이기도 하다. 특히 단기간의 경험에 그치는 호스트 국가의 입장에서 지역적Local 효과 및 장기적 가치에 관한 윤리적 문제를 제기한다 .31-33 파트너십이 진정으로 SSA 학교의 이익을 위한다면, 그들에게 가치있는 것을 제공하기 위해 의도적으로 구조화되어야한다. 두 기관. 그러한 구조를 만들려면 역사적으로 발생했던 불평등한 혜택을 지양하기위한 적극적인 노력이 필요합니다 .29,34,35

Medical schools in the North have partnered with medical schools in SSA for decades. Several concerns have arisen regarding the construct of some of these relationships.

  • First, as mentioned, some of these relationships are driven by a Northern agenda that may overlook the needs of stakeholders in SSA. If not constructed appropriately, these relationships may be more successful at either breeding dependency in partner SSA institutions or promoting brain drain.29 Although admirable in intent, many of these initiatives can be rightly viewed as another formof neocolonialism.20,21

  • Second, these relationships run the risk of being transitory either because of dependence on time-limited funding sources (e.g., a five-year grant) or, more typically, accomplishment-oriented research (e.g., a greater understanding of a disease process or intervention); they do not typically focus on institutional strengthening through faculty development or curricular reform that requires a more long-term commitment.

  • Third, some of these relationships include a component by which trainees or transitory workers from the North provide medical care to patients.30 Although some of these relationships may be beneficial, many are “educational” experiences with poorly defined objectives and inadequately supervised trainees. Such experiences raise ethical questions concerning the local effect on and long-termvalue to the host country, particularly for short-termexperiences.31–33 For academic partnerships to be of benefit to schools in SSA, they need to be intentionally structured to provide value to both institutions. Creating such a structure requires active efforts to avoid the unequal benefits that have occurred historically.29,34,35

 

일부 파트너십은 SSA의 기관 강화strengthen를 돕기 시작했습니다. 미국과 캐나다 학교와 관련된 기타 관계는 교수진 개발과 같은 특정 요구에 초점을 맞 춥니 다 .41,42 또한 미국과 캐나다 - 여러 주목할만한 협력 43,44 교육 프로그램의 quality와 quantity를 증가시키는 등의 특정 수단을 통해 기관을 강화했다. 그러나 이것들은 예외적 사례일 뿐이다. 대부분의 파트너쉽은 범위가 제한되어 있었고 SSA의 전체 기관 또는 해당 지역의 건강을 종합적으로 개선 할 수있는 능력을 강화하도록 설계되지 않았습니다. 

Some partnerships have begun to help strengthen institutions in SSA. Some examples are the numerous partnerships that have been designed to strengthen specific programs within academic health centers.36–40 Other relationships involving U.S. and Canadian schools have focused on particular needs, such as faculty development.41,42 Also—beyond the United States and Canada—several notable collaborations43,44 have strengthened institutions through specific means, such as increasing the quality and quantity of their training programs. However, these and a few other examples are the exceptions; most partnerships have been limited in scope and were not designed to strengthen entire institutions in SSA or their ability to comprehensively improve health in the region.


파트너십 강화를 위한 접근

A Strategic Approach to Strengthening Partnerships


 

빌 & 멜린다 게이츠 재단 (Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation)은 미국의 의과 대학과 SSA 간의 파트너십에 대한보다 효과적이고 포괄적이며 균형 잡힌, 즉보다 진정한 협력 적 접근 방식을 모색해야한다는 필요성을 인정하여 2 년 학습을 위한 기금을 제공했습니다 우리가 "협동 학습 이니셔티브(“collaborative learning initiative”)"(또는 간단하게 공동 작업)로 묘사하는 것을 통해 부여합니다. 협동이 기금을 받기 전에 우리 중 두 명이 (J.C.K, K.C.) SSA의 보건 시스템과 건강 결과를 개선하기 위해 협력이 구성되었는지를 결정하는 데 도움이되는 10 가지 학습 질문을 개발했습니다.

In recognition of the need to explore more effective, more comprehensive, and more balanced—that is, more truly collaborative—approaches to partnerships between medical schools in the United States and SSA, the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation provided funding for two-year learning grants through what we describe as a “collaborative learning initiative” (or simply collaborative). Before any collaborations received funding, two of us (J.C.K, K.C.) developed 10 learning questions that would help determine if collaborations were structured to improve health systems and health outcomes in SSA.

 


SSA와 북미의 이해 관계자들이 가장 동의한 것은 학습 질문의 기초 형성에 문제가 있었다는 점이었습니다 (목록 1).

The issues that the stakeholders in SSA and North America most agreed were problematic formed the basis of the learning questions (List 1).

 


 

List 1 Learning Questions for Education Collaboratives 

 

  • 1. "North"와 사하라 사막 이남 아프리카 (SSA)의 학술 기관 간의 효과적이고 다차원적인 협력을 창출하기위한 최적의 접근 방법과 핵심 요소는 무엇입니까?

  • 2. 국가의 인적 자원 수요에 근거하여 SSA의 교육 기관에 대한 효과적인 요구사정을 위한 접근과 비용은 무엇입니까?

  • 3. SSA에서 필요한 의료 인력의 교육을 모니터하고 평가하기 위해 인력을위한 어떤 유형의 데이터 시스템을 갖추어야합니까? 적절한 측정 항목은 무엇입니까?

  • 4. SSA의 학교 및 교육 프로그램을위한 교육 역량은 어떻게 결정될 수 있습니까? 능력 배양을위한 핵심 요소는 무엇입니까?

  • 5. SSA에서 교수진 채용, 개발 및 유지에 어떤 접근 방법이 가장 효과적일까요?

  • 6. SSA의 건강 결과를 개선하기 위해 교과 과정을 어떻게 최적화 할 수 있습니까? 커리큘럼을 공유하기위한 창의적 모델은 용량을 향상시키는 데 가장 도움이됩니까?

  • 7. 연구 의제는 어떻게 아프리카 국가에 대한 바람직한 건강 결과에 더 잘 연계 될 수 있는가?

  • 8. 지속 가능하고 장기적인 관계를 유지하기 위해 SSA 기관과 협력하는 "North" 기관이 얻는 가치는 무엇입니까 (즉, SSA의 학교로부터 "North"의 학교가 배울 수 있는 것은 무엇입니까?)

  • 9. SSA의 훈련 프로그램의 장기 지속 가능성에 기여할 수있는 기업 / 기업 파트너쉽을 추구 할 수 있습니까?

  • 10. SSA의 기관들 간의 협력은 어떻게 촉진 될 수 있는가?

  • 1. What is the optimal approach and what are the key ingredients for creating effective, multidimensional*collaborations between academic institutions in the North† and Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA)? 

  • 2. What is the approach and cost to completing an effective needs assessment for the academic institution in SSA based on the human resource needs of the country? 

  • 3. What type of data systems for human resources should be in place to monitor and evaluate the education of the required health care workforce in SSA? What are the appropriate metrics? 

  • 4. How can the training capacity for schools and educational programs in SSA be determined? What are the key ingredients for capacity building? 

  • 5. What approaches to faculty recruitment, development, and retention are most likely to work in SSA? 

  • 6. How can curricula be optimized to improve health outcomes in SSA? What creative models to sharing curricula are most likely to help enhance capacity? 

  • 7. How can the research agenda be better linked to the desired health outcomes for the African country? 

  • 8. What is the value proposition to the Northern institution in collaborating with institutions in SSA for sustainable, long-term relationships (i.e., what do schools in the North have to learn from schools in SSA that will be of benefit to the former)? 

  • 9. What corporate/entrepreneurial partnerships could be pursued that will contribute to the long-term sustainability of training programs in SSA? 

  • 10. How can collaborations among institutions in SSA be facilitated? 


*Multidimensional refers to collaborations with sectors responsible for health (e.g., ministries of health and of education) and across health professions (e.g., nursing, medicine, public health). 

† The global health community now commonly refers to countries that have more economic resources as the North in part to be more inclusive of Europe which has been very active in global health initiatives. 



학습 질문을 실천하기

Putting the Learning Questions Into Practice


이러한 학습 질문은 Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation으로부터 자금을 지원받을 미국 의과 대학을 결정하는 데 핵심적인 역할을했습니다.

These learning questions played a central role in deciding which U.S. medical schools would receive funding from the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation.


성공적인 제안을 위한 필수 요건은 건강 증진을 위하여 국가의 인적 자원 요구에 맞게 교육 과정을 최적으로 조정할 수 있도록 파트너쉽에서 SSA의 보건부와 교육부를 포함하는 것이 었습니다. 제기 된 학습 질문 (목록 1) 중에서 효과적인 협력 관계를 구성하는 데있어 진정한 협력 헌장(true charter of collaboration) 설립에 대한 첫 번째 언급이 가장 중요하다고 간주되었습니다.

An essential requirement for successful proposals was involving the ministries of health and of education fromSSA in the partnership so as to optimally align education processes with the countries’ human resource needs to improve health. Of the posed learning questions (List 1), the first addressing the establishment of a true charter of collaboration was deemed to be the most important to structuring effective partnerships.

 

 

세 파트너십 모두에 참여한 학교의 리더들은 파트너십의 성공 여부를 측정하기 위해 어떤 유형의 증거를 사용할 것인지 결정하기 위해 총괄적으로 회의를 시작했습니다. 이 회의는 전자 우편을 통한 후속 대화와 함께 공통된 증거 틀 (목록 2)을위한 다섯 가지 초점 영역으로 귀결되었습니다.

Leaders fromall the schools involved in all three partnerships began meeting collectively to determine what type of evidence they would use to measure the success of their partnerships. These meetings, along with subsequent dialogue via e-mail, resulted in five areas of focus for a common evidence framework (List 2).

 


이러한 계획들로 인해 구체적인 결과가 나올 것입니다. 각 파트너십 또는 공동 작업자는 자체 조사 결과를 게시합니다. 그러나 일부 증거는 이미 SSA의 강화 된 기관 및 건강 증진에이 파트너십을 연결했습니다.

Specific outcomes fromthese initiatives are forthcoming; each partnership or collaborative will publish its own findings. However, some evidence has already linked these partnerships to strengthened institutions and improved health in SSA;


최근 미국 정부 기관은 SSA의 의료 및 간호 교육 강화를 목표로하는 파트너십을 지원할 수있는 기금 마련 기회를 늘 렸습니다. 50,51 이러한 제안의 핵심 요구 사항은 SSA 기관을 기반으로 하여 지역 연구원이 파트너십 - Bill과 Melinda Gates의 3 가지 협업을 구조화하고 평가하기 위해 개발 한 증거에 대한 학습 질문 및 프레임 워크와 일치합니다. .

Recently, U.S. government agencies have increased funding opportunities to support partnerships specifically aimed at strengthening medical and nursing education in SSA.50,51 A central requirement of these proposals—that the principal investigator be based at an SSA institution so that local needs will drive the partnerships—aligns with the learning questions and framework of evidence we have developed to structure and evaluate the three Bill and Melinda Gates collaboratives.

 

북부North의 자금 제공 기관과 참여 기관은 SSA의 책임있는 의료 교육 시스템을 지속적으로 개발하는 데 의미있는 역할을 할 수 있습니다. 장기적으로는 국가의 건강을 향상시키기위한 기관, 연구원 및 프로젝트를 지원해야 하며, 단기 연구 프로젝트나 목표가 불확실한 교육용 교환 경험을 후원해서는 안 된다.

Funding agencies and institutions in the North can play a meaningful role in the continued development of accountable medical education systems in SSA by supporting those institutions, researchers, and projects that aimto improve, for the long term, the health of their countries—rather than by undertaking short-termresearch projects or sponsoring vaguely educational exchange experiences.

 

요약하면, SSA에서 사람들의 건강을 개선하는 것은 이 지역의 의학 교육 강화에 달려 있습니다. 북부North 기관과의 협력 파트너십을 구축하는 것이이 목표를 달성하는 하나의 전략이지만 SSA 기관은 의제를 소유하고 추진해야하며 모든 파트너는 파트너십의 효율성을 신중하게 평가해야합니다.

 

In summary, improving the health of people in SSA is dependent on strengthening medical education in the region. Forming collaborative partnerships with Northern institutions is one strategy for accomplishing this, but SSA institutions must own and drive the agenda, and all partners must carefully evaluate the effectiveness of the partnership.









List 2 Desired Evidence for Which International Medical School Partnerships Should Strive 


1. 사하라 사막 이남 아프리카 (SSA) 교육 기관은 교수진, 학생 및 졸업생을 통해 어떻게...

- 건강 정책에 영향을 줍니까?

- 건강 프로그램을 개선하는가? (지역 사회 보건 종사자 지원 포함)?

- 국가의 건강에 대한 대중뿐만 아니라 전문적인 담론을 자극하고 알리는가?

1. How does the Sub-Saharan African (SSA) educational institution, through its faculty, students, and graduates: 

— Influence health policy? 

— Improve health programs (including support of community health care workers)? 

— Stimulate and inform public as well as professional discourse on health in the country? 

 

2. SSA 학교는 평가, 연구 및 연구 역량 개발을 통해 보건 시스템과 관련된 새로운 지식을 어느 정도 생성합니까?

2. To what extent is the SSA school generating new knowledge relevant to health systems through evaluation, research, and the development of research capacity? 

 

3. SSA 학교는 정의 된 사회적 사명을 가지고 있습니까? 아니면 불우한 인구의 관심사를 전략과 프로그램에 포함시키고 있습니까? 그렇다면,

- 어떻게 평가합니까?

- 이러한 노력은 얼마나 효과적입니까?

3. Does the SSA school have a defined social mission or incorporate the concerns of disadvantaged populations in its strategies and programs? If so, 

— How are these assessed? 

— How effective are these efforts? 

 

 

4. 고위 건강 간부 (의사, 간호사, 공중 보건 전문가)에 대해 특정 역량이 어느 정도 정의되어 있습니까?

4. To what extent have specific competencies been defined for senior health cadres (doctors, nurses, public health specialists)? 

- 관련 이해 관계자의 의견으로 정의 되었습니까?

- 강건하고 구체적인가?

- 이러한 역량은 어떻게 평가되고 모니터됩니까?

- 이 역량을 갖춘 의사 / 선임 간부를 학교에서 배출합니까? 고령Senior 의료 서비스 제공자가 유능한 지 (예 : 표준 설정) 학교가 어떻게 알 수 있습니까?

- SSA 의사는 적절한 지도력 기술을 갖춘 학제 간 팀에서 일하도록 가르치고 있습니까? 적절한 관리 기술을 가지고 있습니까?

 

— Were these defined with relevant stakeholder input? 

— Are they robust and specific?

— How are these competencies assessed and monitored?

— Do the schools produce doctors/senior cadres who have these competencies? How do the schools know if senior health care providers are competent (i.e., standard setting)?

— Are SSA doctors being taught to work in interdisciplinary teams with appropriate leadership skills? With appropriate management skills? 

 

5. SSA 교수진이 학생들 간의 학습 증진에 도움이되는 효과를 높이기 위해 어떤 전략이 필요합니까? (예 : 교수개발)

5. What strategies work to enhance the effectiveness of SSA faculty at promoting learning among students (i.e., faculty development)? 

— Are plans or strategies in place to improve the recruitment, productivity, and retention of faculty? Is the requisite support in place? 

— How can learning resources that are less reliant on face-to-face faculty time (e.g., information technology, distance learning, open educational resources) be best used?








21 Bleakley A, Brice J, Bligh J. Thinking the post- colonial in medical education. Med Educ. 2008;42:266–270.


23 Mullan F, Frehywot S, Omaswa F, et al. Medical schools in sub-Saharan Africa. Lancet. 2011;377:1113–1121.



 

 




 2012 Feb;87(2):216-20. doi: 10.1097/ACM.0b013e31823ede39.

Perspectivepartnering for medical education in Sub-Saharan Africaseeking the evidence for effectivecollaborations.

Author information

  • 1Education and Global Initiatives, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, 48109-5624, USA. jckolars@umich.edu

Abstract

One of the major needs for medical schools and health systems in less affluent countries is system strengthening through the training and development of faculty, doctors, nurses, and other skilled health care workers. Partnering with medical schools in more affluent countries such as the United States is one potential approach for medical schools in underresourced areas, such as Sub-SaharanAfrica. Most commonly, these partnerships have focused on research agendas or limited educational exchanges. In this perspective, the authors present an approach to strengthening collaborative relationships between three medical schools in the United States and four in Sub-Saharan Africa. The approach is explicitly focused on achieving partnerships that enable institutions to improve care. It developed from an initiative to fund partnerships or "collaboratives" that address 10 key learning questions determined to be central to focusing efforts on strengthening education systems and, in turn, improving health in Sub-Saharan Africa. The leaders of the schools involved in these partnerships met multiple times across three years to discuss how their collaboratives could address the ten learning questions including what is the best approach and what are the key ingredients for creating effective, multidimensional collaborations between academic institutions in the North and institutions in Sub-Saharan Africa. Collaboratively, they defined a framework of evidence that can be used for evaluating their current initiatives and, potentially, for structuring future partnerships.

PMID:
 
22189887
 
DOI:
 
10.1097/ACM.0b013e31823ede39
[PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]


러시아 의학교육자의 교육스킬 향상: 문화간 교수개발 프로젝트(Med Educ, 2007)

Developing teaching skills for medical educators in Russia: a cross-cultural faculty development project

Jeffrey G Wong1 & Kadria Agisheva




배경

INTRODUCTION


미국에서는 몇몇 FDP가 의사 선생님들에게 교수법 개선에 필요한 기술을 제공하는 데 성공했습니다. 그러한 프로그램 중 하나인 스탠포드 교수 개발 프로그램 (SFDP)은 널리 연구되어 1,2, FD개념을 임상 교수진에게 보급하는 데있어서 그 효과가 인정되었습니다.

In the USA, several faculty development programmes have enjoyed success in providing doctor-teachers with the skills necessary for improving their teaching. One such programme, the Stanford Faculty Development Program (SFDP) has been widely studied1,2 and has been recognised for its effectiveness in disseminating faculty development concepts to clinical faculty members.3


2004 년 러시아의 카잔 스테이트 메디컬 유니버시티 (KSMU)에서 교수 설계 개발 프로젝트의 성공 사례를 발표했는데, 여기서는 제한된 방식으로 SFDP의 개념을 임상교육에 도입했습니다 .4이 프로젝트에서 우리는 두 나라간에 체계적인 문화적 차이가 있음에도 불구하고 이러한 임상 교육 모델에 대한 따뜻한 환영을 받았다. 간단히 말하면, 러시아 의대생은 의대를 입학 할 때 미국 학생보다 약간 젊고 (약 17 년), 러시아의 의학 커리큘럼은 6 년 (기초 과학에서 3 년, 임상 회전에서 3 년)이다. 보통의 4 년제 미국 의과 대학 교과 과정 기간. 의대 후, 러시아어 졸업생은 1 년간의 인턴쉽을 수료 (예 : 산부인과, 소아과, 정신 의학) 한 후 보통 2 년 동안 레지던트로 임상 분야 (예 : 류마티스 관절염, 이비인후과)를 공부할 수 있습니다 연령. 이는 일차 의료 전문 분야에서 최소 3 년 이상, 그리고 전문 분야 훈련 및 / 또는 연구 분야에서 몇 년 후 필요한 미국의 후기 의료 훈련과는 대조적입니다. 게다가 러시아의 의학 교육의 전통적인 방법은 교사와 학습자 사이에보다 형식적 구분formal distinction을 두는 경향이 있는데 이는 미국 소그룹 교육에서 교사와 학습자간에 공통적으로 발생하는 자유로운 의사교환give-and-take와 다르다.

In 2004, we reported on the success of a piloted faculty development project at Kazan State Medical University (KSMU) in Russia that introduced clinicalteaching concepts modelled, in a limited fashion, after the SFDP.4 In that project, we were pleased to find a warm reception for this model of clinical teaching despite significant systematic and cultural differences between the 2 countries. Briefly noted, Russian medical students are quite a bit younger (approximately 17 years) than US students when theyenter medical school, and the Russian medical curriculum is 6 years in duration (3 years in basic sciences and 3 years in clinical rotations), comparedwith the usual 4-year duration of US medical school curricula. After medical school, Russian graduates complete a 1-year internship in a subspecialty (e.g. obstetrics, paediatrics, psychiatry) and may then elect to study in a clinical discipline (e.g. rheuma- tology, otolaryngology) as a resident for a period of usually 2 years. This is by contrast with US postgra- duate medical training, which requires at least 3 years in the primary care specialties and several additional years after that in subspecialty training and⁄ or fellowships. Furthermore, the traditional method of medical teaching in Russia tends to employ a more formal distinction between teachers and learners, which is different from the more free-flowing give-and-take that is common between teachers and learners in US small-group teaching, and which is, indeed, the model used in the SFDP.



배경

Background


카잔시는 1005 년에 설립되었으며 인구는 약 120 만 명이며 볼가 강 동쪽 은행의 모스크바 동쪽 850km (530 마일)에 위치합니다. 카잔 주립 대학은 1804 년에 설립되었으며 의과 대학은 1814 년에 추가되었습니다. 4000 명이 넘는 학생들이 대학 내 7 개 학부 (치과, 소아과, 위생, 약리학, 치과, 관리 및 간호학, 사회 사업)에서 훈련합니다. 기본 및 임상 과학 분야의 약 600 명의 참석 의사는 의대생을 가르칩니다.


The city of Kazan was founded in the year 1005. It has a population of about 1.2 million persons and is situated 850 km (530 miles) east of Moscow on the east bank of the Volga River. Kazan State University was established in 1804 and the Medical University added in 1814. Over 4000 students train in the 7 faculties (departments) within the University (Curative, Paediatrics, Hygiene, Pharmacology, Dentistry, Management and Nursing, and Social Work). Approximately 600 attending-level doctors, in both the basic and clinical sciences, teach the medical students.


 

1992 년에, 저자 JGW는 SFDP의 집중적 인 1 개월 과정을 통해 SFDP 모델에서 교육을 받았다. 이 모델은 교육 과정에서 중요한 7 가지 교육 범주로 구성된 프레임 워크를 구성하여 임상 교육을 분석합니다 .4 각 주요 범주는 여러 핵심 구성 요소로 구성되며 각 핵심 구성 요소 내에서 구체적인 교육 행동이 식별됩니다. 이 모델은 low-inference의 교육행동을 식별하는 데 중점을두고 있는데,  이 행동들은 관찰이 쉬우며 의미에 대한 해석을 거의 하지 않고도 설명 할 수있다.

In 1992, author JGW was trained in the SFDP model through the SFDP’s intensive 1-month course for facilitators in clinical teaching. This model analyses clinical teaching by constructing a framework of 7 educational categories important in the process of education.4 Each major category is comprised of several key components and specific teaching behaviours are identified within each key component. There is an emphasis in this model for identifying low-inference teaching behaviours, which are behaviours that are readily observable and can be described with very little interpretation as to meaning.5



방법

METHODS


2003 년 9 월 ~ 10 월 (그룹 1)과 2004 년 5 월 (그룹 2)에서 저자는 SFDP 모델을 기반으로 총 48 명의 KSMU 교수진에게 소그룹 세미나를 5 회 열었습니다.

In September–October 2003 (group 1) and May 2004 (group 2), the authors presented a series of 5 small-group seminars to a total of 48 KSMU faculty members, based on the SFDP model.

 


모든 세미나는 동시에 러시아어로 번역되었습니다. 세미나 발표는 고전 SFDP interactive 모델을 밀접하게 따른다 (표 1). 오버 헤드 투명 필름, 유인물, 비디오 테이프 재연 및 롤 플레잉 시나리오를 포함한 모든 프리젠테이션 자료는 러시아어로 번역되었습니다. 세미나가 열리는 주간에 참가자 중 누구에 대해서도 강의에 적극적으로 참여했는지 여부를 제어하려는 시도는 없었습니다.

all seminars, when presented, were simultaneously translated into Russian. The presentation of the seminars closely followed the  classical  SFDP interactive model (Table 1). All presentation materials, including overhead transparencies, handouts, videotaped re-enactments, and role-play scenarios, were transla- ted into Russian. No attempt was made to control whether any of the participants were actively involved in teaching during the week the seminars were given.

 

 


우리는 교육적 개입을 측정하기 위해 회고 사전 테스트 / 사후 테스트 설문지에 참가자 응답을 사용했습니다. 이 도구를 통해 참가자들은 후향적 사전 평가 (세미나 시리즈 이후에 세미나 시리즈 이전의 상태를 평가)와 후기 평가 (세미나 이후의 강의 능력 평가)를 동시에 완료하도록 요청 받았다. 설문지는 SFDP 도구를 기반으로했으며, 2 명은 러시아어로 번역되었으며, 참가자들의 응답은 영어로 다시 번역되었습니다. 설문지에는 3 개의 주요 섹션이있었습니다.

  • 1 절에서는 응답자들에게 SFDP의 교육 틀 (1 ¼ 낮은 능력, 5 ¼ 높은 능력)을 토대로 교수 성과에 대한 전반적인 평가를 제공 할 것을 요청했습니다.

  • 2 절에서는 특정 교습 행동이 얼마나 빈번하게 사용되었는지 (1 ¼ 저주파, 5 ¼ 고주파)에 초점을 두었다.

  • 3 절에서는 참가자들에게 CT(commitment to change)C 성명서 작성 약속문을 작성하라고 요구했습니다 . 자유형 텍스트 응답 형태이며, 이 세미나의 결과로 자신이 가르치는 내용으로 구체적으로 측정 할 수있는 3 가지 변경 사항을 식별하도록 요청 받았습니다.

We used participant responses on a retrospective pretest ⁄ post-test questionnaire to measure our educational intervention. Through this instrument, the participants were asked to simultaneously complete a retrospective pre-rating (an assessment of their teaching abilities before the seminar series but made after the seminars) and a post-rating (an assessment of their teaching competency after the seminars) based on a 5-point Likert scale.7 The questionnaires were based on an SFDP instrument,2 were translated into Russian and the participants’ responses subsequently translated back into English. There were 3 main sections in the questionnaire. Section 1 asked the respondents to provide a global assessment of their teaching performance based on the educational framework of the SFDP (1 ¼ low ability, 5 ¼ high ability). Section 2 focused on how frequently specific teaching behaviours were used (1 ¼ low frequency, 5 ¼ high frequency). Section 3 asked participants to write  commitment to change  (CTC) statements.8,9 They were asked to identify  up to 3 concrete, measurable changes that you plan to institute into your own teaching as a result of these seminars  in a free text response.



 




결과

RESULTS


참가자는 17 개의 다른학과에서 25 명의 여성과 23 명의 남성 (평균 연령 39.8 세)이 포함되었습니다. 참가자 대부분은 영어로 말할 수 있었지만 유창함의 수준은 매우 다양했습니다.

Participants included 25 women and 23 men (mean age 39.8 years) from 17 different academic departments. Most of the participants could speak some English but the level of fluency was highly variable.


모든 데이터 포인트에 대한 완전한 평가는 시점 1에서 47 명 (98 %), 시점 2에서 39 명 (81 %)으로부터 받았습니다. 자기보고 된 후향적 사전 / 사후 등급은 표 2에 나열되어 있습니다.

Complete evaluations for all datapoints were received from 47 participants (98%) at time 1 and 39 participants (81%) at time 2. Their self-reported retrospective pre⁄ post ratings are listed in Table 2.

 


전체적으로 참가자들은 121 개의 CTC 선언문을 열거했다. 개별 교수진은 CTC 진술 2.5 개 (범위 0-3)를 나열했습니다. 세미나에서 강조된 개념 및 학습 목표와 관련된 대부분의 CTC 문구. 가장 빈번한 CTC 진술은 피드백과 함께 학습자를 제공 할 필요성과 관련됩니다. 총 121 건의 commitmment 중 90개가 (71 %)은 수행되었다. CTC 데이터를 사용할 수있는 교수진 40 명 중 38 명 (95 %)은 1개 이상의 변화를 도입하였다. 변화 실행을 방지하는 것으로 확인 된 장벽애요인은 다양했으며, 시스템보다는 교사의 문제인 것으로 보였다.

In aggregate, the participants listed 121 CTC statements. Individual faculty members listed a mean of 2.5 CTC statements (range 0–3). Most of the CTCstatements related to concepts and learning objectives emphasised in the seminars. The most frequent CTC statement made related to the need toprovide learners with feedback. Of the 121 total commitments, attendees as a group fully implemented 90 (71%). In all, 38 of the 40 faculty members (95%) for whom CTC data are available implemented at least 1 change. The barriers that were identified as preventing change implementation were varied and seemed to be specific to the teacher, rather than the system.


 


 

결론

DISCUSSION


이 프로젝트는 우리가 이전에보고 한 작업을 확장하고 부족한 것으로 처음 발견 된 몇 가지 필요한 변경 사항을 통합했습니다. 예를 들어, 시범 프로젝트에서 사용 된 강의 상황의 비디오 테이프 재조정은 대부분 영어로 진행 되었기 때문에 참가자는 주로 외국어와 시나리오를 이해하거나 공동 발표자의 러시아어 해석을 듣는 것이 필요했습니다. 현재의 연구에서 필요한 비디오 테이프 삽화는 모두 미국에서의 교육상황과 동일하더라도, 러시아어를 쓰는 레지던트들에게 다시 re-enacted and refilmed. 또한, 유인물, 오버 헤드 시각 보조 장치 및 역할극 시나리오는 모두 러시아어로 번역되었습니다. 이러한 적응은 모두 워크샵 발표에 내재 된 언어 장벽을 최소화하는 데 도움을 주었으며 (예비 연구 참여 교수가 지적한 바와 같이) 현재 연구 참여자들의 요구를 더 잘 충족 시켰습니다.

This project expanded the work upon which we previously reported4 and incorporated a number of necessary changes that were initially found to be lacking. For instance, the videotaped re-enactments of teaching situations used in the pilot project were mostly in English, which required the participants to either primarily understand the foreign language and scenario or to hear the co-presenter’s interpretation in Russian. In the present study, all the necessary videotaped illustrations were re-enacted and refilmed with Russian-speaking medical residents, albeit in the same US-based teaching situations. Furthermore, all the handouts, overhead visual aids and role-play scenarios were translated into Russian. These adaptations all helped to minimise the language barrier inherent in presenting the workshops (as noted by participating faculty in the pilot study) and better met the needs of our present study participants.


소련의 붕괴 이후 러시아의 의학 교육이 전달되는 방식이 점진적으로 바뀌었다 .10 그렇지만 러시아의 교사와 학습자는 여전히 형식적으로 구별formal distinction 되는 경향이 있으며, 미국 소그룹 강의에서 공통적으로 확인되는 교사와 학습자사이의 free-flowing give-and-take은 여전히 ​​드물다. 또한 러시아 교사가 한 번의 교육 세션 내에서 다양한 수준의 교육 (예 : 의대생, 레지던트, 펠로우)으로 구성된 학습자 그룹을 만나는 경우는 거의 없으며 장기간의 교수 경험을 쌓는 데 큰 어려움이 있습니다. 다수의 기초 과학 교수가 워크샵에 참여했습니다. 러시아 의학교육에서 기초의학 분야는 소그룹보다는 대형강의 형식으로 진행되는 경향이 있으며 내용은 종종 임상 상관없이 제시됩니다.

Since the fall of the Soviet Union, there has been gradual change in the way Russian medical education is delivered.10 That said, there still tends to be a more formal distinction between teachers and learners in Russia, and the more free-flowing give-and-take, common between teachers and learners in US small-group teaching (and critical to the SFDP presentation), is still rarely seen. Additionally, it is less common for Russian teachers to encounter a group of learners with different levels of training (i.e. a medical student, resident and post-resident fellow) within a single teaching session and there is greater difficulty in establishing a longitudinal teaching experience with a single faculty member and a small group of learners. A number of basic science professors took part in the workshops. In Russian training, the basic science disciplines tend to be taught in a large, rather than small, group format and the content is often presented without clinical correlations.

 

그 개선은 즉각적으로 나타났으며, 1 년 뒤에 이뤄진 평가에서 유지되었지만, strength of effect는, 특히 나중에 특정 교습 행위를 사용할 때에는, 효과의 강도가 감소 함을 나타냅니다.

The improvement was noted immediately and, although the findings persisted at the 1-year assessment, the scores suggest a decrement of the strength of the effect, particularly in the use of specific teaching behaviours, at this later timepoint.


우리의 교육 개입은 쌍방향 교수 기법 (비디오 테이프 검토, 역할극 및 동료 토론) ​​및 강화 방법 (변경 구현에 대한 후속 연락)을 포함하여 교육 성과를 향상시키는 데 효과적인 것으로 입증 된 기능을 포함했습니다. CTC 진술을 통해 변화를 저지르는 행위는 행동 변화를 촉진했을 수 있습니다. 통제 된 연구에서, 진술서statement를 작성한 피험자는 교육 프로그램 이후에 행동에 변화를 줄 가능성이 더 많았다 .11-13이러한 기법의 효력은 참가자가 (자신에게 가장 중요한 것인) 교수 전략의 변화 등을 하기로 약속한다는 사실에있을 수있다.

Our educational intervention included features that have demonstrated efficacy in improving teaching performance, including interactive teaching tech- niques (videotape review, role plays and peer discussion) and reinforcement methods (follow-up contact about change implementation). The act of committing to change through CTC statements may have facilitated behaviour change. In controlled studies, subjects who wrote commitment statements were more likely to make changes in their behaviour after educational programmes.11–13 The potency of this technique may lie in the fact that participants commit to making changes, such as alterations in teaching strategies, which are most important to them.

 

 

 

우리의 평가 전략은 참가자의 직접적인 관찰이나 학생의 평가와 같은보다 엄격한 측정의 객관성이 결여 된 참여자 자체 평가에 국한되었습니다. 그러나 우리는 후향적 사전 / 사후 전략을 채택하여 자기 평가의 타당성을 높이려고 노력했습니다. 후향적 전 / 후 방법은 참가자가 일정한 내부 표준에 대한 자신의 능력을 판단 할 수있게합니다. 이러한 방식은 개입 자체로 인한 통찰력 증가로 인해 참가자의 내부 표준이 변경되어 응답 편향에 취약한 전통적 전향적 사전 평가보다 정확할 수 있습니다. 이러한 통찰력의 예로는 평가영역에 대한 이해의 증가 또는이 영역 내에서 참가자 자신의 능력이 포함됩니다.

Our evaluation strategy was limited to participant self-evaluation, which lacks the objectivity of more rigorous measures such as direct observation of teaching or evaluations by students. However, we sought to enhance the validity of self-evaluation by employing a retrospective pre⁄ post strategy. The retrospective pre⁄ post method allows participants to judge their abilities against a constant internal standard. To this end, the results may be more accurate than traditional prospective pre-to-post evaluations, which are vulnerable to response-shift bias due to changes in the participant’s internal standard as a result of the increased insight induced by the intervention itself.14 Examples of these insights include increased understanding of the dimension being rated or the participant’s own abilities within this dimension.

몇몇 연구들은 두 가지 방법(전향적-, 후향적- )을 비교하여 후향적  사전 / 사후 자기 평가가 독립적인 평가independent assessments와 더 밀접한 상관 관계가 있음을 발견했다 .14-19 우리의 피험자가 교육 개입의 긍정적인 효과를 보장하기 위해 사전 평가 점수를 더 낮게 주었을 수도 있다 .

Several studies have compared the 2 methods and discovered that retrospective pre⁄ post self-ratings correlated more closely with independent assessments.14–19 It is possible that our subjects might have provided lower retrospective pre-ratings to ensure a positive effect of the education intervention.

 

 




 2007 Mar;41(3):318-24.

Developing teaching skills for medical educators in Russia: a cross-cultural faculty development project.

Author information

  • 1College of Medicine Dean's Office, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC 29425, USA. wong@musc.edu

Abstract

CONTEXT:

Faculty development programmes have proved successful for improving teaching skills. We investigated whether or not a successful US-based faculty development programme for improving the teaching skills of medical faculty could be transported to Russia.

METHODS:

Five seminars, based on the 7 categories of the Stanford Faculty Development Program model, were presented to 48 teachers at Kazan State Medical University in Kazan, Russia. The seminars were comprised of mini-lectures, reviews of actual videotaped teaching scenario re-enactments, interactive role plays of teaching situations, and personalised goal setting for future teaching performance. Evaluation was performed through participants' self-reported ratings of teaching ability based on a retrospective pretest/post-test questionnaire and fulfilment of commitment of change (CTC) statements written by workshop participants. Outcomes were measured at both 1 and 12 months post-intervention.

RESULTS:

Survey response rates were 98% (47/48) at 1 month and 81% (39/48) at 12 months. Global teaching performance improved (pretest = 38.4, 1 month post-test = 43.7, 12 months post-test = 42.5; P < 0.001) as did ratings of specific teaching behaviours (pretest = 100.2, 1 month post-test = 121.3, 12 months post-test = 116.8; P < 0.001). A total of 127 CTC statements were made and 90 (71%) were successfully instituted.

CONCLUSIONS:

Our faculty development intervention demonstrated a positive, lasting effect on the teaching skills of Russian faculty members. This suggests that our efforts in transporting this intervention across the 2 cultures were successful.

PMID:
 
17316218
 
DOI:
 
10.1111/j.1365-2929.2006.02676.x
[PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]


HIV 대유행에 대응하기: 대학의학 파트너십의 힘(Acad MEd, 2007)

Responding to the HIV Pandemic: The Power of an Academic Medical Partnership

Robert M. Einterz, MD, Sylvester Kimaiyo, MB, ChB, MMED,

Haroun N.K. Mengech, MB, ChB, Barasa O. Khwa-Otsyula, MB, ChB,

Fabian Esamai, MB, ChB, Fran Quigley, JD, and Joseph J. Mamlin, MD





의사와 학자로서 환자와 지역 사회에 서비스를 제공하고 학생과 연수생을 양성하고 영감을 주며inspire 우리 사회의 복잡성을 검토하고 이해하는 것은 우리의 특권이자 책임입니다.

As physicians and academicians, it is our privilege and our responsibility to provide services to our patients and their communities, to nurture and inspire our students and trainees, and to examine and understand the complexities of our world.

 

예를 들어, 지난 수십 년 동안 인디애나 폴리스시의 정치 및 학계 지도자들은 도시의 학계 공동체의 기업가 정신과 지적 에너지를 활용하여 가장 취약한 인구 집단의 건강에 대한 요구에 의미있게 대응했습니다.

Over the last several decades, for example, the political and academic leaders of the city of Indianapolis leveraged the entrepreneurial and intellectual energy of the city’s academic community to respond meaningfully to the health needs of a broad swath of its most vulnerable population.

 

반면 사하라 사막 이남의 아프리카는 인류 역사상 가장 파괴적인 전염병 중 하나 인 HIV / 에이즈 위기에 직면 해 있으며 아직 AMC의 힘을 깨닫지 못하고 있습니다. 이러한 감시의 이유는 많은 국가에서 보건부와 교육부 간의 부적절한 협력 및 의사 소통, 부적절하게 준비된 관리자 및 지도자, 복잡하고 포괄적 인 프로그램을 관리하고 제공하기에 부적절하거나 구조화 된 시스템, 그리고 널리 퍼지고 교활한 치명적인 느낌 등입니다. 1990 년대에 대부분의 아프리카 국가에서 HIV / 에이즈 전염병을 통제하지 못하는 것은 자명 한 사실입니다.

Sub-Saharan Africa, in contrast, is facing an HIV/AIDS crisis—one of the most devastating pandemics in human history—and has yet to realize the power of its AMCs. The reasons for this oversight are many:

  • inadequate collaboration and communication between the ministry of health and ministry of education in many countries,

  • inadequately prepared managers and leaders,

  • systems that are ill equipped and/ or inadequately structured to manage and deliver complex and comprehensive programs, and

  • a pervasive, insidious feeling of fatalism.

The failure of most African countries in the 1990s to control the HIV/AIDS pandemic is self-evident.

 

이 기사에서는 케냐 서부의 HIV / 에이즈 위기를 성공적으로 포괄적으로 통제하고 관리하는 미국 AMC와 아프리카 국가 간의 파트너십의 독특하고 복제 가능한 모델에 대해 설명합니다.

In this article, we will describe a unique and replicable model of a partnership between an American AMC and its African counterpart that created and implemented a successful, comprehensive systemto control the HIV/AIDS crisis in western Kenya.

 


 


The Indiana–Moi Partnership


1990 년 창설 된 모이 (Moi) 대학의 보건 과학부 (현재 모이 (Moi) 대 의과 대학)는 케냐의 두 번째 의과 대학으로 케냐의 충분한 교수진을 보유하지 못했고 해외의 임상 교사와 기관 파트너를 찾고있었습니다. 동시에, 개발 도상국에서의 장기적인 자원 봉사 경험을 가진 인디아나 대학 의과 대학 (IUSM)의 3 명의 일반 내과의는 사하라 사막 이남 아프리카의 인디애나 대학교와 의과 대학 사이의 관계를 발전 시키려하고있었습니다.

At its inception in 1990, Moi University Faculty of Health Sciences (now named Moi University School of Medicine), the second medical school in Kenya, did not have a sufficient number of Kenyan faculty members and was seeking expatriate clinical teachers and institutional partners. At the same time, three general internists fromIndiana University School of Medicine (IUSM) with long-term volunteer experience in developing countries were seeking to develop a relationship between Indiana University and a medical school in sub- Saharan Africa.

 

 

에이즈 전염병에 대한 파트너십의 반응은 2000년까지는 시작되지 않았지만 파트너십의 첫 10 년 동안의 1 차 진료 및 기관 설립에 중점을 두는 것이 HIV 통제 프로그램의 기본 틀을 형성했습니다.

Though the partnership’s response to the HIV epidemic would not begin until 2000, the overarching focus on primary care and institution building during the partnership’s first decade formed the framework for its HIV-control program.

 


개인 및 부서 차원에서의 Counterpart relationships는 인디애나 - 모아 파트너쉽의 핵심입니다 .2 파트너십은 현재 두 의과 대학의 모든 주요 분야 간의 협력을 포함하지만, (파트너십의 IUSM 부분의) 행정 문제는 주로 일반 내과에서 다루고 있습니다

Counterpart relationships at both individual and departmental levels are the keystone of the Indiana–Moi partnership.2 The partnership currently involves collaboration among virtually all of the major disciplines at both medical schools, though the administrative issues of the IUSM portion of the partnership are handled primarily within its division of general internal medicine.


1997 년 이래 몇 개의 다른 북미 의료기관이 IUSM에 가입하여 ASANTE 컨소시엄(America/sub- Saharan Africa Network for Training and Education in Medicine )이라고 불렀습니다. (Asante는 케냐의 2 개 국어 중 하나 인 Kiswahili에서 감사합니다.라는 뜻이다)이 컨소시엄은 현재 IUSM, 브라운 의과 대학, 듀크 대학교 의과 대학, Lehigh Valley Hospital and Health Network, Providence Portland Medical Center, University of Utah School of Medicine , 그리고 토론토 대학 의과 대학.

Since 1997, several other North American medical institutions have joined IUSMin a partnership called the America/sub- Saharan Africa Network for Training and Education in Medicine (ASANTE) Consortium. (Asante means thank you in Kiswahili, one of Kenya’s two national languages.) This consortiumcurrently includes IUSM, Brown Medical School, Duke University School of Medicine, Lehigh Valley Hospital and Health Network, Providence Portland Medical Center, the University of Utah School of Medicine, and the University of Toronto Faculty of Medicine.

 

파트너십은 케냐에서 보건 서비스, 교육 및 연구 제공에 중대한 영향을 미쳤으며 수십 개의 공동 저술 간행물을 포함합니다 .3-36

The partnership has had a major impact on delivery of health services, education, and research in Kenya, including dozens of jointly authored publications.3–36


인디애나 - 모아 파트너십을 유지하는 데 필요한 철학적 토대 중 하나는 파트너십의 모든 참가자가 상호 이익을 기대하고 일하는 것입니다. 우리는 Altruism이 어느 기관이 파트너십을 계속 유지하는 데 필요하지만, 충분한 이유는 되지 못한다는 것을 발견했습니다. 상호 이익을 달성하기 위해 제도적 관계는 선진국 및 개발 도상국의 의료 시스템이 본질적으로 불평등하기 때문에 형평성equality이 아니라 평등성equity을 추구합니다. 예를 들어, IUSM은 IUSM의 참여를 돕기 위해 Moi 대학 측의 재정적 지원을 기대하지 않습니다. 그러나 IUSM은 연수생 및 교수진이 모이에서 개인적으로나 전문적으로 프로그램에 참여할 수있는 기회를 제공 할 것으로 기대합니다.

One of the philosophical underpinnings necessary to sustain the Indiana–Moi partnership is that all participants in the partnership expect and work for mutual benefit. We have discovered that altruism is a necessary but insufficient reason for either institution to continue in the partnership. To achieve mutual benefit, the institutional relationship strives for equity, not equality, because medical systems in the developed and developing world are inherently unequal. For example, IUSMdoes not expect financial commitment on the part of Moi University to support IUSM’s participation. However, IUSMdoes expect its trainees and faculty members to be given the opportunity at Moi to benefit personally and professionally frominvolvement in the program.


미국의 도시 지역에있는 많은 저명한 AMCs와 대형 공공 종합 병원은 빈곤인구와 협력하는 AMC들에게 상호 이익을 가져다주는 관계로 들어 섰습니다 .37 그러나 미국 AMC들이 개발 도상국들과 협력 할 때 비슷한 성공의 증거는 거의 없습니다. 1950 년대부터 1960 년대 초반까지 미국 의과 대학에 대한 재정적 인센티브에 의해 촉발 된 협력은 지속 가능성 문제와 고등 교육에 대한 집중력 부족으로 인해 단계적으로 중단되었습니다 .38 미국 AMC와 개발 도상국 국민 간의 최근의 성공적인 협력 사례는 집중 연구, 특히 shared research interests로 제한되었습니다. 이러한 협력은 개발 도상국의 보건 의료 시스템의 개선을 촉진시키는 데 크게 실패했으며 질병 예방 및 건강 증진과 관련하여 curative care를 지나치게 강조하는 경향이있다.

Many distinguished AMCs and large public general hospitals in urban areas of the United States have entered into relationships that produced mutual benefit for underserved populations and the collaborating AMCs.37 But there is substantially less evidence of similar success when U.S. AMCs collaborate with counterparts in the developing world. Collaborations inspired by financial incentives to U.S. medical schools during the 1950s through the early 1960s were phased out because of problems with sustainability and a disproportionate focus on tertiary care.38 Most current examples of successful collaboration between U.S. AMCs and their counterparts in the developing world have been limited to focused initiatives, especially shared research interests. These collaborations have largely failed to facilitate improvements in the developing country’s health care systemand have tended to overemphasize curative care relative to disease prevention and health promotion.39


지속적인 시스템 구축의 필요성에 부응하기 위해 개발 도상국의 빈곤 관련 질병에 대처하기 위해 선진국과 개발 도상국의 기관 간 협력 관계가 최근에 요구되어왔다 .41 AMC는 이러한 요청에 대응하기위한 리더가되어야한다. 개발 도상국의 개인과 지역 사회의 건강을 증진시키는 데 필요한 보살핌, 훈련 및 연구의 3 자간 요구를 충족시킬 수있는 고유 한 능력을 갖추고 있습니다. 그러나 실망스럽게도 북미의 의과 대학이 의료 위기에 대응하고 치료 시스템을 구축하기 위해 아프리카의 의료계와 함께하도록 장려하는 것은 종종 존재하지 않습니다. 우리의 경험은 정부와 자선 단체의 지원이 시스템 구축에 기여하는 장기적 파트너십을 지향해야한다고 강력하게 제안합니다.
In response to this need for sustained system building, there have been many recent calls for partnerships between institutions in developed and developing countries to confront poverty-related diseases in developing countries.41 AMCs should be the leaders in responding to these calls, because such centers are uniquely capable of fulfilling the tripartite needs of care, training, and research required to foster health of individuals and their communities in the developing world. Disappointingly, however, funding often does not exist to encourage North American medical schools to join with counterparts in Africa to respond to health care crises and build systems of care. Our experience strongly suggests that government and philanthropic support should be directed toward long- term institutional partnerships that contribute to system building.




 

HIV/AIDS예방과 치료를 위한 학술모델

Academic Model for Prevention and Treatment of HIV/AIDS


HIV / AIDS 전염병의 비극적 인 범위는 잘 알려져 있습니다. 2005 년에 전 세계적으로 약 3 천 8 백 6 십만명의 사람들이 에이즈 바이러스에 감염되었으며 약 280 만명이 에이즈에 걸렸습니다. 케냐에서는 130 만 명이 HIV와 함께 살고있는 것으로 추산됩니다.

The tragic scope of the HIV/AIDS pandemic is well known. In 2005, an estimated 38.6 million people worldwide were living with HIV, and an estimated 2.8 million lost their lives to AIDS. In Kenya, it is estimated that 1.3 million people are living with HIV.42

 

 

그러나 효과적인 항 레트로 바이러스 요법을 유지하고 케냐와 같은 곳에서 HIV / AIDS를 통제하는 것은 매우 어려운 도전입니다. 사하라 사막 이남 아프리카의 (열악한) 상황이 성공적인 치료에 장벽이 될 뿐만 아니라, 빈곤, 기아, 성 차별 및 질병의 확산에 기여하는 오명 문제를 효율적으로 다루어야하는 체계적인 치료가 필요합니다. 그 체계를 수립하고 유지하는 것은 사하라 사막 이남 아프리카에서 특히 어렵다. 아프리카는 전 세계 HIV / 에이즈 부담의 60 %를 겪고 있지만 도전에 직면하기 위해서는 세계 보건 의료 인력의 1.3 % 만 요구할 수있다.

However, sustaining effective antiretroviral therapy and controlling HIV/AIDS in a place like Kenya is a uniquely difficult challenge. Conditions in sub-Saharan Africa require a systemof care that must effectively address issues of poverty, hunger, gender discrimination, and stigma that present barriers to successful treatment and contribute to the spread of the disease. Establishing and maintaining that systemof care is especially difficult in sub-Saharan Africa, which suffers from 60%of the world’s HIV/AIDS burden but can call on only 1.3%of the world’s health care workforce to confront the challenge.45


처음 10 년 동안 Indiana-Moi의 파트너십은 HIV / AIDS 위기에 체계적으로 대응하지 못했습니다. 사실, 2000 년까지 우리는 한 명이라도 항 레트로 바이러스 요법으로 치료하지 못했습니다.

Throughout its first decade, the Indiana– Moi partnership failed to respond systematically to the HIV/AIDS crisis. In fact, by 2000, we had failed to treat even one person with antiretroviral therapy.

 

우리는 학술적 의료 파트너십의 힘을 이용하여 HIV / AIDS 예방 및 치료 (AMPATH)를위한 학업 모델을 수립했습니다 .46

Leveraging the power of our academic medical partnership, we established the Academic Model for the Prevention and Treatment of HIV/AIDS (AMPATH).46

 

이제 AMPATH는 사하라 사막 이남 아프리카에서 가장 크고 가장 포괄적 인 HIV / AIDS 통제 시스템 중 하나가되어 지속 가능한 발전의 모델로 묘사 된 완벽한 시스템 보호를 제공합니다 .47

AMPATH has quickly become one of the largest and most comprehensive HIV/ AIDS-control systems in sub-Saharan Africa, providing a complete systemof care that has been described as a model of sustainable development.47

 

AMPATH의 모든 임신 한 산모는 즉시 항 레트로 바이러스 요법을 받았다. 출산 후, 모든 모친은 HIV를 자녀에게 전염시키는 것과 관련하여 독점적 인 모유 수유 또는 독점적 인 수유부 공급의 위험 및 이점에 관해 조언을받습니다. 아기를위한 독점적 인 보충 수유를 선택하는 적격 어머니에게는 무료로 수식이 제공됩니다. 또한 안전한 물을 확보하기위한 혁신적인 노력이 이루어졌습니다.

All eligible pregnant mothers in AMPATH’s systemare immediately referred for antiretroviral therapy. After delivery, all mothers are advised of the risks and benefits of exclusive breastfeeding or exclusive formula feeding with respect to transmitting HIVto their children. Eligible mothers who choose exclusive replacement feeding for their babies are provided formula at no cost. Furthermore, innovative efforts have been implemented to ensure access to safe water.


낙인

Stigma


농촌 건강 클리닉에서는 특히 HIV / AIDS와 관련된 오명이 간병에 대한 접근을 방해한다는 사실을 발견했습니다. 그러나 조기 환자와의 시의적절하고 눈에 띄는 성공 사례와 함께 마을 장로, 오피니언 리더 및 보건 제공자 (이전 10 년 동안 HIV와 관련이없는 지역 사회 기반의 사업을 통해 설립 됨)와의 기존의 강력한 유대 관계 덕분에 그 장벽을 극복할 수 있었다.

At rural health clinics in particular, we discovered that the stigma associated with HIV/AIDS impeded access to care. However, our already existing strong ties with village elders, opinion leaders, and health providers (established through community-based work not related to HIV throughout the previous decade), along with some timely and visible success stories with early patients, allowed us largely to overcome that barrier.

 

AMPATH는 HIV / AIDS로 살고있는 사람들의 수치와 오명의 속삭임을 지역 사회 차원의 포용으로 바꾸었습니다.

AMPATH has transformed whispers of shame and stigma into a community- wide embrace of people living with HIV/AIDS.48



음식 안보

Food security


우리는 위치에 따라 AMPATH의 환자 중 20 %에서 50 %가 기아에 시달리고 음식이 부족한 것으로 나타났습니다. HIV / AIDS 생활의 물리적 한계로 인해 환자가 소규모 농장에서 일하거나 외부 직무를 수행하기가 어려워 짐에 따라 가족과 가족이 빈곤과 영양 실조로 남게되었습니다. 이에 대응하기 위해 우리는 처음에 지역 고등학교 기부금 10 에이커의 시범 농장을 만들었습니다.

We found that, depending on location, between 20%and 50%of AMPATH’s patients were hungry and lacked food. It was apparent that the physical limitationsof living with HIV/AIDS had made it difficult for patients to work their small farms or take on outside jobs, and this left themand their families impoverishedand malnourished. In response, we initially created a demonstration farmon10 acres of land donated by a local high school. 

 

이 농장은 지역 사회를위한 중심지이며 HIV / AIDS로 적극적으로 살고있는 사람들이 더 큰 지역 사회와 소통 할 수있는 곳입니다. 농부는 HIV 전염병에 대한 대응으로 공동체에 더 많은 소유권을 부여합니다. 이러한 이유 때문에, 농장은 지역 사회에서 HIV에 대한 오명을 깎아 내리는 의도하지 않은 이익을 가져 왔습니다.

The farmserves as a focal point for the community and a gathering place where persons living positively with HIV/AIDS can engage with the greater community. The farmalso gives the community more ownership in the response to the HIV epidemic. For these reasons, the farmhad an unintended benefit of slashing HIV stigma in the community.

 

그러나 식량 배분은 엄청난 도전입니다. 일일 공급 및 수요 측정치는 케냐 서부 지역의 특정 유통 사이트에서 개별 환자 할당량으로 변환되어야합니다. Purdue University의 산업 기술자들은 AMPATH와 합류하여 적절한 컴퓨터 식 영양 정보 시스템을 만들어 적시에 올바른 음식을 올바른 장소에 제공 할 수있게되었습니다.

Food distribution, however, is a formidable challenge. The daily measure of supply and demand must be translated into individual patient allocations, which are to be picked up at specific distribution sites spread over western Kenya. Industrial engineers fromPurdue University have joined with AMPATHto create the proper computerized nutrition information systemcapable of getting the right food to the right place at the right time.

 



 

 


소득 보장

Income security


우리는 많은 환자들이 병의 신체적 한계 때문에 또는 HIV 양성 반응과 관련된 오명 때문에 일자리를 잃어 버렸다는 것을 발견했습니다. 우리 초기 환자의 대다수는 질병에 의해 미망인이었고 가족을 부양하는 데 필요한 기술이나 자본이 없었습니다. 이 환자들이 건강을 유지하고 인간의 존엄성을 유지하거나 회복하기 위해 지속 가능한 소득원을 확보 할 수있게하는 것이 식량 원조를 제공하는 것만큼이나 중요했습니다.

We discovered that many patients had lost their jobs due to the physical limitations of their illness or because of the stigma associated with being HIV positive. The majority of our initial patients had been widowed by the disease and did not have the skills or capital necessary to support their families. Enabling these patients to earn a sustainable source of income to achieve well-being and sustain or restore human dignity was nearly as important as providing food assistance.



정보 시스템

Information system


HIV / AIDS 치료의 복잡하고 평생에 걸친 특성, 환자의 항 레트로 바이러스 요법 준수 모니터링, 신뢰할 수있는 연구의 필요성은 개발 도상국에서 지속 가능한 치료에 대한 중요한 장벽 인 정확하고 상세한 기록을 요구합니다 .49 AMPATH 설립 전에 인디애나 Moi는 사하라 사막 이남 아프리카 지역에서 최초의 전자 의료 기록 시스템을 이미 만들었습니다 .4 이제 전 세계의 취약한 지역 사회에 포괄적 인 의료 서비스를 제공하는 Partners in Health와 협력하여, 이 시스템은 OpenMRS라고 불리는 shareware EMR, 즉 개발도상국의 의료 정보화가 구축 될 수있는 공통된 틀로 진화하였다. OpenMRS는 AMPATH, 르완다의 HIV / AIDS 클리닉, 남아공의 한 병원에서 이미 사용되고 있습니다.
 

The complicated and lifelong nature of HIV/AIDS care, monitoring patient adherence to antiretroviral therapy, and the need for reliable research demands accurate and detailed record keeping, a significant barrier to sustainable care in the developing world.49 Before the founding of AMPATH, Indiana and Moi had already created the first-ever electronic medical records systemin sub- Saharan Africa.4 Now, in collaboration with Partners in Health, an organization that provides comprehensive health care to underserved communities throughout the world, this systemhas evolved into a shareware electronic medical record systemcalled OpenMRS, a common framework on which medical informaticsefforts in developing countries can be built. OpenMRS is already being used by AMPATH, in HIV/AIDS clinics in Rwanda, and in a hospital in South Africa.50 



진료실, 교실, 연구실

Clinics, classrooms, labs


우리 사이트의 많은 곳에서 치료받는 환자 수가 수백에서 수천 명으로 증가함에 따라 필요한 시설을 기존 시설에만 제공 할 수 없음을 발견했습니다. 그래서 파트너십은 여러 가지 추가 시설을 건설했으며,
In many of our sites, as the number of patients treated increased beyond hundreds to thousands, we found that the necessary amount of care could not be provided in existing facilities alone. So, the partnership built a number of additional facilities,





투명성과 책무성

Transparency and accountability


AMPATH에서 직면했던 가장 중대한 과제 중 하나는 직원 증가와 예산이 급격히 증가 할 때 재정적 책임을 확보할 수 있는 관리 역량을 개발하는 것이었습니다. 우리는 AMPATH 센터에있는 Moi 교육 및 추천 병원과 Moi 대학이 공동으로 관리하는 연구 및 후원 프로그램 사무소를 만들었습니다.

One of the most critical challenges we faced with AMPATHwas to develop the administrative capacity to support an increase in staff numbers and to assure fiscal accountability in a time of rapidly increasing budgets. We did this by creating a research and sponsored programs office administered jointly by Moi Teaching and Referral Hospital and Moi University, housed in the AMPATH Centre.

 


AMPATH는 케냐에서 가장 큰 공공 부문 HIV / AIDS 프로그램이며 케냐 서부의 의료기관을위한 훈련 장소로 보건부에서 지정했습니다. AMPATH 환자의 치료는 환자의 체중과 CD4 세포 수가 세 번째 추적 관찰 기간 동안 증가하는 것으로 나타 났으며 임상 적 및 면역 학적으로 유의하고 지속적인 이점을 나타냈다.

AMPATHis Kenya’s largest public sector HIV/AIDS program and has been designated by the ministry of health as the training site for providers in western Kenya. Treatment of AMPATH’s patients has been shown to result in significant and persistent clinical and immunological benefit, with patients showing both weight and CD4 cell count increases well into the third year of follow-up.44

 


중요한 것은 인디아나 - 모아 파트너십의 시작부터, 인디애나 대학의 현물 지원, 종교 간의 개인 지원 (종교 간 커뮤니티 포함) 및 계산 된 위험을 감수하려는 의지가 파트너십 성공의 열쇠 였음이 중요합니다. 우리는 민간 자선 단체가 파트너십을 통해 신속하고 효과적으로 문제에 대처할 수 있도록 중요한 역할을 하였음을 강조합니다.
Importantly, since the inception of the Indiana–Moi partnership, in-kind support from Indiana University, private philanthropic support (including fromthe interfaith community), and a willingness to take calculated risks have been keys to the success of the partnership. We cannot overstate the vital role that private philanthropy has played in enabling the partnership to respond nimbly and effectively to problems at hand.



케냐의 기관 건물 및 위험 관리

Institution Building and Risk- Taking in Kenya


HIV / AIDS 대응의 매개 변수를 넘어, 인디애나 - 모아 관계의 장기적 약속은 케냐의 신흥 보건 시스템을 유지하는 것에 중점을두고 있습니다.

Beyond the parameters of the HIV/AIDS response, the long-term commitment of the Indiana–Moi partnership has inspired a focus on sustaining the emerging health systemin Kenya.


IUSM은 Moi 대학 학생들을 대상으로 미국이 후원하는 학비 장학금 및 취업 기회를위한 프로그램을 조정했습니다. 케냐와 다른 개발 도상국에서의 "두뇌 유출"의 혼란스러운 현상에 대처하면서 케냐의 자체 건강 필요성을 해결하기위한 능력을 키울 수 있도록 여러 분야에서의 프로그램 개발 및 교수 개발을 지원합니다.

IUSM has coordinated a program for United States-sponsored tuition scholarships and work–study opportunities for Moi University students. This support, along with support for programmatic and faculty development in multiple disciplines, works to increase the capacity of Kenya to address its own health needs while also combating the disturbing phenomenon of “brain drain” in Kenya and other developing countries.51

 

케냐 내에서의 기관 간 협력이 파트너십을 창출하고 유지하는 데있어 핵심적인 역할을 한다는 것이 중요합니다. 개발 도상국의 보건 및 교육 부처는 일상적으로 건강 위기에 대응해야 한다는 요구를 받지만, 요구와 별개로 인력을 통합하고 보완적 자원을 활용하도록 장려되거나 권한이 부여되지는 않는다.

It is important to note the essential role that multiinstitutional cooperation within Kenya played in creating and sustaining the partnership. Ministries of health and education in developing countries are routinely called on to respond to health crises, but too often, the ministries are not encouraged or empowered to combine forces and take advantage of their complementary resources.

 

우리는 level of the ministries에서 시작하여 내려간 것이 아닙니다. 오히려 우리는 개인, 부서 및 기관 수준에서 관계를 형성 한 다음 더 큰 대학, MINISTRIES, 및 중앙 정부와 관련되었습니다.

We did not begin at the level of the ministries and work down; rather, we effected relationships at personal, departmental and institutional levels and then involved the greater universities, ministries, and central governments.

 

모든 사람이 케냐 내 광범위한 협력 사역이 IUSM의 촉매 역할없이 이루어 졌을 가능성은 거의 없다는 데 동의했다. IUSM이 촉매역할을 해준 덕분에 내부의 정치적 이익에 민감하지 않게, 광범위하고 중립적 인 관점에서 건강 위기에 접근 할 수 있었다.

All involved agree it is unlikely that the extensive cross-ministry cooperation within Kenya would have occurred without the catalytic role of IUSM, which was able to approach the health crisis froma broad and “neutral” perspective removed from, but not insensitive to, internal Kenyan political interests.



 

The Power of an Academic Medical Partnership


사하라 사막 이남의 아프리카가 직면하고있는 현재의 위기는 선진국들이 이용할 수있는 모든 자원으로부터 의미있는 공헌과, 아프리카 내의 모든 가능한 자원의 협력을 요구합니다. 아프리카 AMC들에게 이것은 환자와 지역 사회 봉사, 교육 및 연구의 tripartite mission의 잠재력을 발견하는 것을 의미합니다. 미국 AMC의 경우, 완전히 자금을 지원받는 연구 및 훈련 벤처 기업과의 협력 이상의 위험을 감수하고 대신 개발 도상국 기업과의 공약되고 공평한 관계에 참여해야합니다.

The current crisis facing sub-Saharan Africa demands a response fromevery available resource within Africa, joined with meaningful contributions from the full spectrum of resources available to developed countries. For African AMCs, this means discovering the dormant power that resides in the tripartite mission of patient and community service, teaching, and research. For U.S. AMCs, it means risking far more than collaboration in fully funded research and training ventures, and instead engaging in a committed and equitable relationship with their developing world counterparts.













 2007 Aug;82(8):812-8.

Responding to the HIV pandemic: the power of an academic medical partnership.

Author information

  • 1Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, Indiana 46202, USA. reinterz@iupui.edu

Abstract

Partnerships between academic medical center (AMCs) in North America and the developing world are uniquely capable of fulfilling the tripartite needs of care, training, and research required to address health care crises in the developing world. Moreover, the institutional resources and credibility of AMCs can provide the foundation to build systems of care with long-term sustainability, even in resource-poor settings. The authors describe a partnership between Indiana University School of Medicine and Moi University and Moi Teaching and Referral Hospital in Kenya that demonstrates the power of an academic medical partnership in its response to the HIV/AIDS pandemic in sub-Saharan Africa. Through the Academic Model for the Prevention and Treatment of HIV/AIDS, the partnership currently treats over 40,000 HIV-positive patients at 19 urban and rural sites in western Kenya, now enrolls nearly 2,000 new HIV positive patients every month, feeds up to 30,000 people weekly, enables economic security, fosters HIV prevention, tests more than 25,000 pregnant women annually for HIV, engages communities, and is developing a robust electronic information system. The partnership evolved from a program of limited size and a focus on general internal medicine into one of the largest and most comprehensive HIV/AIDS-control systems in sub-Saharan Africa. The partnership's rapid increase in scale, combined with the comprehensive and long-term approach to the region's health care needs, provides a twinning model that can and should be replicated to address the shameful fact that millions are dying of preventable and treatable diseases in the developing world.

PMID:
 
17762264
 
DOI:
 
10.1097/ACM.0b013e3180cc29f1
[PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]


가나의 수련병원에서 산부인과 수련생의 Retention관련 요인(Acad Med, 2010)

Factors Related to Retention of Postgraduate Trainees in Obstetrics–Gynecology at the Korle-Bu Teaching Hospital in Ghana

Yvette Clinton, PhD, Frank W. Anderson, MD, MPH, and

E. Y. Kwawukume, MB ChB, FWACS






개발 도상국에서 훈련 된 의료 서비스 제공자를 유지하는 것은 건강을 개선하고 모성 및 아동 사망률을 줄이기위한 유엔 새천년 개발 목표를 달성하는 핵심 구성 요소입니다 .1 개발 도상국에서 의료인력이 빠져나가면서, 국제보건의 진전을 위협하는 보건인력의 Crisis가 발생하고 있다. 가나 보건부에 따르면 1980 년대 가나에서 훈련받은 의사 중 약 60 %가이 나라를 떠났습니다 .3 2002 년 현재 가나에서 훈련받은 의사의 30 %가 미국이나 캐나다에서 진료를 하고 있고, 4, 2003 년에는 영국이 가나의 건강 및 의료 인력 (의사 및 간호사 포함)에 대하여 850 개의 노동 허가를 승인했습니다 .3

The retention of trained health care providers in developing countries is a key component to improving health and achieving the United Nations’ Millennium Development Goals, which aimto decrease maternal and child mortality.1 The migration of health workers from developing to developed countries has resulted in a health care workforce crisis that threatens progress in global health.2 According to the Ghana Ministry of Health, approximately 60% of physicians trained in Ghana in the 1980s have left the country.3 As of 2002, 30%of physicians trained in Ghana were practicing in the United States or Canada,4 and in 2003, the United Kingdom approved 850 work permits for Ghanaian health and medical personnel (including physicians and nurses).3


출판 된 여러 논문이 일부 전문 분야에서 대학원 교육 프로그램을 수립하는 과정을 다루었지만, 이러한 연구의 대부분은 대학원 교육이 국가의 의사 유지에 미치는 영향을 조사하지 못했습니다. 최근에 라오스에서 2001 년에 설립 된 내과 대학원 교육 프로그램을 조사한 이러한 연구 중 하나는 첫 번째 졸업반의 대다수(6 명의 레지던트 중 5 명)가 국가에 남아 있다는 것을 보여주었습니다.

Although a number of published articles have addressed the process of establishing postgraduate training programs in some specialties,5–8 most of these studies have not examined the impact of postgraduate training on the retention of physicians in country. Recently, one of these studies— examining an internal medicine postgraduate training programestablished in 2001 in Laos—showed that the majority of the first graduating class (five of six residents) remained in country.6

 


Korle-Bu 교육 병원 (Accra, Ghana)과 Komfo Anokye 교육 병원 (Kumasi, Ghana)에서 산부인과 학 (ob / gyn)의 학문적 대학 기반 대학원 교육 프로그램을 완료 한 공인 전문가certified specialists 에 대한 이전 연구에서, 30 명 중 29 명이 국가에 머물 렀음을 보여주었습니다 .9 이러한 높은 유지는 주로 가나에 실제로 viable training program이 availability and presence 했기 때문이었다. 사회 경제적 요인 또한 졸업생들의 가나 체류 결정에 중요한 역할을했다. 훈련 프로그램의 졸업생은 대학의 교수로서, 보건부에 대한 서비스를 제공하고, 가나의 개인병원에서 진료하고 싶어했으며, 실제로 그렇게 할 수 있었다.

A previous study of certified specialists who had completed an academic university-based postgraduate training programin obstetrics–gynecology (ob/ gyn), at both the Korle-Bu Teaching Hospital (Accra, Ghana) and the Komfo Anokye Teaching Hospital (Kumasi, Ghana), demonstrated that 29 out of 30 had stayed in the country.9 This high retention was mainly due to the actual availability and presence of a viable training program in Ghana; social and economic factors also played a significant role in graduates’ decisions to stay in Ghana. Graduates of the training program wanted and were able to practice as faculty at universities, to provide service for the Ministry of Health, and/or to go into private practice in Ghana.9



방법

Method


The Ghana Postgraduate Training Program(GPTP) was established in 1989 to correct the low repatriation rate of physicians sent abroad to train.


The University of Michigan institutional review board and the Korle-Bu Teaching Hospital ethics review committee approved the study. As of July 2006, 32 residents were enrolled in the ob/gyn GPTP at the Korle-Bu Teaching Hospital in Accra, Ghana.



We developed a 52-item questionnaire in English; we based the items on the three retention factors we identified in our previous research.9 This questionnaire comprised

  • 11 demographic questions,

  • 4 background/education questions, and

  • 37 items to assess aspects of training and how social and economic factors relate to decisions to stay and practice (or not) in Ghana.

 

Residents indicated on a five- point Likert scale the extent to which they agreed or disagreed with the items (5   strongly agree, 1  strongly disagree). The residents took about 20 minutes to complete the paper-based questionnaire.



Social scientists often use semistructured interviews as a qualitative methodology to obtain a more in-depth understanding of their study participants’ lives; for example, researchers evaluating an internal medicine postgraduate training program in Laos used semistructured interviews to better understand participants’ experiences in the program.6 We recognized that interviews would allow us to achieve a more holistic understanding of why Ghanaian residents decided to stay in Ghana for postgraduate training and why they intend to stay (or leave) upon graduating fromthe GPTP.



One of us (Y.C.) conducted audiotaped, face-to-face, semistructured interviews with a convenience sample of nine participants who had completed the survey. Y.C. conducted the interviews in English, asking the residents open-ended questions about how training (including program availability), economic, and social factors related to their decisions to stay in Ghana

 

(e.g., “What would you say is the biggest reason you’re going to stay in Ghana?” “In what ways would you say that either the needs of the people of Ghana or your commitment to serve the people of Ghana influence your decision to stay in Ghana?”).

 

Each interview lasted between 20 and 40 minutes. A professional transcriber transcribed the interviews verbatim, and one of us (Y.C.) rechecked the transcripts for accuracy. One of the tapes was inaudible and was therefore not transcribed. One of us (Y.C.) reviewed the transcripts, making notes in the margins to identify key themes to help fine-tune the code list.12 Y.C. then coded the transcripts in NVivo (Doncaster, Victoria, Australia) for themes related to training (including programavailability), economic, and social factors. Y.C. created a cross-case display matrix for each factor to analyze the data. In the matrix, each participant represented a row, and each column represented a variable. Researchers often use cross-case displays to enhance generalizability and to deepen their understanding and provide further explanation of qualitative data.13 Y.C. extracted dominant themes for each a priori identified factor (i.e., training, economic, and social) and identified characteristic quotes to illustrate the themes. We (F.A. and Y.K.) verified that the themes and quotations accurately reflected the responses in context. Then, we reviewed the original transcripts in light of the findings to ensure accurate portrayal of the residents’ reported experiences.




 

결과

Results


레지던트 중 85 % (17 명)는 GPTP를 완료 한 후 가나에 머물 것이라고 확신한다고 보고했다. 우리의 질적 연구 결과 (인터뷰 결과)와 양적 연구 결과 (표 2-4)는 가나 거주자의 유지가 세 가지 주요 요인으로 귀결 될 수 있음을 보여줍니다 :

  • (1) 교육훈련 (가나에 산부인과 Postgraduate 교육 프로그램의 존재)

  • (2) 사회적 (예 : 가나 사람들에게 봉사하겠다는 약속),

  • (3) 경제적 (예를 들어, 가나에서 "할 수있다"는 느낌)

...과 같은 것들을 포함한다.

 

Eighty-five percent (n  17) of the residents self-reported that they were certain they would stay in Ghana after they completed the GPTP. Both our qualitative findings (the results of our interviews) and our quantitative findings (Tables 2-4) show that the retention of residents in Ghana can be attributed to three main factors: (1) training (i.e., the presence of a postgraduate training programin ob/gyn in Ghana), (2) social (e.g., a commitment to serve the people of Ghana), and (3) economic (e.g., the feeling that one can “make it” in Ghana).



교육훈련 요인

Training factors


전문의자격specializing의 중요성과 프로그램의 존재.
The importance of specializing and the presence of a program.


ob / gyn을 전문적으로하는 것은 레지던트들에게 매우 중요했으며이 의사들이 교육을 받기로 결정한 주된 이유 중 하나입니다. 한 거주자는 "아버지는 전문의(전문가)였습니다. 당신도 알 수 있듯, 나는 항상 나 자신을 향상시켜야한다는 믿음을 배우며 자랐습니다. "

Specializing in ob/gyn was extremely important to the residents and is one of the major reasons these physicians decided to stay in training. One resident stated, “My father was a specialist. You see, I had always been brought up to believe that I should always improve myself.”

 

우리는 가나에서 Postgraduate 교육 프로그램이 없다면 참가자들에게 무엇을했을지 물어 보았습니다. 하나는 "오, 나는 가나를 떠났을 것입니다 ... 왜냐하면 ... 정말 PG Training을 원했기 때문입니다. 나는 이사 갔을거야. "

We asked participants what they would have done if no postgraduate training programs had been available in Ghana. One stated, “Oh, I would have left [Ghana] …because I really wanted to … have postgraduate training. I would have moved out.”

 

인터뷰 대상자 중 일부는 내과, 소아과 또는 수술의 PG Training 프로그램에 관심이 있다고보고했으나 대부분 ob / gyn을 전문으로하고 싶다고 표현했습니다 (표 2).

Whereas a few of the interviewed residents reported that they would have been interested in a postgraduate training programin internal medicine, pediatrics, or surgery, most expressed that they really wanted to specialize in ob/gyn (Table 2).

 

일부 레지던트들은 그들이 가나를 떠날 것을 고려해보았거나, 실제로 가나를 떠나 다른 곳의 PG training 프로그램을 찾았다고 보고했다. 이 의사들은 가나 이외의 국가에서 ob / gyn 레지던트 프로그램에 들어가기가 어려웠기 때문에 결국 미국 내과 또는 소아과 전문의가 아닌 Ghana에서 ob / gyn 전을 전공하는 것으로 결정했습니다.

A few residents reported that they had considered leaving or had actually left Ghana to find a specialization program elsewhere. These physicians reported that getting into an ob/gyn residency program outside of Ghana was difficult, so in the end they had decided to stay in Ghana and specialize in ob/gyn instead of specializing in internal medicine or pediatrics in the United States.


가나에서 진료하도록 훈련받은 것

Trained to practice in Ghana.

 

프로그램의 존재에 더하여, 프로그램에서 초점이 가나사회Ghanaian에 맞추어져 있는 것도 가나에 남아있는 중요한 이유였습니다. 인터뷰 한 거주자 (75 %, n = 15)의 대다수는 프로그램 담당자가 특별히 가나에서 실습을하도록 지시했다고 설명했다.

In addition to the presence of the program, the Ghanaian focus of the programwas an important reason to remain in Ghana. The majority of the residents interviewed (75%; n  15) indicated that the program had trained themto practice specifically in Ghana.


저는 여기서 공부하는 것이 매우 실용적이라고 생각합니다. 그리고 실제 경험을 많이 쌓았습니다. 매우 광범위한 경우를 볼 수있는 기회가 있습니다 ... 일주일이면 자간증, 자궁 파열, 또는 난산과 같은 경우를 경험할 수 있게 됩니다. 그러므로 많은 것을 보게되며, 그것들을 관리하는 법을 배웁니다.

I think our study here is very practical. And there’s a lot of hands-on experience. You have opportunity to see a very wide range of cases …you won’t stay in a labor ward here for more than a week without encountering cases like eclampsia, the ruptured uterus, or obstructed labor…. And therefore you see a lot of them, and you learn to manage them.

 

모든 거주자가 가나에서의 훈련을 위해 명시 적으로 연결되어있는 것은 아니지만 대부분이 프로그램은 가나에서 훈련을하도록 훈련 받았다고 동의했다.

While not all residents explicitly linked being trained to practice in Ghana as a reason for staying in country, most agreed that the programdid train themto practice in Ghana.




 


사회적 요인

Social factors


레지던트 인터뷰에서 나온 사회적 요인과 관련한 지배적인 주제는

  • (1) 가나 국민에게 봉사하겠다는 의지,

  • (2) 가나의 가족 및 친구와의 사회적 유대,

  • (3) 더 큰 맥락에서 가나 안에서의 관계와 삶의 방식과 연결됨 (표 3).

The dominant themes related to social factors that emerged fromthe resident interviews included (1) residents’ commitment to serve the people of Ghana, (2) their social ties to family members and friends in Ghana, and (3) their connection to the larger Ghanaian culture and way of life (Table 3).


가나 국민에게 봉사하겠다는 의지

Commitment to serve the people of Ghana.


인터뷰하고 조사한 주민들은 가나 국민에게 봉사하겠다는 강한 의지를 가지고 있습니다. 인터뷰에 응한 대부분의 주민들은 가나에 머물기로 한 그들의 결정에 기여한 요소들 중 하나가 가나 사람들이 그들을 필요로한다는 인식에 대해 명시 적으로 언급했다. 주민들은 스스로 돕고 싶은 욕구를 인식했습니다.

The residents interviewed and surveyed have a very strong commitment to serving the people of Ghana. Most of the residents interviewed explicitly stated that one of the factors contributing to their decision to stay in Ghana was their recognition that people in Ghana needed them. The residents recognized their own desire to help out.



가나의 가족 및 친구와의 사회적 유대

Social ties to family and friends.


레지던트들에게 중요한 가나의 다른 사회적 측면에는 가족과 친구들의 존재, 가나의 고향이라는 느낌이 포함되었습니다. 이러한 요인들이 중요했지만, 이러한 요인들이 가나에 머물기로 한 결정에 어느 정도 영향을 미쳤는 지에 대해서는 다양했습니다. 어떤 사람들에게는 가족과 친구들이 아주 중요했습니다.

Other social aspects of Ghana that were important to the residents included the presence of family and friends and feeling that Ghana is home. Although these factors were important to them, the extent to which these factors played a role in their decisions to stay in Ghana varied. For some, family and friends were quite important.

 

많은 레지던트들이 가나 문화를 좋아한다고 말하지만, 모든 레지던트들이 왜 가나에 머물기를 원하는지 분명히 밝히지는 않았습니다. 그러나 일부 레지던트들은 이것이 이것이 가나에 머물기로 한 그들의 결정에 영향을 미치는 요인이라는 것을 인정했다.

Although many of the residents mention that they liked Ghanaian culture, not all residents explicitly linked this with why they wanted to stay in Ghana. However, a few residents did acknowledge that this was a factor impacting their decision to stay in Ghana.

 

가나 문화에 대한 가족, 친구 및 친숙 함이 레지던트에게 중요하지만 설문 조사 및 인터뷰 결과는 봉사하겠다는 약속이 가나 레지던트를 잡아두는 강력한 요인임을 보여줍니다 (표 3).

Even though family, friends, and familiarity with Ghanaian culture are important to the residents, the results from the survey and interviews demonstrate that the commitment to serve was a stronger factor in keeping the residents in Ghana (Table 3).




경제적 요인

Economic factors


레지던트들은 그들이 GPTP를 ​​완료 한 후 가나에서 일자리를 구할 수 있을 것이라 느꼈다. 거주자의 대다수는 급료를 중요하다고 생각했지만, 그러나 가나에 머물기로 한 것이 가장 중요한 요소는 아니라고 밝혔다. 많은 주민들이 가나의 급여가 충분하다고 믿었지만, 한 부부는 임금에 대한 좌절감을 표하며 급여가 개선 될 필요가 있다고 느꼈다.

The residents felt that jobs in Ghana would be available to them after they completed the GPTP. The majority of residents considered salary to be important; however, they also expressed that it was not the most important factor in their decision to stay in Ghana. Although many of the residents believed that the salaries in Ghana are adequate, a couple expressed frustration with the pay and felt that the salaries needed to be improved.

 

대부분의 레지던트들은 프로그램을 마쳤을 때 일자리를 구하는 것이 쉽다고 생각하지만, 일부 레지던트는 이상적인 일자리를 찾는 것은 조금 어려울 수 있다고 생각하였다.

While most of the residents thought that finding a job when they completed the programwould be easy, a few felt that finding the ideal job may be a little harder.


대부분의 레지던트들이 취업 기회가 가난한 경우 가나를 떠날 것이라고 표명한 만큼 졸업생을위한 취업 알선이 중요합니다.

Having jobs available for graduates is important, as most of the residents expressed that they would leave Ghana if job opportunities were poor.

 

많은 레지던트들은 또한 프로그램이 끝나면 "임금을 잘 받는 직장"을 찾는 것이 중요하다고 표현했다 (표 4).

Many of the residents also expressed that finding a “good-paying job” on completion of the programis important (Table 4).

 

레지던트가 급여를 중요하게 생각하기는하지만 가나에 남아 있기로 한 결정에서 일반적으로 가장 중요한 요소는 아닙니다 (표 4). 한 레지던트는 만족이 돈을 버는 것뿐만 아니라 그의 일에 대한 인정을 얻는 데 있다고 표현했습니다.

Although residents consider salary important, it is not usually the most important factor in their decision to remain in Ghana (Table 4). One resident expressed that the satisfaction is not just in making money but also in gaining recognition for his work.


대다수의 레지던트들은 가나 밖의 의사만큼 돈을받지는 않을 것이지만 가나의 기준standard에 따르면 급여가 적절하다고 느꼈다.

The vast majority of residents acknowledged that they will not be paid as much as doctors outside of Ghana, yet they felt that their salaries were adequate by Ghanaian standards.

 

또 다른 레지던트는, GPTP를 ​​시작하기 전에는 무언가 이루기 위해서는(make it) 의사가 가나를 떠날 필요가 있다고 생각했지만, 이제는 의사들도 가나에 살만 하다는 것을 깨달았습니다.

Another resident discussed how—before he started the GPTP—he thought that in order to “make it,” a physician would have to leave Ghana, but now he realizes that physicians can afford to live in Ghana:

 



 

경제적 요인과 사회적 요인의 상호작용

Economic and social interactions


2 명의 레지던트는 가나의 현재의 급여가 나라의 그들을 밀어내는 주요 요인이다라고 느꼈다. 그러나이 두 사람은 가나에 남아있는 사람들을 끌어들이는 경향이있는 사회적 요인에 대해서도 논의했다. 한 거주자는 "재정적으로, 우리는 매우 나쁜 거래를 한다고 생각합니다. [낮은 임금은] ... 우리를 강하게 밀어내는 요인입니다"

Two residents felt that the current salariesin Ghana are a major factor pushing themout of the country. Yet, these two also discussed social factors that tend to pull themtoward remaining in Ghana. One resident stated, “Financially, I think we get a very bad deal. [Low pay is] …a strong push out of the country”; 

 

급여에 좌절 한 또 다른 레지던트는 가나를 떠날 것을 고려했지만 사회적 요인에 의해 포기하게 되었습니다. 이 레지던트는 처음에 가나에 머무를 계획 이었으나 지금은 확실하지 않습니다. 그는 경제 요인들이 가나를 강타하고 있다고 말했다.

Another resident who has also been frustrated with the salaries has considered leaving Ghana, but he is torn by the social factors. This resident initially had planned to stay in Ghana, but now he is not sure. He expressed that economic factors are pushing himout of Ghana:

 

다른 레지던트들과 마찬가지로 그는 외국 의사처럼 돈을 받기를 기대하지는 않으며, 가나에 적당한 생활을 할 수 있다면 괜찮을 것이라고 말했다. 경제적인 요인들이 레지던트들을 가나로부터 밀어내는 동안, 사회적 요인들은 그들을 잡아두고 있었다. 이 레지던트는 그가 정말로 가나를 사랑한다고 표현했습니다.

Similar to other residents, he does not expect to be paid like doctors outside andwould be okay if he could have a decent living in Ghana. While the economic factors are pushing himaway from Ghana, the social factors are keeping himhere. This resident expressed that he really loves Ghana: 



 


고찰 및 결론

Discussion and Conclusions


대부분의 의사들은 전문의자격을 중요시하고 가나에 전공 프로그램이 없다면 PG Training을 받기 위해 떠났을 것이라고 지적했다. 또한 레지던트들은 ob / gyn에 대한 관심이 높았다. 미국에서 ob / gyn 훈련을받는 것이 외국의 의사들에게 매우 경쟁력이 있다고 가정하면, 가나의 PG Training 프로그램은 레지던트들에게이 전문의 수련을 위한 실행 가능한 선택권을 부여했다.

Most of the physicians considered specialization important and indicated that if there were no specialization programs in Ghana they would have left the country to obtain postgraduate training. Furthermore, the interest in ob/gyn among the residents was high. Given that obtaining ob/gyn training in the United States is highly competitive for foreign- trained doctors, the postgraduate training programin ob/gyn in Ghana gave residents a viable option for this specialized training.14

 

GPTP 레지던트들은 그들의 서비스가 가나의 건강 관리를 개선하는 데 필요하다는 것을 분명히 인식합니다. 그들의 나라 사람들에게 봉사하겠다는 그들의 강한 의지는 그들이 나라에 머물기로 결정한 중요한 이유입니다. GPTP는 선발 시 학업 기준 만 사용하고 가나에 남는 것에 대한 commitment를 평가하지는 않지만, 프로그램은 가나에 머물 것으로 강하게 committed된 사람을 선발한 것으로 보인다.

The residents in the GPTP clearly recognize that their services are needed to improve health care in Ghana. Their strong commitment to serve the people of their country is an important reason they have decided to stay in the country. Although the GPTP uses only academic criteria for admission to the programand does not evaluate applicants’ commitment to stay in Ghana, the programseems to have selected people with a strong commitment to stay in the country.

 

경제적 요인만으로는 유지가 되지 않습니다. 일부 레지던트들은 가나의 경제적 여건에 대한 불만을 표현하지만, 전문 교육을 받을 수 있다는 것과 본국에 있는 풍부한 사회적 기회가 (완전히 만족스럽지는 않은) 경제 상황을 수용 할 수있게 해주는 것처럼 보입니다.

Economic factors alone do not drive retention. Some residents express dissatisfaction with economic conditions in Ghana, but the ability to receive specialist training and the rich social opportunities of being in their home country seem to make the economic situation acceptable to them.

 





중요성

Significance


또한 프로그램 졸업생은 상당수의 의료 종사자를 양성 할 수 있으며, 이들의 리더십은 시설에서 필요한 서비스를 제공하고 산모 사망률과 관련된 지역, 지역 및 국가 보건 정책에 영향을 미친다.
Further, graduates of the programcan train a significant number of health workers, and their leadership both improves the capacity to provide needed services at facilities and influences local, regional, and national health policy pertaining to maternal mortality.6



함의

Implications


개발 도상국에서 PG Training을 제공하는 것은 글로벌 보건 의료 인력 위기를 개선하는 중요한 요소입니다. 레지던트와 의과대학 졸업생은 건강 관리 서비스를 제공 할뿐만 아니라 건강 정책 리더십을 제공하고 의사 및 기타 보건 인력 조련사의 공급을 지속 가능하게 합니다 .6이 연구의 대상인 GPTP ob / gyn의 연구참여자들은 영국, 미국, 가나의 ob/gyn학과에서 근무하고 있습니다 .10,11 많은 AHC의 교수진과 학생들은 글로벌 보건 프로그램에 큰 관심을 표명했습니다. 기존의 교육 시스템들은 이러한 글로벌 보건 프로그램에 부응하기 위하여 개발 도상국의 AHC와의 장기적인 파트너십을 고려해야합니다. 전문 지식을 공유하고 양질의 지속 가능한 교육 프로그램을 공동으로 만들려는 노력은, 각 기관의 mission 수행에 기여하고, 장기적인 노력 통하여 전 세계적으로 보건 인력의 수를 늘릴 것입니다.
Providing postgraduate training in developing countries is a significant component in improving the global health care workforce crisis. Residents and graduates not only provide health care services but also provide health policy leadership and constitute a sustainable supply of physician and other health care personnel trainers.6 The GPTP in ob/gyn, in which participants of this study were involved, resulted froma collaboration of university ob/gyn departments in the United States, the United Kingdom, and Ghana.10,11 Faculty and students at many academic health centers have expressed great interest in global health programs. The response of those with established and well-functioning educational systems should include considering long-term partnerships with academic health centers in developing countries. Efforts to share expertise and to jointly create high-quality and sustainable training programs would contribute to the missions of each institution and sustainably enhance the long-termeffort to increase the number of health workers globally.



6 Gordon G, Vongvichit E, Hansana V, Torjesen K. A model for improving physician performance in developing countries: A three-year postgraduate training programin Laos. Acad Med. 2006;81:399–404.



 

 

 

 





 2010 Oct;85(10):1564-70. doi: 10.1097/ACM.0b013e3181f09112.

Factors related to retention of postgraduate trainees in obstetrics-gynecology at the Korle-Bu TeachingHospital in Ghana.

Author information

  • 1Health Research and Policy Division, CNA, Alexandria, Virginia, USA.

Abstract

PURPOSE:

The retention of health care workers in developing countries is a key component to reducing the current health care workforce crisis. The availability of postgraduate medical training in developing countries could be an appropriate adjunctive solution. The authors investigated factors that led obstetrics-gynecology (ob/gyn) residents at a university-based academic training program at the Korle-Bu Teaching Hospital (Accra, Ghana) to stay in Ghana for training and explored why the residents expect to stay in (or leave) Ghana after training.

METHOD:

In July 2006, the authors surveyed 20 residents and conducted semistructured interviews with a subset of 9 residents.

RESULTS:

Nineteen respondents (95%) reported they would have left Ghana if postgraduate training had not been available, 16 (80%) reported that becoming an ob/gyn specialist was important to them, 15 (75%) indicated that the program trained them to practice in Ghana, and 17 (85%) were certain they would stay in Ghana after completing the program. Both quantitative and qualitative data supported the idea that three factors contribute to the retention of ob/gyn physicians in Ghana: (1) the presence of a postgraduate training program in Ghana, (2) residents' commitment to serve the people of Ghana, and (3) residents' feelings that physicians can "make it" economically in Ghana.

CONCLUSIONS:

Postgraduate training is an important contributor to the retention of physicians in country. Partnerships between academic health centers in developed and developing countries provide opportunities to address the global health care crisis in a significant and sustainable way.

PMID:
 
20881676
 
DOI:
 
10.1097/ACM.0b013e3181f09112


왜 의사들은 교육을 하는가: 받은 것을 돌려주기 (Med Educ, 2015)

Why physicians teach: giving back by paying it forward

Yvonne Steinert1 & Mary Ellen Macdonald2








도입

INTRODUCTION


미래 의사의 교육은 의사가 임상 환경, 경쟁 요구 사항, 상충되는 우선 순위 및 환자 치료의 지속적인 압박으로 특징 지어지는 환경에서 학생 및 거주자를 교육 할 때 매우 중요합니다. 그러나 의료환경의 속도와 강도, 그리고 교육이 종종 경제적 보상이나 인정을 받지 못한다는 인식에도 불구하고 많은 의사들이 의대생과 레지던트를 가르치기 위한 시간을 carve out하고 있습니다. 이게 왜 그렇게?
The education of future physicians is highly depen- dent upon physicians teaching students and resi- dents in the clinical setting, an environment marked by competing demands, conflicting priori- ties, and the constant pressure of patient care. Yet, despite the pace and intensity of this environment, and the perception that teaching is often not finan- cially rewarded or recognised, many physicians carve out time for the teaching of medical students and residents. Why is this so?


많은 연구가 외래 진료 환경에서 학생들을 가르치는 일차 진료의 의사의 동기를 조사했습니다. 이 연구들은 개인적인 만족, 가르침에 대한 사랑, 그리고 직업에 대한 동기 부여를 1 차적인 동기 부여로 포함하는 내재적 보상을 강조했습니다. 지역 사회 기반의 환경에 관한 다른 연구 7,8은 의사들은 교육이 환자의 치료에 대한 즐거움을 높이고 임상 진료의 질을 향상시키는 것으로 의사가 믿는다 고 제안했습니다.
A number of studies have examined primary care physicians’ motivations for teaching students in ambulatory settings. These studies have highlighted intrinsic rewards including personal satisfaction, a love of teaching, and giving back to the profession1–6 as primary motivators. Other research in community-based settings7,8 has suggested that physicians believe that teaching enhances their enjoyment of patient care and improves the quality of clinical practice.


1 차 진료 의사의 가르침에 대한 동기를 조사한 연구는 서베이 설문지에 크게 의존하면서 기술적 인 수준에서 그렇게 해왔다. 아무도 가르침의 본질을 탐구하지 않았거나 왜 의사들이 많은 임상적 책임에도 불구하고 가르치기를 선택했는지 이해하려고 시도하지 않았습니다. 의사들에게 있어 교육의 의미에 대한 심층적 인 탐구와이 경험이 그들에게 의미하는 바는 의사들이 임상 환경에서 가르치는 이유에 대한 우리의 지식을 향상시키는 데 도움이 될 것입니다.
The studies that have examined primary care physi- cians’ motivations to teach have done so at a descriptive level, with a heavy reliance on survey questionnaires. None have delved into the essence of teaching or sought to understand why physicians choose to teach despite their many clinical responsi- bilities. An in-depth exploration of the meaning of teaching for physicians, and what this experience signifies to them, would help to advance our knowl- edge of why physicians teach in the clinical setting.


이 연구의 목표는 의사가 입원 환자 환경에서 학생과 레지던트를 가르치는 것이 무엇을 의미하는지 탐색하는 것이 었습니다. 이러한 맥락에서 의사 교육의 본질을 이해하는 것은 임상 교사의 채용 및 유지, 교육 우수성을 인정하고 보상하는 정책 개발, 교수진 개발의 설계 및 전달에 도움이 될 수있는 미래의 의료 교육의 열쇠입니다 의사의 요구를 충족시키는 프로그램.
The goal of this study was to explore what it means for physicians to teach students and residents in the in-patient milieu. Understanding the essence of teaching for physicians in this context is key to the future of medical education as it can help in the recruitment and retention of clinical teachers, the development of policies to recognise and reward educational excellence, and the design and delivery of faculty development programmes that meet physi- cians’ needs.




방법

METHODS


방법론

Methodology


We approached our research question ‘What is the meaning of teaching?’ using interpretive phenomenology (IP). This is a research methodology that builds upon a rich philosophical tradition9,10 to address ontological questions of human ‘lived expe- rience’.11,12 In IP, the goal is to delve into the meaning of an experience as it is articulated or enacted by the research participant. Both data gath- ering and analysis require the researcher to dwell on the phenomenon under scrutiny in order to uncover its essence. Essential to this methodology is the process of stripping away theoretical presupposi- tions in order to uncover layers of meaning. Explor- ing the meaning of teaching required the researchers to resist deductive theoretical constructs and encourage participants to explore concepts brought into the conversation, to truly understand why and how teaching matters.



모집

Recruitment


We recruited participants from three academic departments (internal medicine, surgery and paedi- atrics) at McGill University (Montreal, QC, Canada). Recruiting from these three specialties also allowed us to sample diverse perspectives in line with maximum variation sampling.13


At this time, we confirmed data saturation,14 the point at which additional data do not reveal new aspects of the phenomenon under study.





맥락

Context


This study took place in a research-intensive university, which is marked by a strong spirit of volunteer- ism for teaching.15,16 In this setting, the majority of clinical teachers do not receive a salary for teaching. Moreover, although small stipends have been recently allocated by the provincial government for certain teaching activities, many teachers still believe that teaching is neither rewarded financially nor recognised for advancement or promotion. In addition, although teaching is an expected part of physicians’ responsibilities in our context, the amount of teaching required is not systematically prescribed.



자료 수집

Data collection


Data were collected through audio-recorded semi- structured interviews conducted by a research assis- tant with graduate training in qualitative research. The research assistant also recorded field notes describing non-verbal communication and contex- tual information (e.g. a busy environment was noted in field notes that described interviews being interrupted by telephone calls and pagers; the joy of teaching was signalled through notes of participants’ facial expressions and the vocal tones used when discussing former learners). Interviews averaged 45 minutes. The initial interview guide, based on findings from the literature, was piloted and refined at the Centre for Medical Education at McGill University. Through an iterative process, the interview guide was modified as interviews pro- ceeded in order to capture the essence of teach- ing, a common practice given the emergent nature of qualitative inquiry. The guide (Appen- dix 1) explored the meaning of teaching by addressing perceived rewards, challenges, motiva- tions and expectations, reflections on teaching medical students and residents, and observations on how faculty development could enhance teach- ing experiences.



분석

Analysis


  • Analysis followed Benner’s interpretive framework,11 which is premised on a conception of human expe- rience in which meaning is understood to be rooted in the context in which it is lived. The role of the researcher is to make sense of the participant’s artic- ulation of his or her own experiences. This approach is attentive to a dialectic tension which exists between an appeal to commonalities across cases (e.g. pattern recognition) and the need to be attentive and responsive to the unique features of individual cases. Every encounter is co-constructed through the researcher–participant relationship and is shaped by previous experiences and the socio-cultural system within which experiences are lived.

  • We also used Conroy’s pathway12 for interpretive synthe- sis, especially the hermeneutic spiral in which induc- tive interpretations of both the participant and researcher build off each other; doing so ensured that we ‘spiralled’ back to earlier comments while being attentive to building our understanding of the individual’s unique meaning as well as our grow- ing understanding of the dataset.

  • Finally, Geertz’s interpretive notion of ‘thick description’17 was used to richly contextualise the participants’ thoughts and experiences within their institutional work envi- ronments.



To conduct this analysis, each investigator read the transcripts in their entirety to get a sense of the evolving dataset. Following this, both investigators re-read each transcript, using multiple close read- ings to understand participants’ experiences vis  a vis the phenomenon of interest: the meaning of teaching. Initial codes were emergent, inductively generated from the data; this contributed to an open-ended dialogue between the researchers, with careful attention to participants’ words and phrases.

 

The interpretive process moved between the foreground (the literal meaning of the words) and the background (the meaning and intention behind the literal utterances).


As the analysis proceeded, we categorised emerg- ing codes into Benner’s five components (situa- tion, meanings, concerns, embodiment, temporality)11 and Conroy’s sixth component (par- adigm shift).12 We then sought across-case patterns (themes), with attention to recurring meaning (as expressed in the ideas and feelings of the partici- pants) relating to salient items for each individual participant (e.g. what matters to them). We built thick descriptions of institutional contexts from the field notes and transcripts by embedding par- ticipants’ thoughts and experiences within social, cultural and personal components of their work environments.


강건

Rigour


The following steps were used to ensure methodological rigour:

  • the primary researchers checked the transcripts, prepared by a third party, for accuracy;

  • an audit trail was maintained to capture the evolution of the interpretive process, and

  • prelimin- ary findings were presented to members of the Centre for Medical Education for feedback and discussion.



RESULTS


교육 맥락

The context for teaching


참가자들은 모두 15 개의 사례에서 임상 환경을 복잡하고 까다로우며 여러 가지 의무와 책임으로 가득 차 있다고 설명했습니다. 학생과 주민들의 가르침에는 계획된 교훈적인 강의, 침대 옆에서 가르치고 가르치는 일이 포함되었습니다. 대부분의 참가자는 교실 환경에서 강의했지만, 이러한 상호 작용을 위해 임상 환경을 기준점으로 선택했습니다.

In all 15 cases, participants described their clinical environment as complex and demanding, replete with multiple obligations and responsibilities. The teaching of students and residents included planned didactic lectures, bedside teaching and teaching ‘on the fly’. Although most participants also taught in classroom settings, they chose the clinical environ- ment as their point of reference for these inter- views,


참여자들은 가르침의 의미와의 관련성을 가정하고 싶지 않기 때문에 가르침에 대한 재정적 보상에 관해 특별히 질문하지 않았다. 그럼에도 불구하고, 15 명의 참가자 중 13 명이 왜 가르치냐고 물었을 때, 자발적으로 가르침에 대한 지불 부족에 대해 언급하면서, 보수는 중요한 동기가 아니라고 강조하였다.
Participants were not specifically asked about financial remuneration for teaching because we did not want to assume its relevance to the mean- ing of teaching. Despite this, 13 of the 15 partici- pants spontaneously referred to the lack of payment for teaching when asked why they teach, stressing that remuneration was not a key motiva- tor.


마찬가지로, 어떤 참가자도 가르침에 대한 보상에 관한 질문에 대한 재정적 보상에 대해 언급하지 않았으며, 가르침의 동기로서 진급이나 승진을 확인하지 못했습니다. 그럼에도 불구하고, 참가자들은 그들의 작업 환경에 대해 깊은 감사를 표했으며,
Similarly, no participant mentioned financial remu- neration in response to a question about the rewards of teaching, nor did they identify advance- ment or promotion as an incentive to teach. Despite this, participants expressed a profound appreciation of their work environment,




가르침의 의미

The meaning of teaching


우리의 표본에 다양한 교육 환경과 특수성이 있음에도 불구하고, 다섯 가지 주제가 모든 의사의 내러티브에서 입원 환자 환경에서의 교육의 의미를 밝혀주었습니다. 참가자들에 따르면 :

    • (i) 가르침은 정체성의 필수적인 부분이었습니다.

    • (ii) 가르침은 그들 자신의 훈련을 위해 이전 교사들에게 갚을 수있게했다;

    • (iii) 가르침은 차세대 의사의 발전에 기여할 수있는 기회를 제공했다;

    • (iv) 가르침을 통해 그들이 배우고,

    • (v) 가르침이 개인적으로 활력을주고 기쁘게하는 것으로 경험되었다.

 

중요한 것은, 개인과 사회 차원이 이 주제들에 걸쳐 실행 되었음 :

    • 참가자들이 도덕적으로나 사회적으로 가르침에 시간과 노력을 들일 동기부여가 되어있었고 (예를 들어, 자신의 특권을 지불하고 다음 세대를 개발하는 데 도움을주기 위해),

    • 가르침은 또한 성취감을 느끼게합니다(예를 들어, 젊은 마음을 빚어서mould 유산을 남기는 것을 허용함으로써) .
      Despite the variety of teaching settings and special- ties in our sample, five themes elucidated the mean- ing of teaching in the in-patient setting across all physicians’ narratives. According to participants: (i) teaching was an integral part of their identity; (ii) teaching allowed them to repay former teachers for their own training; (iii) teaching gave them an opportunity to contribute to the development of the next generation of physicians; (iv) teaching enabled them to learn, and (v) teaching was experi- enced as personally energising and gratifying. Importantly, personal and social dimensions ran across these themes: while participants were morally and socially motivated to give time and effort through teaching (e.g. to pay forward their own privilege and thereby help to develop the next gen- eration), teaching also gave them a sense of per-sonal fulfilment (e.g. by allowing them to mould young minds and thereby leave a legacy).



 

1. 의사의 정체성의 핵심 요소로서의 교육
Teaching as an integral part of a physician’s identity


 

거의 모든 참가자들은 가르침이 그들의 정체성의 필수적인 부분이라고 말했다.


대부분의 참가자들은 스포츠 코치, 교사 또는 캠프 카운슬러처럼 어린 나이부터 가르쳤으며, 과거의 경험을 연장하여 현재의 역할을 보았습니다. 몇몇은 선생님이었던 부모님을 언급하고 가르침은 '피 속에'있다고 말했습니다.

 

거의 모든 참가자들은 의대생과 레지던트를 이전에 가르쳤으며, 그들이 계속 가르 칠 수 있기 때문에 학업 환경에서 일하기로 선택했습니다. 다양한 방법으로 참가자들은 대학 병원에서 일하는 것이 핵심 책임이자 기대라고 느꼈습니다.

 

많은 참가자들은 또한 '의사 - 교사'가 '의사가 되는being a physician' 필수 요소라고 했다. 실제로, 그들이 가르치지 않는 것을 상상할 수 있는지 묻는 질문에 대한 응답으로, 아무도 그럴 수 있다고 답하지 않았다.

Almost all participants stated that teaching was an integral part of their identity.


Most participants had been teaching from a young age, as sports coaches, tutors or camp counsellors, and they saw their current role as an extension of these past experiences. Several mentioned a parent who was a teacher and said that teaching was ‘in their blood’.


Almost all participants had previously taught as medical students and residents, and they had delib- erately chosen to work in an academic setting because it would allow them to continue to teach. In diverse ways, participants felt that teaching was a core responsibility – and expectation – of working in a university hospital, and one that they valued.


A number of participants also conveyed that being a ‘physician-teacher’ was integral to ‘being a physi- cian’. In fact, in response to a question asking if they could imagine themselves not teaching, none felt that they could,





2. 돌려주기 : 전직 교사에게 상환

Giving back: repaying former teachers


이 연구의 의사들은 가르침이 교사와 그들이 훈련 한 기관에 대해 상환하도록 허용한다는 정서를 꾸준히 표명했습니다. 이 개념은 탁월한 전문 교육의 사이클을 지속하기 위해 직업에 '환원'하기 위한 도덕적 헌신으로 전달되었습니다. 참가자들은 자신이 얼마나 잘 배웠으며 자신의 학생과 레지던트를 위해 똑같이하고 싶었는지 분명히 기억했습니다. 그들은 교사의 능력과 열정에 대해 깊은 인상을 심어 주었고 그들의 학습자도 최고의 교육을 받을 자격이 있다고 느꼈습니다.


'돌려주기'에 관해 이야기 할 때, 많은 참가자들이 'paying it forward'라는 구절을 사용했는데,이를 통해 cycle of excellence를 유지하기위한 도덕적 헌신이 강화되었습니다.

The physicians in this study consistently expressed the sentiment that teaching allowed themto repay their teachers and the institutions in which they had trained. This notion was conveyed as a moral commit- ment to ‘give back’ to the profession in order to con- tinue the cycle of excellent professional training. Participants clearly remembered how well they had been taught and wanted to do the same for their stu- dents and residents. They expressed deep apprecia- tion of their teachers’ abilities and passion and felt that their learners also deserved the best.


In talking about ‘giving back’, a number of partici- pants used the phrase ‘paying it forward’, which fur- ther reinforced a moral commitment to maintaining the cycle of excellence.



3. 차세대 육성

Developing the next generation


'paying it forward'이라는이 개념에 연계 된 것은 차세대 의사 양성에 기여할 사회적 욕구와 개인적인 욕망이었습니다. 실제로, 참가자들은 양질의 환자 치료를 보장하는 도덕적, 사회적 약속 인 것처럼 가르치는 것에 관해 이야기했습니다.

 

동시에,이 감정은 덜 이타적으로 표현되기도 하였는데, 교육이 (자신의) 성공을 위한 계획의 일부 였고, 누군가가 자신을 노후에 돌보아 줄 보험처럼 보기도 하였다

 

일부 참가자들은 차세대 교육에 대한 그들의 참여가 그들이 유산을 남겨 둘 수 있다고 느꼈습니다.


유산의 개념은 임상 지혜를 공유하고, 환자 치료를 개선하고, '당신이 중요한 기여를했다'고 느끼는 강한 욕구와 관련이 있습니다.

 

Tied to this notion of ‘paying it forward’ were both a social and a personal desire to contribute towards developing the next generation of physi- cians. In fact, participants talked about teaching as if it were a moral and social commitment towards ensuring high-quality patient care.


At the same time, this sentiment was also framed in less altruistic terms, as if teaching was part of succes- sion planning and a personal insurance that some- one would take care of them in their old age.


Some participants also felt that their involvement in teaching the next generation allowed them to leave a legacy,


The notion of legacy was related to a strong desire to share clinical wisdom, improve patient care and feel that ‘you have made a significant contribution’.


4. 배움으로서 가르침

Teaching as learning


많은 참가자들의 의견은 Joseph Joubert가 '가르치는 것은 두 번 배우는 것'이라는 강경을 반영했습니다. 그들은 학생과 레지던트가 가진 unjaded, youthful 시각과 통찰력있는 질문을 가치있게 여겼다. 또한 참가자들은 '학생들의 눈을 통해 세상을 보았다'는 이점을 누렸다 고 지적했다.


모든 참가자들은 학생과 레지던트들과 함께하는 것이 그들이 배우고 새로운 정보를 찾고 최신 정보를 얻도록 촉구했다고 말했다.

 

다양한 방법으로, 가르침은 참가자들이 young inquisitive mind를 keeping up하면서 참가자가 지식, 경험 및 열정을 나눌 수있는 상황을 만들었습니다.

 

Many participants’ comments reflected Joseph Jou- bert’s adage that ‘to teach is to learn twice’. They valued students’ and residents’ unjaded, youthful perspectives as well as their insightful questions; fur- ther, participants noted that they benefited from ‘seeing the world through students’ eyes’.


All participants commented that being with students and residents inspired them to learn and ‘pushed them’ to seek new information and keep up to date.



In a variety of ways, teaching created a context in which participants could share their knowledge, experience and passion while ‘keeping up’ with young inquisitive minds.



5. 활력을주고 기쁘게하는 것으로 가르침
Teaching as energising and gratifying


 

참가자들은 가르침에 기인 한 여러 보상에 대해 많은 긍정적 인 감정을 표했다. 실제로, 가르침은 그들에게 '활력을 불어 넣고' 속도를 바꾸고changing the pace 그날을 깨는 것breaking up the day였다. 또한 그들이하는 일에 활기를 느낄 수있었습니다.

 

참가자들은 또한 학습자와의 상호 작용을 중요하게 생각했습니다. 그들은 지식과 열정을 공유하고 학습자들의 가르침에 대한 피드백을 받음으로써 활력을 얻었습니다.

 

또한, 가르침을 통하여 참가자들은 학생들과 레지던트가 스스로 배워가며 성취에 자부심을 갖는 것에 깊은 만족감을 느꼈습니다.

 

Participants expressed many positive sentiments about the multiple rewards they attributed to teach- ing. In fact, teaching was seen to give them an ‘en- ergising boost’, changing the pace and breaking up the day; it also allowed them to feel invigorated by what they were doing.

 

Participants also valued the interaction with learn- ers. They were energised by sharing their knowledge and passion and by receiving feedback from learn- ers about their teaching,


In addition, teaching gave participants a deep sense of satisfaction as they could watch students and resi- dents learn and take pride in their accomplish- ments.



고찰

DISCUSSION


 

임상 교사는 의대생과 레지던트에 대한 성공적인 교육에 필수적인 귀중한 자원입니다 .18 우리는 경험적 경험의 주관성에 기반을 둔 이러한 현상학적 탐구를 통해, 복잡한 환자 프로필, 다양한 수준의 학습자 교육, 여러 교육 장소의 사용으로 특징 지어지는 입원 환자 환경에서의 의사의 신념/교육 동기/인식에 대한 더 깊은 이해를 얻을 수 있었습니다

Clinical teachers represent an invaluable resource essential to the successful teaching of medical stu- dents and residents.18 Through this phenomenolog- ical inquiry, grounded in the subjectivity of lived experience,19 we were able to gain a deeper under- standing of physicians’ beliefs, motives and percep- tions of teaching in an in-patient setting, which is often marked by complex patient profiles, the teaching of learners at different levels, and the use of multiple venues for teaching.


 

이전의 연구자 4-6,18은 외래 환자 환경에서 학생들을 가르치는 일차 진료 의사에게 동기 부여 요소로서 내재적 요소 (예 : 교육의 즐거움)의 중요성을 보여주었습니다.

Previous researchers4–6,18 have shown the impor- tance of intrinsic factors (e.g. the enjoyment of teaching) as motivators for primary care physicians teaching students in out-patient settings.


 

이번 연구에서 우선, 우리는 가르침의 의미에 대해 깊이 파고 들었고, 다른 저자들이 '동기'라고 부르는 것의 더 미묘한 뉘앙스를 이해하였습니다.

It also adds to prior research. To begin, we delved into the meaning of teaching, thereby nuancing the understanding of what other authors call ‘motivations’.

 


'의사의 정체성에 필수적인 교육' 이라는 개념은 우리 데이터 전반에 걸쳐 반복되는 주제였습니다. Starr 등은 커뮤니티 기반의 의사들 사이에서 선생님의 정체성에 대한 개념을 탐구하면서 많은 공통된 요소들을 강조했다. 우리의 연구는 병원 환경에서 의사를 연구함으로써 이러한 결과에 기반하고 있습니다.

The notion of teaching as integral to the physician’s identity was a recurrent theme across our data. Starr et al.2 explored the notion of teacher identity among community-based physicians, highlighting a number of common elements:

  • 내재적 만족 intrinsic satisfaction;

  • 가르침에 관한 지식과 기술 knowledge and skills about teaching;

  • 가르치는 책임감 feeling a sense of responsibility to teach, and

  • 의사가 된다는 것은 교사라는 것을 의미한다는 신념 the belief that being a physician means being a teacher.

Our study builds on these findings by studying physicians in hospital settings.


마지막으로, 우리의 연구는 재정적 보상이나 승진 및 승진을 포함하는 외적 요인이 가르침을 위한 '보상'이나 동기 유발 요인으로 인식되지 않는다는 사실을 더욱 강조했습니다.

Lastly, our study further highlighted the find- ing that extrinsic factors, including financial compensation or advancement and promotion, were not perceived as ‘rewards’ or motivators for teach- ing.

 

외래 환자 환경에서 학생들을 대상으로 한 이전의 연구에서 의사의 다음 세대를 'give back'하고 발전시키려는 욕구가 보고되었습니다 .1,5 예를 들어, Kumar et al. 의사는 미래의 의사들에게 의학이 무엇인지를 보여주고 싶고 좋은 의학을 어떻게 실행해야 하는지를 보여주고 싶다고 말했다 .1 우리의 연구에서, 입원 환자의 전문가들은 차세대 교육이 그들의 책임임을 느꼈고, 사회적인 도덕적인 필요성을 다시 한번 제안하면서, 깊은 의무 의식은 물론, 이 개념은 전문직과 사회에 대한 책임을 포함하여 의사의 프로페셔널리즘에 대한 sense과 관련 될 수도있다.

The desire to ‘give back’ and develop the next gen- eration of physicians has been reported in previous studies with students in out-patient settings.1,5 For example, Kumar et al. noted that physicians wanted to show future physicians ‘what medicine is all about’ and demonstrate how ‘good medicine should be practised’.1 In our study, in-patient specialists felt that teaching the next generation was their respon- sibility and reflected both a quid pro quo as well as a deep sense of obligation, again suggesting both a social and a moral imperative. This notion may also relate to physicians’ sense of professionalism, including their responsibility to the profession and to society.20


우리의 연구는 학업 환경에서 가르치는 즐거움을 강조합니다. 의사들 사이에서 직업 선택을 탐구하는 이전 연구에서, 주로 연구 및 연구 중심 프로그램에 대한 노출역할 모델 및 멘토와 함께 학술 의학 경력과 관련된 핵심 요소로 밝혀 짐에 따라 놀라운 결과였습니다. 사실, Hatem 등 26)은 'AHC는 종종 교육을 부가적인 역할로 인식하고 있으며', 이는 여전히 무시당하고 있다. 우리의 연구 결과는 참가자들이 가르치는 것에 대한 애정을 추구하기 위해 학업 환경에서 일하기로 선택한 것과는 다른 시각을 제공합니다. 우리의 연구 결과는 또한 대학 병원에서 가르칠 수 있는 기회가 고용recruitment 및 유지retention에 대한 강한 인센티브가 될 수 있음을 시사하며, 이는 의학 교육에서 종종 도전적이라고 언급됩니다 .27-29

 

Our study highlights the joys of teaching in an aca- demic environment. This was a surprising finding as previous studies exploring career choice among physicians21–23 have primarily identified exposure to research (and research-oriented programmes), together with role models and mentors, as key factors associated with a career in academic medicine. Few have emphasised teaching as a determining var- iable in career choice.24,25 In fact, Hatem et al.26 have said that ‘academic health centres have often perceived teaching as an add-on role’ that remains neglected. Our findings offer a different perspective as our participants chose to work in an academic environment in order to pursue their love of teach- ing. Our findings also suggest that opportunities to teach in a university hospital can represent a strong incentive for recruitment and retention, issues that are often cited as challenging in medical educa- tion.27–29



의학교육정책에 함의

This study holds a number of implications for medi- cal education policy and development,


채용 및 유지

Recruitment and retention


몇몇 연구자들은 임상 교사를 채용하고 유지하는 것과 관련된 어려움과 academic medicine에서 인력의 활기vibrant를 유지할 필요성에 대해 설명했다 .28-31 우리의 연구에 따르면 academic 환경에서의 교육은 기쁨과 성취 감을 가져올 수 있으며, 의사의 모집과 유지를 향상시킵니다. 또한 좋은 교사는 훌륭한 교사를 영감을주는 것처럼 보이기 때문에 학생들과 레지던트을 가르치는 것이 모집의 한 형태가 될 수 있다고 제안합니다. 실제로, 현재의 학생들은 자신의 선생들에게 받은 것을 미래에 '갚고repay' 싶어한다. 결과적으로, 학생들에게 이른 시기에 가르치기(교육 경험)를 격려하는 것 그 자체가 채용 전략이 될 수 있습니다.

Several authors have described the challenges associ- ated with recruiting and retaining clinical teachers, as well as the need to maintain a vibrant workforce in academic medicine.28–31 Our study shows that teaching in an academic environment can bring a sense of joy and fulfilment to physicians and help to enhance recruitment and retention. It also suggests that teaching students and residents may represent a form of recruitment as good teachers seem to inspire good teachers. In fact, it is possible that cur- rent students may wish to ‘repay’ their teachers in the future; as a result, encouraging students to start teaching early in their careers may, in itself, serve as a recruitment strategy.


교사와 교육 인정 및 보상

Recognising and rewarding teachers and teaching


연구 결과는 또한 우리가 선생님을 인정하고 가르치려는 본래의 욕구를 키워야하며 가르침의 기쁨을 더 잘 드러내야한다고 제안합니다. 탁월한 교육을 경축하는 것은 교육 관행의 긍정적 인 특성을 인식하는 강력한 방법이 될 수 있습니다. 학생과의 관계, 'see the light bulb go on'의 기회와, 개인적인 노력의 결과를 목격 할 수 있는 기회와 같은 내재적 보상intrinsic rewards을 인정하는 것도 가치가있을 수 있습니다 .32 의사들에게 교육에 대한 의미를 부여해주는 요인을 이해하는 것은 동료 교수들이 이 중요한 활동에 참여하도록 유도하는 데 도움이 될 수 있습니다.

Study findings also suggest that we should acknowl- edge our teachers, nurture their inherent desire to teach, and make the joy of teaching more visible. Celebrating teaching excellence can be a powerful way to recognise the positive attributes of educa- tional practices. Recognition of the intrinsic rewards, such as the relationships formed with stu- dents, and opportunities to ‘see the light bulb go on’ and to witness the results of personal efforts, can also be worthwhile.32 In multiple ways, under- standing the factors that give meaning to teaching for clinicians can help us to encourage colleagues to engage – and remain engaged – in this critically important activity.


증거 기반의 FD 촉진

Promoting evidence-informed faculty development


교수진 개발은 전통적으로 효과적인 교사가되기 위해 필요한 지식, 기술 및 행동에 중점을 두었습니다 .33 우리의 연구 결과에 따르면  FD는 내재적 동기부여intrinsic motivation와 교수의 의미meaning of teaching에 초점을 맞추어야한다고 생각합니다. 실제로 기술 기반의 FD에서 벗어나서, 이제는 교사의 동기와 가치를 통합하고, (임상가를 위한) 교육의 본질을 토대로 작업 할 때가 될 것입니다. 다양한 방법으로, 우리의 연구 결과는 의학 교수 인력의 효과성을 높이기 위해 FDP의 설계에 활용 될 수있다 .18 Stone et al.34는 교수 개발에서 지금까지 무시되어 온 Teacher identity(+교사의 정서적 구성 요소)에 초점을 둘 것을 제안했으며, 우리의 연구 결과는이 권고를 지지하고 있습니다.

Faculty development has traditionally focused on the knowledge, skills and behaviours required to be an effective teacher.33 Based on our study’s findings, we believe that faculty development should also focus on intrinsic motivators and the meaning of teaching. In fact, it may be time to move away from a primary focus on skill-based faculty development and work to incorporate teachers’ motivations and values, building on the essence of teaching for clini- cians. In multiple ways, our findings may be utilised in the design of faculty development programmes to enhance the effectiveness of the medical teaching workforce.18 Stone et al.34 have suggested that we focus on teacher identity (and the affective compo- nent of teaching) in faculty development, an area that has been neglected to date. Our findings sup- port and build on this recommendation.





 2015 Aug;49(8):773-82. doi: 10.1111/medu.12782.

Why physicians teachgiving back by paying it forward.

Author information

  • 1Centre for Medical Education, Faculty of Medicine, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada.
  • 2Centre for Medical Education, Faculty of Medicine, and Division of Oral Health and Society, Faculty of Dentistry, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada.

Abstract

CONTEXT:

Despite the pace and intensity of the in-patient clinical setting, physicians carve out time for teaching medical students and residents.

OBJECTIVES:

The goal of this study was to explore what it means for physicians to teach students and residents in the in-patient setting.

METHODS:

We conducted semi-structured interviews with 15 practising physicians from the departments of internal medicine, surgery and paediatrics in three university teaching hospitals at McGill University, using an interpretive phenomenological methodology.

RESULTS:

Five themes elucidated the meaning of teaching for physicians in the in-patient setting: (i) teaching was perceived as an integral part of their identity; (ii) teaching allowed them to repay former teachers for their own training; (iii) teaching gave them an opportunity to contribute to the development of the next generation of physicians; (iv) teaching enabled them to learn, and (v) teaching was experienced as personally energising and gratifying. Participants were morally and socially motivated to give time and effort through teaching (e.g. to pay forward their own privilege and thereby help to develop the next generation); teaching also gave them a sense of personal fulfilment (e.g. by allowing them to mould young minds and leave a legacy).

CONCLUSIONS:

This study holds a number of implications for medical education with relevance to the recruitment and retention of clinical teachers, recognition of clinical teaching, and evidence-informed faculty development. The findings also suggest that teaching in an academic setting can bring joy and fulfilment to practising physicians.

PMID:
 
26152489
 
DOI:
 
10.1111/medu.12782
[PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]


CBME로 전환과정에서의 교수개발(Med Teach, 2010)

The importance of faculty development in the transition to competency-based medical education

DEEPAK DATH1 & WILLIAM IOBST2, FOR THE INTERNATIONAL CBME COLLABORATORS

1McMaster University, Canada, and Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada, 2American Board of Internal Medicine, USA




도입

Introduction


임상 평판, 연구 기록 또는 관리 기술에 근거하여 의과 대학에 recruit된 교수들은 그들이 배운 것과 거의 같은 방식으로 학부 및 대학원생을 가르칩니다. 이 전통적인 접근 방법은 CBME (competency-based medical education)의 출현으로 인해 의사의 실제 치료를위한 새로운 모델을 제공합니다.

Faculty recruited to medical schools on the basis of their clinical reputation, research record, or administrative skills teach undergraduate and graduate trainees in much the same way as they were taught. This traditional approach is challenged by the advent of competency-based medical education which (CBME), offers a new model for preparing physicians for practice.


아마도 CBME의 새로운 구현은 교사와 평가자가 콘텐츠 및 시간 기반 시스템content- and time-based systems에 의해 요구되는 것과 다른 교육 이론 및 실천을 유지할 것을 요구합니다.
Arguably, the implementation of CBME new under- requires teachers and evaluators to gain a standing of the theory and practice of education, one that is different from that demanded of them by content- and time-based systems.



FD란?

What is faculty development?


Sheets and Schwenk (1990)은 교수 개발을 'deparment 또는 residency 프로그램에서 교수 구성원의 수행에 필수적인 것으로 간주되는 영역에서 개인의 지식과 기술을 향상시키기위한 계획된 활동으로 정의합니다 (예 : 교수법, 관리 기술, 연구 기술, 임상 기술). "최근에는 지식과 기술과 함께 태도를 강조하고 개별 학습자에서 전체 교육 시스템으로의 도달 범위를 넓히고 학부수업부터 펠로우십까지 전체 스펙트럼을 포괄하는 교수 개발에 대한 광범위한 정의가 제안되었습니다. 교수 개발에 대한 폭 넓은 이해는 특히 CBME와 관련이 있습니다.
Sheets and Schwenk (1990) define faculty development as ‘‘any planned activity to improve an individual’s knowledge and skills in areas considered essential to the performance of a faculty member in a department or a residency programme (e.g., teaching skills, administrative skills, research skills, clinical skills).’’ More recently, broader definitions of faculty development have been proposed that emphasize attitudes along with knowledge and skills, extend its reach from the individual learner to the entire educational system, and encompass the whole spectrum of teaching from under- graduate classes to the end of the last fellowship program and into teaching in practice. This broad understanding of faculty development is particularly pertinent to CBME.



CBME의 교수 개발을위한 이론적 근거
A rationale for faculty development in CBME


교수 개발의 어려움은 크며, 가장 중대하고 즉각적인 것은 front-line 교사들의 수준에서의 도입입니다 (Sectish 외 2004).

The challenges of faculty development are great, and the greatest and most immediate of these is implementation at the level of front-line medical teachers (Sectish et al. 2004).

 

패러다임: Medical teacher는 먼저 역량에 기반한 새로운 의학 교육 패러다임을 이해해야합니다. 그들은 또한 임상 실습이 의료 콘텐츠 영역 밖의 역량을 포함하고 있음을 인식하고 이러한 다른 실무 영역에서 역량을 평가하고 가르치는 전략을 개발해야합니다.

  • 이러한 인식을 갖는 것은 임상의에게 더 쉬울 수 있는데, 임상의는 그들이 일하는 곳에서 가르치고, 그들의 태도와 신념으로 그들의 가르침을 imbue하며, 학습자에게 임상 기술을 직접 보여주기 때문이다.

  • 그러나 학부 교육을 제공하는 기초 과학자들은 그들의 자료가 환자 치료와 어떤 관련이 있는지 보여주기 위해 추가 조치를 취해야 할 수도 있습니다 (Albanese 외 2008; Harris 외. 2010).

Medical teachers will first need to understand a new medical education paradigm based on competencies. They will also need to recognize that clinical practice includes competencies outside the domain of medical content and to develop strategies for teaching and assessing competence in these other domains of practice. This recognition may come easier to clinicians who teach where they work, imbue their teaching with their attitudes and beliefs, and demonstrate their clinical skills to learners; however, basic scientists who deliver undergraduate education may need to take extra steps to show how their material relates to patient care (Albanese et al. 2008; Harris et al. 2010).



교수법: CBME 시스템에서 일하는 Medical teacher는 또한 새로운 교수법을 개발해야합니다. 교수진 개발 이니셔티브는 이러한 새로운 전략을 토의하고, 명확히하고, 발전시키고, 최상의 실천과 이론에 가르침을 연계시키는 포럼을 제공 할 수 있습니다 (Steinert & Mann 2006). .
Medical teachers working in a CBME system will also need to develop new teaching techniques. Faculty development initiatives can provide a forum to discuss, clarify, and develop these new strategies and to link teaching to best practice and theory (Steinert & Mann 2006).

 

평가: 마지막으로, 교사는 global한, 로테이션 종료 후의 인상보다는 반복 관찰에 근거한 지속적이고 기준에 근거한 형성 평가를 제공하는 것에 익숙해 져야합니다

Finally, teachers will need to become accustomed to providing continual, criterion-referenced, formative assessment based on repeated observation rather than global, end-of-rotation impressions.


CBME 시스템의 교수진 개발
Faculty development in CBME systems


교수진 개발은 CBME를 세 가지 수준에서 필수적입니다.

Faculty development is essential to the adoption of CBME on three levels.

 

시스템 수준에서 CBME의 원칙에 대한 이해와 확신은 새로운 credential 및 accreditation standards과 같은 필요한 변경 사항을 도출합니다. 인식을 촉진시키기 위해 새로운 개념과 기술을 적극적으로 보급 할 필요가 있습니다. CBME의 교리에 대한 비판적인 이해는 임상 배치의 대학원 수준이든 학급 수준의 학부 수준이든간에 (Scheele 외. 2008),이 새로운 패러다임에서 가르치기 위해 준비하는 개별 교사 모두에게 필요합니다. .
On a systems level, understanding of and confidence in the principles of CBME will pave the way to necessary changes, such as new credentialing and accredita- tion standards. To foster awareness, active dissemination of new concepts and techniques will be needed across institu- tions. A critical understanding of the tenets of CBME is also needed by the individual teacher preparing to teach in this new paradigm, whether at the postgraduate level in clinical placements or at the undergraduate level in the ‘‘classroom’’ (Scheele et al. 2008).


시스템 차원의 참여의 한 예는 1996 년 캐나다의 CanMEDS 프레임 워크의 도입이었다. 처음에는 대학원 교육에 중점을 두 었으며, 4 가지 구현 영역 중 하나 인 교수 개발을 포함했다 (Frank & Danoff 2007). 교수진 중심의 이니셔티브는 범위와 이해면에서 광범위했으며 워크샵 프레젠테이션 (on-demand)과 같은 활동이 포함되었습니다. 지난 2 년 동안보다 공식적인 '훈련 강사'워크샵 시리즈가 제공되었습니다. 워크샵은 캐나다 전역의 의과 대학에서 다양한 CanMEDS 역할 (의료 전문가 제외)을 위한 지역의 '챔피언'을 교육하고 홍보하는 역할을합니다. 워크샵 형식에는 지역 챔피언이 역할을 구현하는 최선의 방법을 이해하고 자체 기관에서 구현을위한 자원으로 행동 할 수 있도록 돕기위한 교육 디자인 연습이 포함됩니다 (Sherbino 외. 2007).

One example of system-level engagement was the intro- duction of the CanMEDS Framework in Canada in 1996. Initially focused on postgraduate education, it included faculty development as one of four domains of implementation (Frank & Danoff 2007). Faculty-oriented initiatives were extensive in their scope and uptake, and included activities such as and workshops presentations-on-demand. In the last two years a more formal ‘‘train-the-trainer’’ workshop series has been offered. Workshops serve to educate and promote local ‘‘champions’’ for the various CanMEDS Roles (other than Medical Expert) at each of the medical schools across Canada. The workshop format includes practice in educational design to help the local champions understand how best to implement the Roles and to act as a resource for their implementation at their own institutions (Sherbino et al. 2007).



개별 기관 수준에서, 의학 학습자의 교육에서 CanMEDS 역할의 일관된 구현에 대한 당면 과제가 계속되고 있습니다. 변화에 대한 저항을 해결하려면 의대 수준의 행동이 요구된다. CBME의 가치에 대한 확신을 갖기 위해서, late adopter들과 개선 결과의 증거를 요구하는 사람들에게는 개인별 관심과 접근이 필요할 수도 있습니다. 또는 새로운 시스템을 채택하는 데 모든 clinician이 도움이 되는 것은 아니라는 것을 이해하는 것이 중요 할 수 있습니다. 예를 들어 행정이나 연구에 포함되지 않은 원래의 비 임상 적 초점을 가진 사람들은 교육과 평가의 더 복잡한 방법을 이해하고 흡수하고 채택하기에 약간의 시간이 필요할 수있다. (Inui et al. 1998). 다수의 비 임상 역할을 가진 임상의는 좋은 선생이 되는 것에 대한 기대자체가 없기도 하다. 확실히 기관들은 전반적인 계획에서 이를 고려할 필요가 있으며 교수진 개발이 모든 임상의를 CBME 시스템에서 동일한 수준의 교수법으로 이끌 수 있다는 기대가 완화되어야 할 수도 있습니다.
At the level of individual institutions, there continue to bechallenges to the uniformimplementation of CanMEDS roles inthe teaching of medical learners. Some of the resistance to change identified by Frank & Danoff (2007) seems to require action at the level of the medical school. Late adopters and those who require evidence of improved outcomes, forareinstance, may need individual attention before they convinced that CBME is worthwhile. Alternatively, it may be important to understand that not all clinical teachers will excelat adopting a new system. Those whose original non-clinical focus included administration or research, for example, mayhave little time to understand, absorb, and adopt a more complex method of teaching and assessment (Inui et al. 1998).The clinician with multiple non-clinical roles may not even aspire to be a good teacher. Certainly, institutions need to take this into account in their overall plans, and the expectation that faculty development can bring all clinicians to the same level of proficiency in teaching in a CBME system may need to be tempered.


CBME 교수진 개발 과제 해결
Overcoming challenges to CBME faculty development


CBME 패러다임으로 전환을 위한 FD과정은 느릴 수도 있습니다. 예를 들어 왕립 대학은 CanMEDS 도입 초기에 교수 개발 과정을 시작했지만 많은 일선 의사들도 CBME에 대한 깊이있는 이해와 학습자를 잘 가르치고 평가할 수있는 능력이 부족합니다 (Frank et al 2003; Chou 외. 2008).

  • FD에 대한 인센티브는 CBME 시스템의 채택을 촉진하는 데 도움이 될 수 있습니다.

  • 교육 일, 혁신 또는 장학금에 대한 recognition은 교사가 교수진 개발 및지도에 참여하도록 장려하는 한 가지 방법입니다.

  • 교수진 개발 이니셔티브에 쉽게 접근 할 수 있도록함으로써 참여를 용이하게 할 것입니다.

  • 얼리 어답터는 다른 사람들에게 새로운 가르침을 운영하는 방법을 보여줄 수 있습니다.

  • 새로운 교육 제도를 도입 한 지도자leader들은 CBME 참여를 용이하게하기 위해 local factor을 변경할 수있다 (Mennin & Krackov 1998).

Faculty development to help teachers make the transition to a CBME paradigm will likely be slow. For example, although the Royal College began the process of faculty development early in the introduction of CanMEDS, many front-line medical teachers still lack a depth of understanding of CBME and the capacity to teach and evaluate learners well (Frank et al. 2003; Chou et al. 2008). Incentives for faculty development might help to promote the adoption of a CBME system. Recognition of educational work, innovation, or scholarship is one way to encourage teachers to participate in faculty development and teaching. Ensuring that faculty development initiatives are easily accessible will facilitate participation. Early adopters can be encouraged to show others how to operationalize new ways of teaching. Leaders who embrace a new system of education can change local factors to facilitate participation in CBME (Mennin & Krackov 1998).

 

 

임상 교사들은 몇 가지 핵심 역량을 실천에 옮겨서 이미 훌륭한 의술을 실천하고 있습니다. 일상 업무에서 이러한 역량을 identify하는 방법을 제시하면 새롭고 복잡한 교육 시스템을 채택하면서 최소한의 임상 적 혼란으로 CBME 시스템에서 교육하고 평가할 수 있습니다. 마지막으로, CBME에서 direct observation과, 즉각적 피드백과 평가는 교사가 학습자의 진도를 추적하는 데 도움이됩니다. 사실상 교사는 교사들에게 교사로서의 능력을 향상시키고 (Zimmerman 2006) 그들의 업무에 대한 즉각적인 피드백을 제공 할 것이며 CBME를 실천하도록 격려 할 것이다.
Clinical teachers already practise good medicine by incorporating several core compe- tencies into their practices. Showing them how to identify these competencies in their daily work will allow them to teach and evaluate in a CBME system with a minimum of clinical disruption as they adopt a new and more complex system of education. Finally, direct observation in CBME and the immediacy of feedback and assessment will help teachers to track the progress of their learners. This, in effect, will give teachers immediate feedback on their work, possibly improv- ing their competence as teachers (Zimmerman 2006) and encouraging them to practise CBME.



CBME를 가능하게하는 교수진 개발
Faculty development to enable CBME


다양한 수준의 CBME는 이전의 time- and process- 기반의 의학 교육 시스템을 전 세계적으로 점차 대체 해 왔습니다. CBME는 훌륭한 의사를 만드는 역량을 신중하게 정의해야하는 복잡한 시스템입니다. 그것은 일선의 의과 대학 선생님들에게 의료 전문 분야를 넘어선 실천 영역을 이해하고, 받아들이고, 가르치고, 평가할 것을 요구합니다. 교사 자신을 받아들이고 지지하지 않으면 CBME는 생존하지 못할 것입니다. 적절한 교수 개발 활동은 역량에 대한 이해를 높이고 의학 교육자가 직장에서 이러한 역량을 가르치고 평가할 수 있도록 지원합니다.
CBME, to varying degrees, has been slowly replacing older time- and process-based systems of medical education around the world. It is a complex system that requires careful definition of the competencies that make a good doctor. It requires front-line medical teachers to understand, accept, teach, and evaluate domains of practice beyond medical expertise. Without the acceptance and support of teachers themselves, CBME will not survive. Appropriate faculty development activities will ensure a greater understanding of competencies and support medical educators as they teach and assess these competencies in the workplace.



Harris P, Snell L, Talbot M, Harden RM; the International CBME Collaborators. 2010. Competency-based medical education: Implications for undergraduate programs. Med Teach 32(8):646–650.


Steinert Y, Mann KV. 2006. Faculty development: Principles and practices. J Vet Med Educ 33(3):317–324.





 2010;32(8):683-6. doi: 10.3109/0142159X.2010.500710.

The importance of faculty development in the transition to competency-based medical education.

Author information

  • 1McMaster University, Canada. dathd@mcmaster.ca

Abstract

Medical teachers trained in conventional educational systems need faculty development to prepare them to function effectively in a competency-based medical education (CBME) system. Faculty development can provide knowledge about CBME, training in new teaching techniques in different domains of medical practice, and new strategies for providing the authentic and regular assessment that is an essential aspect of CBME. A systems-wide approach as well as efforts to provide training in CBME to individual teachers in both the undergraduate and postgraduate systems will be important. The wide implementation of CBME will be challenging and slow, and will meet with resistance, but various strategies can be used address these challenges. Faculty development is fundamental to the effectiveness of those strategies.

PMID:
 
20662581
 
DOI:
 
10.3109/0142159X.2010.500710
[PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]


TTT(TOT)프로그램의 가장 효과적인 방법: A Systematic Review (J Contin Educ Health Prof. 2012)

The Most Effective Way of Delivering a Train-the-Trainers Program: A Systematic Review

JENNIFER PEARCE, BSC; MALA K. MANN, BECCERTLIS, MIINFSC, MCLIP; CARYL JONES, BSC, MSC;

SUSANNE VAN BUSCHBACH, BSC, MSC; MIRANDA OLFF, BSC, MSC, PHD; JONATHAN I. BISSON, BM, FRCPSYCH,

DIP CLIN PSYCHOTHERAPY DM





Introduction


보건 및 사회 복지 전문가에게 정보를 보급하는 데 있어 passive, didactic 교육 전략보다 효과적이고 신속한 / reminder 시스템의 형태를 포함하는 multifaceted, interactive  개입이있을 수 있다는 증거가있는 것으로 보인다 .1-6 그러나, 이러한 증거가 증가하고 있음에도 불구하고, 방법론 및 보고 결함으로 인해 그러한 정보를 가장 효과적으로 전파하는 방법에 대한 기존 문헌에서 확고한 결론을 도출 할 수 없으므로 결론을 내리기가 어렵습니다 .2-3

There appears to be some evidence that multifaceted, interactive interventions, possibly with the inclusion of some form of prompt/reminder system are more effective than passive, di- dactic education strategies in disseminating information to health and social care professionals.1–6 However, despite this growing evidence, conclusions are made difficult because it has been suggested that no firm conclusions can be drawn from the existing literature on how best to disseminate such information due to methodological and reporting flaws.2–3


경험적으로 보았을 때 도움이 되는 것으로 보이는 다양한 interactive and multifaceted 기술을 결합 할 수 있기 때문에, TTT (train-of-trainers) 교육 모델이 효과적이고 비용 효율적인 효과적인 방법으로 제안되었습니다 .1-6 Train-the - 트레이너 (Trainer) 란 특정 분야의 개인이 특정 주제에 대한 교육을 받고, 다른 사람들을 훈련, 감독 및 감독하는 방법에 대한 교육을받는 프로그램을 말한다.
A Train- the-Trainers (TTT) educational model was proposed as a po- tentially effective and cost-efficient way of doing this, as it could combine the various interactive and multifaceted techniques that have received some empirical support.1–6 Train-the-Trainer refers to a programor a course where indi- viduals in a specific field receive training in a given subject and instruction on howto train, monitor, and supervise other individuals in the approach.8–9


 

방법

Method


The methods used in this review followed the recommended methodology for conducting systematic reviews.10


자료 출처

Information Sources


The databases Applied Social Sciences Index and Abstracts (ASSIA), Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature (CINAHL), Cochrane Library, Excerpta Med- ica Database (EMBASE), Education Resources Information Center (ERIC), Health Management Information Consor- tium (HMIC), MEDLARS Online (MEDLINE), Medline in Process, System for Information on Grey Literature in Europe (OpenSigle), Psychological Information Database (Psycinfo), Scopus, Social Care Online, Social Services Ab- stracts, Sociological Abstracts, Web of Knowledge, and Pub- lished International Literature on Traumatic Stress (PILOTS) were searched from inception through June 15, 2011.



포함 기준

Inclusion Criteria


Intervention. The intervention had to be based on a TTT model; that is, the participants being trained in the inter- vention must have to go on to train others in the specified topic/guidance following their training. Topics of interest in- cluded any health or social care field (eg, HIV/AIDS, breast- feeding, mental health, counseling). There were no restric- tions on duration, format, or content of the TTT model.


Target Population. The participants inthe TTTprogram must have been qualified health and social care professionals who, after receiving training, were expected to be capable of deliv- ering training to other health care professionals. Specifically, we were interested in the health and social care professionals who attended the TTT programs, including nurses, psychol- ogists, social workers, and the like.


Study Design. Randomized controlled trials (RCTs), well- designed quasi-experimental studies, controlled before-and- after studies (CBAs), and interrupted time series analyses (ITS) were included, subject to the presence of a control group. There also must have been a follow-up outcomes measure administered more than 1 week after the intervention was delivered (eg, participants’ clinical behavior 3 months after the training program).


Outcome. The outcomes must have been related to the effec- tiveness of the training program and include some objective measure of change. Outcomes could relate to the primary re- cipients of the TTT intervention or the secondary recipients (the health and social care professionals who subsequently re- ceived training from the primary recipients). For either group of recipients, outcomes could be at the level of knowledge, clinical behavior, or patient outcomes.11 It was agreed a pri- ori that outcomes should include objective measures relating to participants or patients/clients as either would be likely to represent a valid measure for assessing the effectiveness of a TTT program.


Publication. Published and unpublished studies were eligi- ble for inclusion.


배제 기준

Exclusion Criteria


Study Design. Studies relying on anecdotal evidence derived from individual opinions and studies without control groups were excluded.


Language. Non-English-language studies were excluded due to financial constraints.




자료 추출

Data Extraction


The details extracted from the studies were study design; population characteristics; characteristics of the intervention, including the content, format, setting and duration; a de- scription of the primary outcome measure; description of the training methods used; details on participants’ recruitment; who delivered the training; what course materials were used; what implementation issues there were; and the effective- ness of the intervention.



자료 병합

Data Synthesis


The primary outcome measure was the effectiveness of the training intervention, either through knowledge tests, clini- cal behavior, or patient reports.



편향 위험

Risk of Bias


The risk of bias for all included studies was assessed using the 6 specific domain-based evaluation criteria set out in the Cochrane risk of bias form.10 These were

  • sequence genera- tion,

  • allocation concealment,

  • blinding,

  • incomplete outcome data,

  • selective outcome reporting, and

  • other sources of bias.

Two reviewers independently assessed each study for risk of bias. Any conflicts were discussed with a third reviewer.




Results



Study Selection


Data Synthesis


Study Characteristics


Study Design. Three study designs were employed;

  • 8 ran- domized controlled trials,8,13–20

  • 6 controlled before-and- after studies,21–26 and

  • 4 controlled clinical trials.9,27–29

 

The topic, content, materials, setting, duration, and primary out- come measures of the TTT programs varied greatly, which made direct comparisons problematic (for full details see TABLE 1 and the Supporting Information for this article).


Methods of Training. The training methods em- ployed varied considerably:

  • 7 reported including scenarios,8–9,19,23,26–27,29

  • 4 didactic case studies and presentations,19,22,24,27

  • 2 video presentations,24,29

  • 3 PowerPoint slides discussions,9,19,24–25,29 ,9,23,28 5

  • 9 group components,8–9,13–15,19,22,26–27

  • 7 practical interactive exercises,8,13–14,21,26–28

  • 5 demonstrations and

  • 4 role- plays,19,24,27,29

  • 1 motivational and attitudinal change elements,21

  • 1 individual feedback on strengths and weaknesses,22

  • 1 problem-based learning,16

  • 5 preparation to deliver future training workshops,19–20,23,28–29 and

  • 1 questions-and-general-comments session.24



Effectiveness of Training


Training Versus No Training. All studies evaluated a training group versus a nonintervention (control) group.


Outcome Measures


Clinical Behavior. Eight of the studies used measures ofclinical behavior to assess the effectiveness of the TTT program


Knowledge Tests. Six studies assessed effectiveness through knowledge tests


Patient Outcomes. Four studies measured patient out- comes in order to assess the effectiveness of the TTT program,



Risk of Bias Within Studies


연구 방법론의 등급은 포함 된 모든 연구에 대한 편견의 위험을 제안했습니다. 18 개의 논문 중 2 개는 편견의 위험이 높다고 판단되었다 .22,25 왜냐하면 통제 집단과 중재 집단에 대한 할당이 무작위화된 것이 아니기 때문이다. Byrne 등 22)의 연구에서 두 그룹의 전문직 간에는 상당한 차이가 있었다 (전문 훈련을받은 그룹의 간호사 37 %는 초보 훈련 그룹의 78 %와 비교). 이것은 잠재적으로 TTT 중재의 훈련 및 전달에 영향을 줄 수 있습니다. 1 개의 study15 만 프로토콜을 출판했기 때문에 편향의 위험이 낮은 것으로 판단 된 연구는 없습니다. 이것은 결과가 선택적으로 보고되었는지 여부를 판단 할 수 없다는 것을 의미했습니다. 따라서 우리의 결론은 포함 된 연구의 편견에 의해 제한됩니다.

Ratings of the studies’ methodologies suggested risk of bias for all included studies. Two of the 18 papers were judged as having a high risk of bias22,25 because the allocation to con- trol and intervention groups was not randomized. In Byrne et al’s study,22 there was a significant difference between the 2 groups’ professions (37% nurses in the expert trained group compared with 78%in the novice trained group). This could potentially have affected the training and delivery of the TTT intervention. No studies were judged to have a low risk of bias, primarily because only 1 study15 had published a protocol. This meant that it was not possible to judge whether outcomes had been selectively reported. Our conclusions are, therefore, limited by the bias of included studies.



Discussion


이 리뷰에는 18 개의 논문이 포함되어 있었고, 상당한 이질성으로 비교에 어려움이 있었음에도 불구하고 TTT 프로그램에 대한 지원은 건강 및 social care 전문가에게 지식과 정보를 보급하기위한 효과적인 방법으로 제공되었습니다. 18 개의 연구 중 13 개는 TTT 프로그램이 임상 행동을 개선하는 데 크게 도움이되었으며, 8,15-16,19-20,26은 지식을 22,25,28-29로 증가 시키거나 더 나은 환자 결과를 가져옴을 보여주었습니다. 또 다른 3 개의 연구가 잠재적 효과를 보였고, 9,18,24 1 시험 13-14 효과가 없었고, CD-ROM 교육이 TTT 교육보다 효과적이라는 것을 발견했다 .17) 논문 및 체계적인 검토 저자 논문에 포함 된 다른 정보의 해석은 각 연구의 효과 강도를 결정하는 데 사용되었습니다.

Eighteen papers were included in this review and, despite significant heterogeneity compromising comparison, pro- vided support for TTT programs as an effective way to disseminate knowledge and information to health and so- cial care professionals. Thirteen of the 18 studies showed that TTT programs significantly helped to improve clini- cal behavior,8,15–16,19–20,26 increase knowledge,22,25,28–29 or resulted in better patient outcomes.21,23,27 Another 3 studies showed a possible effect,9,18,24 1 study13–14 no effect, and an- other found that CD-ROM training was more effective than TTT training.17 Data contained within the papers and the systematic review authors’ interpretation of other informa- tion contained within the papers were used to determine the strength of effect of each study.


긍정적 인 연구 중 11 개는 interactive components 를 사용하여 교육을 제공했습니다. 8,15,19,21-23,25-29이 분야의 이전 연구를 지지하며, 이는 대화식 교육 방법이 수동형, Didactic 스타일 교육보다 더 효과적임을 시사한다.1-6 효과에 대한 결정적인 결론을 내릴 수없는 두 건의 연구와 TTT 프로그램이 아무 효과가 없다는 연구가 있었다 .13-14 또한 교육을 제공하기 위해 상호 작용 요소를 사용했다. 이것은 상호작용interactivity만으로는 교육 프로그램을 제공 할 때 긍정적 인 결과를 얻는 데 필수적인 변수가 아님을 나타냅니다.

Eleven of the positive studies used interactive compo- nents to deliver the training.8,15,19,21–23,25–29 This supports previous research in the field, which suggests that interactive training methods can be more effective than passive, didac- tic style training.1–6 Two of the studies where no definitive conclusions of effectiveness could be made9,24 and the study that found the TTT program to have no effect13–14 also used interactive components to deliver the training. This suggests that interactivity alone is not necessarily the key variable in achieving a positive outcome when delivering a training program.


포함 된 연구의 대다수는 3 일이 넘는 기간 동안 9,15-16,18,20-23,25 이상의 기간 동안 훈련을 전달했으나, 지식의 증가 또는 임상 적 행동과 환자 결과의 개선에 도움되는 수준을 보면, 3일 또는 그 이내에 훈련을 실시한 연구도 비슷하게 효과적이었습니다 .8,19,26-28
The majority of the included studies delivered the train- ing over more than a 3-day period,9,15–16,18,20–23,25 but the studies that delivered the training in 3 days or less were simi- larly effective in increasing knowledge or improving clinical behavior and patient outcomes.8,19,26–28


 

TTT 프로그램에 수반되는 학습 자료를 포함시키는 효과는 분명하지 않다. 유인물, 안내서 또는 정보 폴더를 제공하는 모든 연구가 효과적이었습니다 .16,19-20,23,26,28-29 이는 TTT 프로그램을 학습 자료와 결합하면 TTT의 효과가 향상 될 수 있음을 나타냅니다. 이 개념은 Tziraki et al19 및 Martino et al's20 연구에서 발견 된 TTT 프로그램과 메뉴얼을 제공한 그룹이 메뉴얼만 제공하거나 또는 자율학습을 한 그룹보다 효과적이라는 결과를 뒷받침합니다. 그러나 다른 연구들도 이러한 발견을 뒷받침 해주었습니다 .30-31 그러나 TTT 프로그램이 효과가있는 것으로 밝혀진 여러 연구는 동반 학습 자료에 대한 정보를 제공하지 않았다. 또한 추가 학습 자료를 제공하는 TTT 프로그램과 그렇지 않은 TTT 프로그램에 대한 연구는 없으므로 결정적인 결론을 내릴 수 없습니다.

The effect of including accompanying learning materi- als in TTT programs is unclear. All the studies that pro- vided handouts, manuals, or folders of information were effective.16,19–20,23,26,28–29 This suggests that combining the TTT program with learning materials may improve the ef- fect of the TTT program. This notion is also supported by the findings in Tziraki et al19 and Martino et al’s20 studies, which showed that the TTT program and manual group was more ef- fective than a manual only or self-study group. Other studies have supported this finding.30–31 However, a number of the included studies in which the TTT program was found to be effective did not provide information on accompanying learn- ing materials. Additionally, no studies have compared a TTT program with additional learning materials to a TTT program without, allowing no definitive conclusions to be made.


이 검토에는 8 건의 무작위 대조 연구 (RCT)가 포함되었다. RCT 방법론을 사용한 두 연구 13-14,17은 아무 효과가 없거나 대안 교육 방법이 TTT 프로그램보다 효과적이라는 것을 발견했습니다. 이것은 훈련 전문가의 TTT 프로그램에 대한 우월성을 보여주는 5 개의 다른 RCT 8,15-16,19-20에 의해 균형을 이룹니다.

Eight randomized controlled trials (RCTs) were in- cluded in this review. Two studies that used an RCT methodology13–14,17 found no effect or that an alternative training method was more effective than a TTT program. This is balanced by five other RCTs,8,15–16,19–20 which showed superiority for a TTT program in training professionals.


 

이 연구에서 포함 된 대부분의 연구에서 TTT 프로그램이 효과적이라는 것을 알았지 만 CD-ROM 교육 방법으로 TTT 개입을 비교 한 1 개의 연구에서 후자가 참가자의 지식을 향상시키는 데 더 효과적이라는 사실이 밝혀졌습니다. Martino와 동료들의 study20은 또한 expert-led training group 이 TTT 훈련 그룹만큼 효과적이라는 것을 발견했다 .32-33 컴퓨터 보조 훈련의 지원은 다른 연구에서도 발견되었다. 이 연구는 TTT 프로그램 접근법이 건강 및 사회 전문가를 효과적으로 훈련시키는 데 사용할 수있는 유일한 훈련 방법이 아니라는 것을 제시합니다. 어떤 방법을 언제 사용해야하는지 명확히하기 위해서는 더 많은 연구가 필요합니다.

Although the majority of the included studies in this re- view found that a TTT program was effective, 1 study com- paring a TTT intervention with a CD-ROM training method found that the latter was more effective in improving partic- ipants’ knowledge.17 Support for the use of computer-aided training has been found in other studies.32–33 Martino and colleagues’ study20 also found that an expert-led training group was as effective as the TTT training group. These studies suggest that a TTT program approach is not the only training method that can be used to effectively train health and social professionals. Further research is needed to clarify which methods should be employed and when.

 

 

이 검토는 TTT 프로그램의 효과에 대한 체계적인 첫 번째 검토이므로이 분야의 지식 기반에 대한 실질적인 기여를 보여준다. 우리는 이 분야에서 연구의 양과 질을 결정하기 위해이 리뷰를 시작하기 전에 Cochrane 방법 10을 사용하여 범위 지정 검색을 수행했습니다. 이것은 우리 리뷰의 목적과 디자인을 구체화하고 알리는 데 도움이되었습니다.

This review is the first systematic review of the effective- ness of TTT programs and therefore represents a substantial contribution to the knowledge base in this area. We con- ducted a scoping search using the Cochrane method10 before commencing this review to determine the quantity and qual- ity of research in this field. This helped to refine and inform the aims and design of our review.



이 리뷰와 이전 문헌의 증거 1-6은 서로 다른 임상 영역에서 일하는 다양한 문화권의 건강 및 사회 복지 전문가에게 가이드 라인 및 커리큘럼을 보급하고 구현하기 위해 interactive, multifaceted TTT 프로그램의 사용을 지지합니다. 이전 문헌은 전문가를 양성하기 위해 "혼합 학습"접근법을 사용함으로써 얻을 수있는 이점을 강조했다 .4-44 혼합 학습 접근법은 "서로를 보완하고 학습과 응용을 촉진하도록 설계된 다중 전달 매체를 결합하여" "37 상호작용적interactive 구성 요소와 학습 자료를 포함한 기술의 조합을 혼합하여 보건 및 사회 복지 전문가를위한 가장 효과적인 교육 과정을 만들고, 전통적이고 교훈적인 스타일의 교육은 blended approach의 일부로만 사용되어야 한다고 결론 내릴 수 있습니다. 그러나 가장 효과적인 TTT 프로그램을 개발하기 위해 사용해야하는 기술의 정확한 균형과 혼합을 식별하는 것은 불가능합니다.
The evidence from this review and previous literature1–6 provides support for the use of interactive, multifaceted TTT programs to disseminate and implement guidelines and cur- ricula to health and social care professionals from diverse cultures working in different clinical areas. Previous litera- ture has highlighted the benefits of using a “blended learning” approach to train professionals.34–36 A blended learning ap- proach is described as combining “multiple delivery media that are designed to complement each other and promote learning and application-learned behaviour.”37 It can be con- cluded that a combination of techniques, including interac- tive components and learning materials, should be blended to create the most effective training course for health and social care professionals and that traditional, didactic-style training should only be used as part of a blended learning approach. It is not possible, however, to identify the exact balance and blend of techniques that should be used in order to develop the most effective TTT program.



이 review8-9,15의 세 가지 연구는 TTT 모델의 잠재적 인 장기적 문제를 확인했다. 교육을 받은 후 높은 직원 교체율과 직원 보유로 인해 교육 프로그램을 지속적으로 구현하기가 어려웠다는 사실을 발견했습니다. TTT 프로그램을 개발할 때 장기적인 지속 가능성과 직원 헌신을 고려할 필요가 있습니다.

Three studies in this review8–9,15 identified a potential long-term problem with the TTT model. They found that it was often difficult to ensure the continuing implementation of the training programs due to high staff turnover and retention of staff after they had been trained. Long-term sustainability and staff commitment need to be considered when developing TTT programs.

 

프로그램 개발자는 구체적인 목표 청취 및 설정에 맞는 접근 방식을 최적화하기 위해 교육 프로그램을 개발할 때 전달 방법, 프로그램 내용 및 직원 충원 및 유지 문제를 신중하게 고려해야합니다. CD-ROM 교육 방법이 TTT 프로그램보다 효과적이라는 연구 결과는 임상 행동, 지식 및 환자 결과를 개선하기위한 다른 비용 효과적 인 교육 방법이있을 수 있음을 시사합니다. 프로그램 개발자는 훈련 프로그램을 설계 할 때 롤 플레이 (role-play) 및 그룹 토의 (group discussion)와 같은 대면 훈련 기술을 통합하는 명백한 유틸리티와 함께 ​​이것을 고려해야합니다.

Program developers should give careful consideration to delivery method, program content, and issues of staff com- mitment and retention when developing training programs in order to optimize the approach to fit the specific target audi- ence and setting. The finding that a CD-ROM training method is more effective than a TTT program17 in 1 study suggests that there may be other, perhaps more cost-efficient train- ing methods, to improve clinical behavior, knowledge and patient outcomes. Program developers need to consider this alongside the apparent utility of incorporating face-to-face training techniques, such as role-play and group discussions, when designing training programs.


현재 이용 가능한 증거의 한계에도 불구하고,이 검토는 TTT 프로그램이 건강 및 사회 복지 전문가에게 정보를 효과적으로 유포 할 수있는 가능성이 있음을 보여주었습니다. 다양한 기술과 자료를 결합한combining different techniques and materials 혼합 학습 방법을 사용하면 최상의 결과를 얻을 수 있습니다. 기술의 최상의 "혼합"을 결정하고 참여자 및 환자 / 고객이 직면하는 결과 측정에 미치는 영향에 대한 추가 연구가 필요합니다. TTT 모델에 사용 된 다양한 기술 조합을 검사하는 무작위 통제 시험은 가장 효과적인 효과적인 혼합을보다 잘 판단하는 데 도움이됩니다. 또한 미래 작업은 상호 작용을보다 자세히 고려해야합니다 .1,2,4

Despite the limitations of the currently available evidence, this review has shown that TTT programs have the potential to effectively disseminate information to health and social care professionals. It appears that using a blended learning approach, combining different techniques and materials, is likely to achieve the best results. Further research is needed to determine the best “blend” of techniques and howthey impact on participant and patient/client facing outcome measures. A randomized controlled trial that examines different combinations of techniques used in TTT models would help to better determine themost effective blend. Additionally, futurework should consider interactivity in more detail.1,2,4 





 2012 Summer;32(3):215-226.

The most effective way of delivering a train-the-trainers program: a systematic review.

Author information

  • 1Department of Psychological Medicine, Cardiff University, Wales.

Abstract

INTRODUCTION:

Previous literature has shown that multifaceted, interactive interventions may be the most effective way to train health and social care professionals. A Train-the-Trainer (TTT) model could incorporate all these components. We conducted a systematicreview to determine the overall effectiveness and optimal delivery of TTT programs.

METHODS:

We searched 15 databases. Reference lists and online resources were also screened. Studies with an objective follow-up measure collected over 1 week after the intervention were included. The intervention had to be based on a TTT model for health and social care professionals.

RESULTS:

Eighteen studies met the inclusion criteria. TTT interventions varied greatly, ranging from didactic presentations to group discussions and role-plays. The heterogeneity of the studies and limited data prevented meta-analysis. A narrative review found that the TTT programs in 13 studies helped to increase knowledge, improve clinical behavior, or produce better patient outcomes. One study showed no effect. Three studies showed possible effect and one study showed that a CD-ROM training method was more effective than a TTT training method in improving participants' knowledge. Ratings of the studies' methodologies suggested moderate risk of bias, which limits interpretation of the results.

DISCUSSION:

There is evidence that using a blended learning approach to deliver TTT programs--combining different techniques such as interactive, multifaceted methods and accompanying learning materials--can help to effectively disseminate and implement guidelines and curricula to health and social care professionals. However, further research is needed to determine the optimum "blend" of techniques.

PMID:
 
23173243
[PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]


TTT(TOT)코스의 단기 효과와 장기 효과(Med Educ, 2008)

A controlled study of the short- and long-term effects of a Train the Trainers course

Sune Rubak,1,2 Lene Mortensen,3 Charlotte Ringsted4 & Bente Malling5






도입

INTRODUCTION


강사 교육 과정 (TTC)은 의사를 clinical teacher로서 준비시키는 데 널리 사용됩니다. 이러한 코스는 커크 패트릭 (Kirkpatrick)이 정의한 것과 비슷한 반응 수준 측면에서 매우 만족스러운 것으로 평가되었습니다.

Training for Trainers  courses (TTCs) are widely used to prepare doctors for their role as clinical teachers. Such courses have been rated as highly satisfactory in terms of levels of reaction similar to those defined by Kirkpatrick.1


몇몇 연구는 대학원 의학 교육에서의 임상 교사들을위한 교수 개발 이니셔티브에 대한 지속적인 필요성을 제안했으며, supervisor 중 75 %는 임상 감독의 훈련에 대한 필요성을 인식한다고 보고되었다 .2,4 교수진 개발 평가 코스는 대개 반응의 수준에 국한되며 5,6,10,11,13이며 학습 수준에 대한 객관적인 평가는 거의 포함되지 않습니다 .14,15
Several studies have suggested a sustained need for faculty development initiatives for clinical teachers in postgraduate medical education,2–12 and as many as 75% of supervisors have been reported to perceive a need for training in clinical supervision.2,4 Evaluation of faculty development courses is usually confined to the level of reaction5,6,10,11,13 and rarely includes objective assessment of the level of learning.14,15


Kirkpatrick은 교수 활동의 효과가 4 단계로 측정 될 수 있다고 제안했다 : 반응; 배우기; 행동 및 조직 1  Postgraduate 임상 상황에서 학습 환경을 측정하는 것은 조직 수준에서 TTC의 영향을 나타내는 척도로 사용될 수 있습니다. 학습 환경climate는 기술하고 측정하기에는 insubstantial 하지만 연수생의 임상 학습 결과에 영향을 미치는 것으로 여겨진다 .21) 교육 환경을 조사 할 때 교육 환경 내 모든 참가자를 모니터링하는 것이 매우 중요하다 - 모든면을 드러내는 것. Genn은 임상학과에서 학습 목표를 성취하는 것과 대조되는 학습 환경의 다른 구성 요소로 구성된 climate index의 사용에 대해 논의했다 .21)그것은 학습 환경의 개선이 학습 목표의 달성에 향상을 가져 왔는지를 평가하는 데 사용되었다 .21

Kirkpatrick suggested that the effects of a teaching activity can be measured at four levels: reaction; learning; behaviour, and organisation.1 Measuring learning climate in the postgraduate clinical context could be used as an indicator of the effect of TTCs at organisational level. Although learning climate is an insubstantial phenomenon to describe and to mea- sure,20–23 it is assumed to influence the clinical learning outcome of trainees.21,24 When investigating educational climate, it is extremely important to monitor all participants within an educational envi- ronment in order to reveal all aspects. Genn dis- cussed the use of a climate index consisting of the different components of the learning climate viewed against the achievement of learning objectives in a clinical department.21 This was used to evaluate whether improvements in the learning climate led to higher achievement of learning objectives.21




METHODS


연구 설계

Study design


We performed an intervention study with pre-post and long-term (6 months) measurements using a matched control group (C-group). The intervention group (I-group) comprised 118 doctors from four departments of internal medicine (rheumatology, endocrinology, pulmonary diseases and gastroenter- ology) and the department of orthopaedic surgery at one university hospital.


인터벤션

The intervention


The intervention comprised a 3-day residential TTC. The course was mandatory for all doctors in the I-group. The participants were randomly distributed into four separate courses conducted within a 3-month period.



필기 시험

Written test


The written test consisted of six essay questions on knowledge of teaching skills developed according to previously published principles.26 The number of questions was restricted to six for feasibility reasons. The aim was to cover the main themes of the course curriculum (Table 2). Based on the course curricu- lum and literature on good clinical teaching skills, a scoring key was developed for each question. The test and scoring keys were pilot-tested using participants of similar courses.



설문지

Questionnaire


The questionnaire regarding teaching behaviour and learning climate was constructed on the basis of literature recommendations and the TTC curricu- lum.2,3,12 A questionnaire was designed in order to evaluate both the themes of the TTC curriculum and specific themes relating to previous standard ques- tionnaires:  

  • structuring a clinical training session ;  

  • feedback ;  

  • supervision ;  

  • career counselling , and  

  • learning climate .


The questionnaire (in Danish) was pilot-tested by doctors attending a similar TTC. The validation process ensured that questions were understandable and covered the themes, that the questions did not overlap one another and that answering categories were sufficient to discriminate between different answers. The questionnaire contained questions with fixed answering categories, using a 9-point Likert scale where the maximum score was 9.



분석, 통계

Analysis and statistics


Two educators, with master degrees in health pro- fessional education, scored all written test results individually. Subsequently, scores were compared and, in cases of disagreements, the scoring reviewed by both educators and a consensus score decided. Test results for the various measurement time-points were scored randomly and the scorers were blinded to participants study groups.


The percentage of the maximum score was calculated for each question and a total mean score for all questions was calculated for each participant. The maximum score for the test was 58 points, corre- sponding to a 100%mean score. Within-group comparisons were performed using paired-sample t-tests. Between-group comparisons were performed at baseline and 6 months using one-way ANOVA. The relationships betweenanindividual s test performance at various measurement points was estimated using Pearson s correlation coefficient. The total score on the written test was considered the primary effect parameter. Effect size (ES) between the I-group and the C-group was estimated by calculating Cohen s D from the mean and standard deviation (SD) of differences between results at baseline and after 6 months. An ES = 0.5 was considered moderate and an ES > 1.0 was considered substantial.



결과

RESULTS


연구 대상 특성

Study sample characteristics


There was no statistically significant difference between the I- and C-groups regarding distribution in seniority and specialty (Table 1).

 

 


지식과 교육 스킬 향상

Gains in knowledge of teaching skills


Subscores on each item are shown in Table 2. Although scores in the I-group appeared higher thanthose in the C-group at baseline, the large variance inthe data lead to no statistical significance at baseline,except for item 6 ( appraisal meeting ). The item  giving feedback  received the lowest scores at all measurement points in both the I- and C-groups. 

 

 


교육행동에 대한 TTC의 영향

Effect of the TTC on teaching behaviour


Table 3 shows frequencies of receiving and giving feedback and supervision at baseline and at 6 months after the TTC. Data were stratified according to seniority (specialist or trainee).




교육 분위기에 대한 TTC의 영향

Effects of the TTC on learning climate


Table 4 shows changes in the learning climates of the clinical departments.

 


Table 5 presents data concerning only trainees  rat- ings of the learning climate.

 

 



DISCUSSION


주 결과

Main findings


At 6 months, the learning climates in the various departments had changed, as indicated by:


1 실제 실수 또는 거의 놓친 임상 상황으로부터의 학습 증가.

2 교육 배경에 대한 의사 간의 개인 지식 교환의 증가;

3 학습자의 학습요구를 충족시켜주는 데 사용되는 자원의 증가.

4 Relevance of teaching sessions이 C 그룹 구성원이 운영하는 동등한 세션과 비교하여 개선되었습니다.

1 an increase in learning from actual mistakes or near-miss clinical situations; 

2 an increase in personal knowledge exchange between the doctors on teaching backgrounds; 

3 an increase in resources used to fulfil trainees  learning needs in daily practice, and

4 improvements in the relevance of teaching sessions in the department compared with equivalent sessions run by C-group members.


This study is one of very few to study the long-term effect of TTCs on changes in teaching behaviour and learning climate.14



연구의 강점과 약점

Strengths and limitations of the study


The main strengths of the study are:


1 the large number of participants; 

2 the use of a matched control group; 

3 the fact that > 98.4% of the doctors in the I-group participated in the TTC, and 

4 the high response rates achieved at all measure- ment points in both study groups.


세부 결과

Detailed findings


우리는 TTC에서 얻은 지식이 6 개월 후에도 남아 있다는 것을 발견했습니다. 이것은 이전에보고되지 않았습니다. 이것은 specialist와  trainees를 포함한 모든 의사가 과정에 참석했기 때문에 설명 될 수 있습니다. 이는 임상 교육 기술에 대한 공통어를 육성함으로써 학습 강화에 기여했을 수 있습니다. 또한, 일상 업무에서 혁신을 구현하기 위한 critical mass을 달성하는 문제를 해결했습니다.

We found that knowledge gained fromthe TTC was retained 6 months later, which has not been reported before.6 This may be explained by the fact that all doctors, including both specialists and trainees, attended the course. This may have contributed to the reinforcement of learning through fostering a com- mon language about clinical teaching skills. Moreover, it resolved the issue of achieving a critical mass for the implementation of innovation in daily practice.29


Specialist와 Trainee의 결과를 비교하면 각 그룹별로 학습 곡선이 다르게 나타나는데, 기준 수준이 현저히 낮더라도 Trainee이 6 개월까지 급격한 개선을 보였고 전문가 (표 3 및 표 4)를 따라 잡습니다. 이러한 결과는 TTC가 교육 역량을 향상시키고 연공 서열에 관계없이 학과에서 교육 행동 및 학습 분위기에 영향을 미친다는 것을 의미합니다.

A comparison of results between specialists and trainees shows different learning curves for each group, where trainees, despite significantly lower baseline levels, showed precipitous improvement to 6 months, catching up with the specialists (Tables 3 and 4). These results imply that the TTC improves teaching competency and influences teaching behaviour and learning climate in a department regardless of seniority.


함의

Implications for future courses and research


이 연구에서 우리는 6 개월 후에도 유지 된 교수 기술에 대한 TTC의 실질적인 효과를 입증했습니다. 또한, 우리는 교습 행동이 30 % 향상되어 예상보다 많은 것으로 나타났습니다. 10,16,18,25
In this study we have demonstrated the substantial effects of a TTC on knowledge of teaching skills retained after 6 months. Furthermore, we found that teaching behaviour improved by 30%, which was more than expected.10,16,18,25


우리는 6 개월에 지속되는 효과는 모든 department의 의사가 참여하여 혁신에 대한 확산에 필요한 임계 질량critical mass 을 형성한 것과 관련이있을 수 있다고 믿습니다 .29
We believe that the sustained effect at 6 months may be related to the fact that all doctors in the department participated, thus representing the critical mass required for the diffusion on innovation.29


CONCLUSIONS


23 Boor K, Scheele F, van der Vleuten CP, Scherpbier AJ, Teunissen PW, Sijtsma K. Psychometric properties of an instrument to measure the clinical learning envi- ronment. Med Educ 2007;41 (1):92–9.


 

 

 

 

 




 2008 Jul;42(7):693-702. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2923.2008.03044.x. Epub 2008 May 23.

controlled study of the short- and long-term effects of a Train the Trainers course.

Author information

  • 1Department of Paediatrics, Skejby Hospital; Department of Paediatrics, Randers Regional Hospital, Aarhus, Denmark. sr@alm.au.dk

Abstract

Objectives This study aimed to establish the longterm effects of a 3-day 'Training for Trainerscourse (TTC) on doctors' knowledge, teaching behaviour and clinical learning climate. Methods The study was designed as an intervention study with pre-, post- and long-term measurements. The intervention group (I-group) included 118 doctors from the departments of internal medicine and orthopaedic surgery at one university hospital. The control group (C-group) consisted of 125 doctors from the corresponding departments at another university hospital. Gains in knowledge about teaching skills were assessed by a written test. Teaching behaviour and learning climate were evaluated by questionnaires. Results In the I-group, 98.4% of doctors, both specialists and trainees, participated in a TTC. Response rates on the written test varied from 90% at baseline to 70% at 6 months after the intervention. Knowledge about teaching skills increased in the I-group by 25% after the TTC and was sustained at 6 months. Questionnaire response rates varied from 98.4% at baseline to 84.8% at 6 months. Post-course, the teaching behaviour of the I-group significantly changed and its learning climate improved compared with the C-group. Scores for use of feedback and supervision in the I-group increased from 4-5 to 6-7 (maximum score = 9). This was significantly higher than in the C-group. Conclusions A 3-day residential TTC has a significant impact in terms of gains of knowledge concerning teaching skills, teaching behaviour and learning climate after 6 months. The positive effects demonstrated in this study were rooted in both the specialists and trainees who attended the course.

PMID:
 
18507769
 
DOI:
 
10.1111/j.1365-2923.2008.03044.x
[PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]


교수개발에서 교수정체성, 교수성장, 교수권한부여로 (Acad Med 2016)

Moving From Faculty Development to Faculty Identity, Growth, and Empowerment





최근 24 시간 동안 세 가지 경험을 통해 교수 개발을 반성하게 되었습니다.

Recently, over a 24-hour period, I had three experiences that caused me to reflect upon faculty development.


첫 번째 경험은 우리 교수 중 한 명이 내 사무실에서 저널에 제출하기를 원했던 논문에 대한 도움을 청하기 위해 찾아온 것입니다.
The first happened when one of our new faculty members came by my office to ask for help with an article he was hoping to submit to a journal.


몇 분 후, 중역의 교수진이 의학 교육 연구 및 원고 검토 과정에 관한 일정 멘토링 세션을 위해 저와 함께했습니다.
A few minutes later, a midcareer faculty member joined me for a scheduled mentoring session about medical education research and the manuscript review process.


마지막으로, 응급 의사를위한 전문적인 회의의 일환으로 강의실에서 슬라이드와 질문을 제출해달라고 상기시키는 이메일을 받았습니다.
Finally, I received an e-mail reminding me to submit my slides and questions for a lecture I was giving as part of a professional conference for practicing emergency physicians.


 

이러한 세 가지 교수진 개발 사례가 있었습니다. 가장 큰 영향력을 가진 것은 새로운 교수진이 자신의 논문을 재조명하는 것을 도왔을 때였으며, 이것은 가장 덜 formal한 활동이면서, 가장 작은 recognition만을 받는 것입니다. 이 패러독스는 제가 현장의 상태를 더 잘 이해하고 academic medicine에서 우리가 이 혼란스러운 주제에 대한 우리의 접근 방식을 어떻게 개선 할 수 있는지 교수 개발에 반영하도록 이끌었습니다.
Here were three examples of faculty development of differing degrees of formality. I suspected that the one with the greatest impact was when I helped the new faculty member refocus his article, even though that was the least formal activity and the one I would get the least recognition for. This paradox led me to reflect upon faculty development to better understand the state of the field and how we in academic medicine might improve our approach to this confusing topic.


문헌을 탐색하면서 직면한 교수 개발의 첫 번째 문제는 교수 개발이라는 용어 그 자체였습니다. 교수가 의미하는 바가 무엇인지, 교수진 개발이 의미하는 바에 대해서는 혼란이 있습니다. Block et al1은 학술 보건 센터 (AHCs)의 임상 활동의 확장에 의해 강요된 교수의 정의에 관한 현재의 딜레마를 기술하고있다. 그들은 의학 학생 교육이 병원에서 보행 환경으로 옮겨 가면서 학생과 거주자의 감독자로서의 임상의를 위한 새로운 역할이 이러한 임상의를 정의하는 방법에 대해 의문을 제기했다. 그들은 교수입니까? 그들은 직원입니까? 어떤 교육과 평가를 받아야합니까? 그들은 어떻게 보상을 받아야합니까? 그들이 교수로 포함된다면, 기존 교수를위한 함축은 무엇입니까? Block et al은 교수가되는 사람들이 학교의 교육 및 / 또는 학술 활동에 참여한다는 기본적 요구 사항을 명시하고 있습니다. 그들은 교수진의 주요 활동을 구성하는 요소가 다양 할 것이라는 점에 주목한다. 이러한 활동에는 리더쉽, 퀄리티 향상 및 교육뿐만 아니라 Boyer가 제안한 광범위한 4 가지 부분의 scholarship 정의 (발견, 통합, 적용 및 교수법discovery, integration, application, and teaching)를 사용하는 학술 활동이 포함될 수 있습니다 .2 

The first problem with faculty development I encountered in my search of the literature was the term faculty development itself. There is confusion about what we mean by faculty and what we mean by faculty development. Block et al1 describe the current dilemma around the definition of faculty that has been precipitated by the expansion of academic health centers’ (AHCs’) clinical activities. They note that as medical student education has moved from the hospital to the ambulatory setting, new roles for clinicians as supervisors of students and residents have raised questions about how to define these clinicians. Are they faculty? Are they staff? What training and evaluation should they receive? How should they be rewarded? If they are included as faculty, what are the implications for existing faculty? Block et al state that the fundamental requirement for persons to be faculty is that they be involved in the educational and/or scholarly activities of the institution. They note that there will be variability in what constitutes the key activities of faculty; these activities may involve leadership, quality improvement, and teaching, as well as scholarly activities using Boyer’s expansive four- part definition of scholarship: discovery, integration, application, and teaching.2


교원으로 누구를 포함시킬 것인가, 교수의 핵심적인 활동이 무엇인가 등을 결정하는 것 만큼이나 교원을 develop하기 위해서 적절한 활동이 무엇인지를 고려하는 것이 중요합니다. Steinert3는 FD을 교수, 연구 및 행정을 비롯한 다양한 역할을 위해 기관 및 교수진을 준비하도록 계획된 계획 프로그램으로 설명했습니다. 불행하게도, 나는 FD가 1 년의 안식에서 1 시간의 교육 및 청구에 관한 교육 세션에 이르기까지 활동을 묘사하는 데 사용되었다는 이야기를 들었습니다. 이는 용어의 의미에 대한 혼동을 보여줍니다.
Deciding whom to include as faculty and what activities are key for faculty is important as one attempts to consider what might be appropriate activities to “develop” faculty. Steinert3 described faculty development as a planned program designed to prepare institutions and faculty members for their various roles, including teaching, research, and administration. Unfortunately, I have heard faculty development being used to describe activities ranging from a one- year sabbatical to a one-hour training session on billing and documentation, which illustrates the confusion about the meaning of the term.


 

이 용어의 또 다른 문제점은 마치 (교수가) 화학 반응에 대한 기질 인 것처럼 교수 구성원에게 다소 수동적 인 역할을 부여한다는 것입니다. 그러나 성인 학습 이론은 동기 부여되고 자기 주도적 인 능동적 학습자의 중요성을 강조한다 .5.4 FD에 대한 수동적이고 표준화 된 접근은 교수진을 자기 자신을 발전시키는 과정에 참여engage시키지 못할 것이다.
Another problem with that term is that it implies a somewhat passive role for the faculty member, as if he or she were the substrate for some kind of chemical reaction. However, adult learning theories emphasize the importance of motivated, self-directed, active learners who learn because of a need to know and to solve problems.4,5 A passive, standardized approach to faculty development would likely fail to engage faculty in the process of their own development.


O'Sullivan과 Irby6은 학습 활동에 참여한 개인과 작업 환경 간의 복잡한 상호 작용을 포착하기 위해 교수진 개발 모델을 제안했습니다. 그들의 모델에서 참가자, 촉진자, 프로그램 및 교육 환경은 모두 필요하며 개발을 촉진하거나 방해 할 수있는 작업장 공동체에 포함됩니다. O'Sullivan과 Irby의 모델은 FD에 대한 linear process 아이디어에서 벗어나서, 개별 교수진이 새로운 기술이나 지식을 습득하는데 있어 보다 역동적이고 상호 작용이 가능한 모델을 지향합니다.
O’Sullivan and Irby6 have proposed a model of faculty development in an attempt to capture the complex interactions between the individuals involved in the learning activities and the work environment. In their model, participants, facilitators, programs, and an educational context are all necessary and are embedded within a workplace community that can facilitate or impede development. The model of O’Sullivan and Irby moves away from the idea of faculty development as a linear process, in which individual faculty acquire a new skill or knowledge, to something more dynamic and interactive.


 

정체성은 Block 등이 교수진의 기본이라고 할 수 있는 교육 및 Scholarship에 기여하는 (현재 AHC에 고용된) 광범위한 개인을 인정합니다. 교수 개발의 중심에 정체성을 배치함으로써 학생들을 위해 Cruess 등이 기술 한 것과 유사한 각 교수 구성원을위한 직업적 정체성의 발달 궤도를 구상하는 것이 가능해진다. FD를 위한 Professional identity formation PIF은 연구, 교육, 행정, ​​임상 진료 또는 이들의 조합으로 교수 활동을 차별화 할 수 있으며, Scholarship은 그 중 하나의 구성 요소가 될 수 있고 정체성은 유동적이어서 다양한 각기 다른 시간에 교수진의 활동을 혼합하고 그 정체성을 강화하기위한 경험을위한 우선 순위를 달리합니다.
Identity acknowledges the broad range of individuals currently employed at AHCs who contribute to the education and scholarship that Block et al defined as fundamental for faculty. By placing identity at the center of faculty development, it also becomes possible to envision a developmental trajectory of professional identity for each faculty member similar to that described by Cruess et al7 for students. Professional identity formation for faculty development would allow the differentiation of faculty activities primarily into research, education, administration, clinical care, or some combination of these, recognizing that scholarship can be a component of any of them and that identity is fluid, allowing for various mixes of activities by faculty at different times and with different priorities for experiences to augment those identities.


성장교수가 지속적으로 학습하고 개선해야 할 본질적인 필요성과, 성장을 nurture and facilitate 할 수있는 작업 환경을 중요하게 봅니다. 교수 개발의 일환으로 성장을 포함 시키면 교수개발의 범위가 성찰, 내러티브 표현, 명상과 같은 범위까지 넓어지며, 그 결과 보다 생산적으로 academic career에 기여할 수 있고, 개인차를 통합 할 수 있게 된다.
Growth recognizes the intrinsic need for faculty to continue to learn and improve, and a work environment that will nurture and facilitate growth. Inclusion of growth as part of faculty development enlarges the scope of activities—such as reflection, narrative expression, and meditation— that can contribute to a healthy and productive academic career and can also incorporate individual differences.


Empowerment(권한부여): 나는 주니어 교수, 소수 민족, 여성 등이 도움이 없이는 성공적으로 navigate하기에 특히 어려웠던 AHC의 위계 구조를 인정하여 이 프레임 워크에 Empowerment를 포함시켰다. Pololi 등 8)은 능력 개발을 중요한 구성 요소로 여기는 동료 멘토링 프로그램을 설명했으며 Acad Med 9-14 호에 설명 된 프로그램 중 몇 가지는 유사하게 교수 개발에서 권한 부여의 중요성을 강조했습니다.

I included empowerment in this frame in recognition of the hierarchical structure of AHCs that is particularly difficult for junior faculty, underrepresented minorities, and women to successfully navigate without assistance. Pololi et al8 described a peer mentoring program that identified empowerment as an important component, and several of the programs described in this issue of Academic Medicine9–14 similarly have emphasized the importance of empowerment in faculty development.

 

 

이러한 프로그램의 대부분은 선배 멘토에 따르는 도제식 관점을 따르는 경향이 있으며, 성장 및 학습에 대한 자극을 제공하기 위해 작업 활동을 사용하여 동기 부여가 되는 community of practice를 만드는 경향이 있습니다. 일부 임상 연구, 품질 향상 및 임상 치료에 중점을 둔 프로그램의 예가 있지만, 이들 프로그램은 주로 의학교육자 개발에 집중되어 있습니다.
Most of those programs tend to follow an apprentice perspective,15 depending upon senior mentors and creating a supportive motivated community of practice using work activities to provide the stimulus for growth and learning. The programs are mostly clustered on developing medical educators, although there are examples of programs focused on clinical research, quality improvement, and clinical care.


Gooding 등은 의학 교육과 관련된 학술 활동에 관심이있는 사람들을 모으기 위해 병원 기반의 교육 아카데미를 창설함으로써 학자 공동체를 발전시키는 또 다른 접근 방식에 대해 설명합니다. 회원들은 교육 프로젝트 추진에 관심이있는 의학 교육 장학금에 대한 헌신에 따라 선정되었습니다. 회원들의 설문 조사에서 저자는 아카데미가 참가자들의 네트워킹 기회를 향상시키고 특히 여성들을 도와 교육자로서의 정체성을 개발할 수 있음을 발견했습니다.
Gooding et al11 describe another approach to the development of a community of scholars through creation of a hospital-based teaching academy to bring together those interested in scholarly activities associated with medical education. Members were chosen based on their commitment to medical education scholarship shown by their interest in pursuing an education project. In a survey of the members, the authors found that the academy enhanced the networking opportunities of participants and helped them—particularly women— develop identities as educators.


임상영역은 senior 교수진이 junior 교수를 가르치면서 FD에도 도움이됩니다. Iyasere 등 14)은 노인 병원이 더 많은 senior 교수진과 함께 어려운 사례를 토론 할 수있는 병원 코칭 프로그램을 설명한다. 이 프로그램은 새로 졸업 한 레지던트의 피드백과 지속적인 임상 적 성장의 중요성을 인식합니다. 참가자들은 이 프로그램이 학습 및 환자 치료 결과 개선에 가치가 있음을 알게되었습니다.
The clinical arena is also amenable to faculty development through mentorship of junior faculty by senior faculty. Iyasere et al14 describe a clinical coaching program for hospitalists in which junior hospitalists can discuss difficult cases with more senior faculty. The program recognizes the importance of feedback and continued clinical growth in the newly graduated resident. Participants found the program to be valuable for learning and for improving patient care outcomes.


이번 호에 기술 된 프로그램과 최근의 교수진 개발 경험을 고려할 때, FD활동에 대한 현재의 접근 방식에는 부족한 점이 있음이 분명해졌습니다. 일부 교수진은 훌륭한 프로그램의 혜택을 받을 수 있는 기회를 갖지만 이들은 예외적입니다. 대부분의 교수들에게는 그러한 기회는, 내가 준비하고 있는 것과 같은, 가끔 열리는 회의와 강의로 제한됩니다.
As I considered the programs described in this issue and my own recent experience with faculty development, it became apparent that there is something lacking in our current approach to this activity. While some faculty have the opportunity to benefit from excellent programs, they are the exception. For most faculty, their development is limited to occasional conferences and lectures, such as the one I was preparing.


 

역량, 개별 평가, 명확한 목표, 프로그램 감독에 책임이 있는 리더를 정의한 학부 의학 교육 및 대학원 의학 교육과는 달리, 우리는 교수진 경력의 다음 단계를 육성foster하기 위한 정의 된 접근법이 없습니다.
Unlike undergraduate medical education and graduate medical education, which have defined competencies, individual assessments, clear goals, and leaders responsible for oversight of the programs, we have no defined approach for fostering the next phase of a faculty member’s career.


우리가 학생과 레지던트들이 가능한 최고가 될 수 있도록 도울 책임이 있는 것처럼, 교수진이 최고가 될 수 있도록 돕는 것도 우리 책임입니다. 성인 학습 이론에 대한 지식을 통해 우리는 개인이 자신의 잠재력을 최대한 발휘할 수 있도록 각 교수 구성원의 요구에 맞는 프로그램을 만들 수 있습니다.
It should be our responsibility to help faculty become the best that they can be, just as we are responsible to help our students and our residents become the best that they can be. With our knowledge about adult learning theory, we could create programs tailored to the needs of each faculty member to help that individual reach his or her full potential.


교수진의 성장과 발전은 평생의 과정임을 인식함으로써 시작할 수 있습니다. 우리는 각 교수진의 성장을 정의하고, 가치를 부여하고, 양성해야하며, 제도 및 인구 건강 요구와의 연계성을 찾고, 개인 목표를 달성하고 결과를 모니터 할 수 있도록 멘토 교육 및 지원과 같은 자원을 할당해야합니다.

We could begin by recognizing that faculty growth and development is a lifelong process. We should

  • define, value, and nurture each faculty member’s growth,

  • find alignment with institutional and population health needs,

  • allocate resources such as mentor training and support to help meet individual goals, and

  • monitor outcomes.

 

공동의 지지와 개인 성장 및 직업적 정체성 개발을 제공하는 프로그램이 우리 기관의 예외가 아니라 표준이되어야합니다. 우리는 FD를 강좌 또는 교육 세션으로 보는 관점에서 벗어나, FD을 위한보다 포괄적인 비전으로 전환해야합니다. 이러한 비전은 학생들의 교육적 필요와 대중의 건강 관리 요구를 예측하고 다룰 수있는 건강하고 유능한 의학 교육자, 연구원, 임상의, 학자 및 행정 인력으로 이어질 수 있습니다. 또한 개인 및 교수로서의 잠재력을 충분히 발휘합니다.

Programs that provide collegial support and individual growth and the development of professional identity, such as those described in this issue, should become the standard and not the exception at our institutions. We need to move away from considering faculty development as a course or a training session and into a more comprehensive vision for faculty development. That vision could lead to a healthier, more capable workforce of medical educators, researchers, clinicians, scholars, and administrators who would be able to anticipate and address the educational needs of their students and the health care needs of the public and, in so doing, also meet their full potential as individuals and faculty.





 

1 Block SM, Sonnino RE, Bellini L. Defining “faculty” in academic medicine: Responding to the challenges of a changing environment. Acad Med. 2015;90:279–282.


3 Steinert Y. Commentary: Faculty development: The road less traveled. Acad Med. 2011;86:409–411.


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Moving From Faculty Development to Faculty Identity, Growth, and Empowerment

Sklar, David P. MD

Academic Medicine:
doi: 10.1097/ACM.0000000000001447
From the Editor


Chapter 2. 교육 개선을 위한 교수개발 [Faculty Development in the Health Professions]

Chapter 2 Faculty Development for Teaching Improvement

Carol S. Hodgson and LuAnn Wilkerson





2.1 Introduction


교육 향상을 위한 FDP는 보건 전문 분야 문헌에서 보고 되는 가장 일반적인 유형이다.

Faculty development to improve teaching is the most common type of faculty development activity reported in the health professions literature.


2.2 역사적 맥락

2.2 Historical Perspective


미국에서의 교수법 개선을위한 중요한 도구로서의 교수 개발의 탄생은 Project in Medical Education로 거슬러간다. 1955 년 버팔로 대학교 (University of Buffalo)에서 재정 지원을 받은 이 합작 투자는 의과대학의 조지 밀러 (George Miller) 박사와 교육대학의 스티븐 아브라함 손 (Stephen Abrahamson) 박사의 공동 지도력하에 수행되었으며, 의과 대학에서의 교육의 설계 및 전달을 담당하는 교육 연구의 사례 (Miller 1980)에 초점을 두었다.

The birth of faculty development as a critical tool for improving teaching in the United States has been tracked to the Project in Medical Education. This collabora- tive venture, funded by the Commonwealth Foundation at the University of Buffalo in 1955 under the collaborative leadership of George Miller, MD, from the School of Medicine, and Stephen Abrahamson, PhD, from the School of Education, was focused on bringing the findings of research in education to bear on the design and delivery of teaching in the medical school (Miller  1980 ). 


1977 년에 출판 된 미국 전역의 의과 대학 교수진 설문 결과의 성적 보고서에 따르면 대부분의 교수진은 교사로서의 역할에 대해 불만을 갖고 있으며 교수법에 관해 더 많이 배울 수있는 기회를 갖고 싶어한다 (Association of American Medical Colleges 1977; Jason and Westberg 1982).

A seminal report of the results of a survey of faculty members from medical schools from across the United States published in 1977 indicated that most faculty members felt ill-prepared for their roles as teachers and welcomed opportunities to learn more about how to teach (Association of American Medical Colleges 1977 ; Jason and Westberg 1982 ).


 

동시에 미국의 고등 교육에서 교사에 대한 학생 평가를 더 많이 사용하게 되면서 대학 및 대학교 교수진의 교육 향상 프로그램이 등장했습니다 (Centra 1976). 마찬가지로, 1970 년대 네덜란드에서는 고등 교육에서 교수법을 개선하기위한 첫 번째 교수 개발 프로그램이 시작되었다 (Metz et al. 1996). 1970 년대 이전에는 특정 교과 분야의 안식년과 professional conference가 교육 개선에 대한 일반적인 접근 방식이었으며, 이는 콘텐츠 전문성이 대학 교사에게 중요한 요구 사항이라는 가정을 반영하는 것이다. 매사추세츠 대학 (University of Massachusetts)의 Clinic to Improve University Teaching에 있는 알렌 (Allen)과 그의 동료들의 업적에 자극을 받아, Bergquist and Phillips (1975)의 교수진 개발 핸드북, Gaff의 Faculty Renewal (1975) 가르치는 기술과 방법이 탄생했다 (Sorcinelli 외. 2006).

At this same time in higher education in the United States, the increasing use of student evaluations of teachers led to the emergence of programs to improve the teaching of college and university faculty members (Centra 1976 ). Similarly, in the Netherlands during the 1970s, the fi rst faculty development programs to improve teaching in higher education began (Metz et al. 1996 ). Prior to the 1970s, sabbati- cals and professional conferences in specific disciplinary fields were the usual approach to the improvement of teaching, refl ecting the assumption that content expertise was the critical requirement for university teachers. Stimulated by the work of Allen and his colleagues at the University of Massachusetts in the Clinic to Improve University Teaching, the Handbook for Faculty Development by Bergquist and Phillips ( 1975 ) and Toward Faculty Renewal by Gaff ( 1975 ), a focus on the improvement of teaching skills and methods was born (Sorcinelli et al. 2006 ).


 고등 교육에서 teaching improvement programs의 초점은 학생들이 배우는 방법에 대한 이해가 수년 동안 진화되어 오면서 함께 바뀌었다 (Wilkersonand Irby 1998).

  • 행동 이론은 개개인의 상담 및 비디오 녹화 된 마이크로 티칭 세션과 같은 교수진 개발 접근법을 사용하여 관찰 가능한 교사 행동 및 개별 교수법 기술에 중점을 두고 개선 프로그래밍을 가르치는 초기 시기를 안내했습니다. 예를 들어, 전형적인 교수진 개발 세션에서는 강의의 목적을 설정하고, 질문하고, 학생의 대답에 응답하는 방법을 다루었습니다.

  • 1980 년대에는 학습 인지 이론에 대한 관심이 커지면서 코스 디자인과 학생들의 인지와 정보 처리를 강조하는 학습 방법의 사용에 중점을 둔 교수법 개선 프로그램을 개발하는 것과 관련이있었습니다. Schön (1987)이 묘사 한 reflect in practice이라든가, 학습자의 identified needs에 맞게 자신의 전문 지식을 번역 할 수있는 교사의 능력에 관한 것(Shulman 1986)이다.

  • 1990 년대에는 사회 구성 주의자들의 학습 이론에 대한 관심이 높아짐에 따라 교수법 개선 활동에는 교수진이 대화식 연습, 동료 코칭 및 형성을 사용하여 서로에게서 배우는 확장 세미나 및 세로 워크샵 사용이 포함되었습니다 서로 배우고 자하는 공통된 관심사와 관심사를 가진 교사들로 구성된 '학습 공동체'에 대한

 

The focus of teaching improvement programs in higher education has changed as the understanding of how students learn has evolved over the years (Wilkersonand Irby  1998 ).

  • Behaviorist theories of learning guided the earliest days of teach-ing improvement programming, creating an emphasis on observable teacher behav-iors and discrete teaching skills, often using faculty development approaches such as individual consultation and video-recorded microteaching sessions. For exam-ple, typical faculty development sessions addressed setting the objectives of a lec-ture, asking questions, and responding to students’ answers.

  • In the 1980s, a growing interest in cognitive theories of learning was associated with the creation of teach-ing improvement programs focused on the design of courses and the use of learn-ing methods that stressed students’ cognition and information processing, including a growing emphasis on the teacher’s ability to translate his or her content expertise in ways to meet the identified needs of learners (Shulman  1986 ) and the ability to ‘reflect in practice,’ described by Schön ( 1987 ).

  • In the 1990s, concurrent with a growing interest in social constructivist theories of learning, teaching improvement activities included the use of extended seminars and longitudinal workshops in which faculty members would learn from and with one another, using interactive exercises, peer coaching, and the formation of ‘learning communities’ composed of teachers with common interests and concerns for the purpose of learning from one another.


2.3 교육 역량에 관한 프레임워크

2.3 A Competency Framework for Teaching


교육 개선 프로그램의 디자인의 중심은 건강 전문 교육에 종사하는 잘 준비된 교수진 (Irby 1994)이 필요한 지식, 기술 및 태도에 관한 문제입니다.

Central to the design of teaching improvement programs is the question of what knowledge, skills, and attitudes are needed by the well-prepared faculty member engaged in health professions education (Irby 1994 ).

 


2004 년 네덜란드의 14 개 연구 집약 대학에서 교육을위한 국가 품질 보증 시스템이 구현되었습니다 (van Keulen 2006).

In 2004, a national quality assurance system for teaching was implemented at all 14 research-intensive universities in the Netherlands (van Keulen 2006 ).

 


그 결과, 세 가지 교육 수준 ( '마이크로', '중간'및 '매크로')에서 다섯 가지 하위 영역으로 교육의 연속체을 포괄하는 여섯 가지 교육 영역이 포함되었습니다. 교과서의 3 가지 수준 ( '마이크로', '중간', '매크로')은 교수진의 책임 수준을 평가하고 '교사'와 '교사', '교사'및 '석사 교육자' (교사 대 교육 지도자) (Molenaar 외. 2009).

The resulting framework included six teaching domains that cover the contin- uum of education with fi ve sub-domains at three teaching levels (‘micro,’ ‘meso,’ and ‘macro’). The three levels of the framework (‘micro,’ ‘meso,’ and ‘macro’) allow for assessing faculty members’ level of responsibility and providing distinctions between ‘teacher’ and ‘master teacher’ and ‘educator’ and ‘master educator’ (i.e. teacher vs. educational leader) (Molenaar et al. 2009 ).

 


2009 년 영국의 의학 교육자 협회 (AoME)는 임상 및 비 임상 의학 (예 : 진료, 수의학 및 의료) 교육자 (Academy of Medical Educators 2012)를 위한 일련의 전문 표준을 수립했습니다.

In 2009, the Academy of Medical Educators (AoME) in Great Britain estab- lished a set of professional standards for clinical and non-clinical medical (i.e. den- tal, veterinary, and medical) educators (Academy of Medical Educators 2012 ).

 


'핵심 성과 목표'는 '고품질의 환자 진료를 제공하는 데있어 의료 교육자의 중심 역할에 대한 더 큰 인정을 얻는 것입니다.'(Academy of Medical Educators 2008 5 페이지).

A ‘key performance target’ was to ‘assure greater recognition of the central role of medical educators in the delivery of high quality patient care.’ (Academy of Medical Educators 2008 p. 5).

 

 


AoME 전문 표준의 핵심은 7 가지 핵심 가치입니다 : (1) 전문 무결성; (2) 교육 장학금; (3) 기회와 다양성의 평등; (4) 대중을 존중하는 것. (5) 환자 존중; (6) 학습자 존중; (7) 동료에 대한 존중

Central to the AoME Professional Standards are seven core values:

(1) profes- sional integrity;

(2) educational scholarship;

(3) equality of opportunity and diversity;

(4) respect for the public;

(5) respect for patients;

(6) respect for learn- ers; and

(7) respect for colleagues.

 

 


이러한 핵심 가치와 함께 의학 교육의 핵심 역량 영역은 다음과 같습니다. (1) 학습 활동의 설계 및 계획; (2) 학습자의 교육 및 지원; (3) 학습자에 대한 평가 및 피드백; (4) 교육 연구 및 증거 기반 실습; (5) 교육 경영 및 리더십 (Academy of Medical Educators 2012)

Along with these core values are fi ve competency domains central to medical education:

(1) design and planning of learning activities;

(2) teaching and support of learners;

(3) assessment and feedback to learners;

(4) educational research and evidence- based practice; and

(5) educational management and leadership (Academy of Medical Educators 2012 ).

 

 

일련의 교사 역량을 기술하는 작업은 효과적인 임상 교육을 정의하고 평가하기위한 초기 작업을 기반으로한다 (Harden and Crosby 2000; Irby 1978; Price and Mitchell 1993; Skeff 외 1992). 1990 년대 스탠포드 교수 개발 프로그램 (Stanford Faculty Development Program)은 다음과 같은 7 가지 특정 교육 능력으로 구성된 임상 교육 향상을위한 프레임 워크를 개발 및 보급했다.

(1) 긍정적 학습 환경 조성.

(2) 수업 세션의 제어;

(3) 의사 전달 목표;

(4) 이해와 보급 촉진;

(5) 평가;

(6) 피드백;

(7) 자기 주도 학습을 촉진.

 

 

The work to describe a set of teacher competencies builds on the early work to defi ne and evaluate effective clinical teaching (Harden and Crosby 2000 ; Irby 1978 ; Price and Mitchell 1993 ; Skeff et al. 1992 ). In the 1990s, the Stanford Faculty Development Program developed and disseminated a framework for the improvement of clinical teaching (Skeff et al. 1992 ) composed of seven specifi c teaching competencies:

(1) establishing a positive learning climate;

(2) control of the teaching session;

(3) communicating goals;

(4) promoting understanding and retention;

(5) evaluation;

(6) feedback; and

 (7) promoting self-directed learning.

 

2006 년, Skeff와 동료 그룹은 기술 개발 프레임 워크를 개발 및 구현한다는 목적으로 Competency로서의 강의에 관한 2 일간의 회의를 개최했습니다 (Srinivasan 외, 2011). 이 그룹은 의학 교육에서 4 가지 핵심 가치 또는 교육 원칙을 설명했다. (1) 학습자 참여. (2) 학습자 중심성; (3) 적응력; (4) 자기 반성; 그들은 또한 모든 의학 교육자에게 6 명의 핵심 의학 교육자 역량을 제안했다 (표 2.1 참조).

 

In 2006, Skeff and a group of colleagues held a 2-day conference on Teaching as a Competency with the goal of developing and implementing a skills-development framework (Srinivasan et al. 2011 ). The group described a set of four core values or principles for teaching in medical education:

(1) learner engagement;

(2) learner- centeredness;

(3) adaptability; and

(4) self-refl ection;

 

 they also proposed six core medical educator competencies for all medical edu- cators (see Table 2.1 ).

 

 


지금까지 제안 된 다양한 역량 틀 (표 2.1에 요약되어 있음) 사이에는 National Board for Professional Teaching Standards(2002)가 미국에서 초 중등 교육에 대해 식별 한 내용을 포함하여 많은 부분이 중첩되어 있습니다. 다양한 보고서에 사용 된 용어는 프로페셔널리즘와 역할 모델링 (Srinivasan et al. 2011) 또는 의학 정보학 (Harris et al. 2007)과 같이 약간 다를 수도 있고 새로운 개념이 도입 될 수도있다. 그러나 보건 종사자 교육을 위한 역량의 전반적인 설정은 매우 일관되고 비교적 잘 정의되어있다.


 

There is a great deal of overlap between the various competency frameworks proposed thus far (and outlined in Table 2.1 ), including those identifi ed for pri- mary and secondary education in the United States by the National Board for Professional Teaching Standards ( 2002 ). The terms used in the various reports may be slightly different, or a new concept may be introduced, such as profes- sionalism and role modeling (Srinivasan et al. 2011 ) or medical informatics (Harris et al. 2007 ); however, the overall set of competencies for teaching in the health professions is quite consistent and relatively well defi ned.


 

2.4 교수 능력 개발을위한 능력 개발 - 선택된 사례

2.4 Faculty Development to Meet Teaching Competencies – Selected Examples


2.4.1 Competency Framework 고르기

2.4.1 Choosing a Competency Framework


이 장의 목적은 보건 전문가 교사를위한 역량 프레임 워크를 정의하는 것이 아니라 결과 개선 프로그램에 참여할 교사들을 위한 역량 강화 프로그램을 계획하는 사람들을 지원하는 것입니다. Milner et al. (2011)은 교수 역량을 정의하는 세 가지 방법을 제안합니다 :

(1) 성공적인 교수진이 되기 위해 위해 Bland and Schmitz (1986)가 기술한 특성의 사용.

(2) 확립 된 역량 프레임 워크의 사용; 또는

(3) 워크샵 및 회의 중에 개발 된 전문가 합의.

It is not the goal of this chapter to define a competency framework for health profes- sions teachers, but instead to assist those persons planning teaching improvement programs in identifying a set of competencies for the teachers that will be involved in the resulting program. Milner et al. ( 2011 ) suggest three methods for defi ning faculty competencies: (1) use of the characteristics described by Bland and Schmitz ( 1986 ) for successful faculty members; (2) use of an established competency frame- work; or (3) expert consensus developed during workshops and conferences.


2.4.2 역량 영역 1 : 학습 활동의 설계 및 계획

2.4.2 Competency Domain 1: Design and Planning of Learning Activities


AoME Domain 1은 '교육 디자인 및 학습 개발 프로세스'(Academicy of Medical Educators 2012 p. 15)에 대한 다음 표준에 중점을 둡니다.

(1) 커리큘럼 개발에 학습 원리를 사용하는 것;

(2) 필요성 평가의 개발과 사용;

(3) 학습 목표 정의;

(4) 목표에 연계 된 학습 방법 / 활동 선택; 과

(5) 학습 결과 평가 (특정 표준에 대해서는 부록 A 참조).

 

이 요소들은 Kern et al. (1998) : 의학 교육을위한 커리큘럼 개발 : 6 단계 접근 과 매우 비슷하다.

AoME Domain 1 is focused on the following standards for ‘educational design and learning development processes’ (Academy of Medical Educators 2012 p. 15):

(1) using learning principles in the development of curricula; (2) developing and using needs assessment;

(3) defi ning learning objectives; (4) selecting learning methods/activities linked to objectives; and

(5) evaluating learning outcomes (see Appendix A for the specifi c standards). These elements are very similar to those described by Kern et al. ( 1998 ) in Curriculum Development for Medical Education: A Six-Step Approach :


Step 1 – Problem identifi cation and general needs assessment;

Step 2 – Targeted needs assessment;

Step 3 – Goals and objectives;

Step 4 – Educational strategies;

Step 5 – Implementation;

Step 6 – Evaluation (Kern et al. 1998 p. 5).


 

아래에 설명 된 두 가지 교수 개발 프로그램은 Kern et al. (1998) 커리큘럼 개발 모델을 따르므로 AoMe Domain 1을 달성하기위한 패밀리 개발 프로그램의 유용한 예입니다.

The two faculty development programs described below follow the Kern et al. ( 1998 ) model for curriculum development and therefore are useful examples of fac- ulty development programs to achieve AoMe Domain 1.


Snyder (2001)는 한 달에 3 시간 동안 10 개월 동안 커리큘럼 개발에 대한 일련의 워크샵으로 구성된 1 년 가정 의학과 교수 개발 개발 펠로십의 구성 요소를 설명합니다. 워크샵의 강의 형식에는 독서, 단편 강의, 그룹 토의 및 커리큘럼 프로젝트 개발이 포함됩니다.

Snyder  ( 2001 ) describes a component of a 1-year Family Medicine faculty devel-opment fellowship consisting of a series of workshops on curriculum development for 3 h per month for 10 months. The teaching format for the workshops included readings, short lectures, group discussions, and the development of a curricular project.


Windish et al. (2007)은 존스 홉킨스 대학 의과 대학에서 Kern 등을 사용하여 커리큘럼 디자인에 대한 교수진 개발 프로그램을 제공 한 경험 16 년을 기술합니다. (1998) 모델 :

Windish et al. ( 2007 ) describe 16 years of experience in offering a faculty devel- opment program on curriculum design at Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine using the Kern et al. ( 1998 ) model:


이 프로그램의 목표는 참가자들에게 다음과 같습니다. (1) 의학 교육에서 커리큘럼을 디자인, 구현, 평가 및 보급하기위한 지식, 태도 및 기술을 개발합니다. (2) 커리큘럼을 디자인, 시험, 구현, 평가, 쓰기 및 발표 (Windish et al. 2007 p. 656).
The goals of the program are for participants to:

(1) develop the knowledge, attitudes, and skills to design, implement, evaluate, and disseminate a curriculum in medical education; and

(2) design, pilot, implement, evaluate, write-up, and present a curriculum (Windish et al. 2007 p. 656).


10 개월 프로그램은 대화 형 워크샵, 독서, 멘토링 된 커리큘럼 개발 프로젝트 및 in-progress reporting 세션을 통해 주간 반나절 세션으로 구성되었습니다. 16 년 동안 145 명의 교수진이 프로그램을 완료했습니다.

The 10-month program consisted of a weekly half-day session with interactive workshops, readings, a mentored curriculum development project, and in-progress reporting sessions. Over a period of 16 years, 145 faculty members completed the program.


이 두 프로그램은 모두 Kern et al. (1998) 단일 기관 내에서 커리큘럼 개발 모델; 그러나 첫 번째 프로그램은 참가자가 선호하는 과정이 뒤따른 지 여부를 결정하기 위해 개발 된 실제 커리큘럼을 평가하고 두 번째 프로그램은 오랜 기간 동안 자체 보고서를 사용했습니다.

These two programs are interesting in that they both use the Kern et al. ( 1998 ) model for curriculum development within a single institution; however, the first program evaluated the actual curricula developed to determine if the preferred pro- cess was followed by participants, and the second program relied on self-report, albeit over an extended period of time.


2.4.3 역량 영역 2 : 교육 및 학습자 지원

2.4.3 Competency Domain 2: Teaching and Supporting Learners


AoME 도메인 2의 핵심 요소는 다음과 같습니다 :

(1) 교수 / 학습 방법;

(2) 학습 환경;

(3) 교수에 대한 피드백;

(4) 능동 학습;

(5) 성찰 (부록 A 참조). 이러한 역량을 충족시키는 FDP은 문헌에 기술 된 교수 개발의 가장 일반적인 유형입니다.

Core elements of AoME Domain 2 include:

(1) teaching/learning methods;

(2) the learning environment;

(3) feedback on teaching;

(4) active learning; and

(5) refl ec- tion (see Appendix A ).

 

Faculty development programs to meet these competencies are the most common type of faculty development described in the literature.


이 영역의 대표적인 예로 스탠포드 교수 개발 프로그램 (Stanford Faculty Development Program)이 있습니다.이 프로그램은 이해에 기초한 다양한 특수 주제의 가르침에 중점을두고 있으며 내용, 학습자, 교사 및 상황이 효과적으로 상호 작용하는 방식에 효과적으로 응답합니다. 학습 촉진.

A prime example in this domain is the Stanford Faculty Development Program, which has focused on the teaching of a variety of special topics based on under- standing and responding effectively to the ways in which content, learners, teach- ers, and context interact to promote learning.


다른 기관의 교수진은 한 달 동안 스탠포드 의과 대학을 방문한 후 자신의 동료들과 함께 교육 개선 프로그램을 시행하기 위해 고국으로 돌아갑니다. 스탠포드 프로그램은 7 개의 2 시간짜리 세미나, 독서, 토론, 피드백이 담긴 세미나 중 하나에 대한 비디오 테이프 연습 교습, 그리고 자신의 고국에서 프로그램을 가르치기 위해 준비하는 추가 실습 세션으로 구성됩니다. 이 TOT 전파 컨셉은 '대상 집단의 특성을 가진 change agent를 변화시키면 동료들에게 새로운 아이디어를 널리 알릴 수 있다는 믿음'는 아이디어를 바탕으로합니다 (Skeff 외, 1992 p. 1156).

Faculty members from other institutions travel to the Stanford School of Medicine for a month of training, and then return to their home institutions to implement the teaching improvement program with their own colleagues. The Stanford Program consists of seven 2 h seminars, readings, discussion, video-taped practice teaching of one of the seminars with feedback, and additional practice teaching sessions to prepare to teach the program at their home institution. This train-the-trainer dissemination concept builds on the idea that ‘change agents with characteristics of their target audience have strong credibility for disseminating new ideas to their colleagues.’ (Skeff et al. 1992 p. 1156).


 

Stanford Faculty Development Program의 가장 중요한 목표는 참가자들이 자신의 고국에서 효과적으로 프로그램을 구현하고 기관 참가자가 임상 교육의 변화에 ​​대해보고하는 회고 전 사전 평가 형식을 사용하여 영향을 평가할 수 있도록 준비하는 것입니다. iors (Skeff 외. 1992). 그러나,이 프로그램이 중국에서 실행될 때, 도전이있었습니다; '이 프로젝트는 잘 연구되고 성공적인 모델을 도입한 것이었지만, 문화, 언어 및 교육 시스템의 차이를 성공적으로 극복하는 것은 여전히 ​​큰 도전 과제입니다.'(Wong and Fang 2012 p.357).

The most important goal of the Stanford Faculty Development Program is to prepare participants to effectively implement the program at their home institution and to evaluate its impact by using a retrospective pre-post assessment format in which institutional participants report on changes in their clinical teaching behav- iors (Skeff et al. 1992 ). However, when the program was implemented in China, there were challenges; ‘although this project was an adaption from a well-studied and successful model, it remains a great challenge to successfully overcome differ- ences in culture, language, and educational systems’ (Wong and Fang 2012 p. 357).


교수와 전공의의 교육 기술을 향상시키는 데 도움이되는 가장 일반적인 방법은 워크샵과 발표가 있지만, 연습 및 피드백과 함께 guided reflection를 사용하는 프로그램은보다 다양한 접근법이 효과적 일 수 있다고 제안합니다 (Alteen et al. Branch et al., 2009; Cole et al., 2004; Kumagai 외 2007; Rabow 외 2007; Steinert 외. 2010; Tang 외) Reflection를 사용하여 임상 교육을 향상시키기위한 longitudinal FDP에 대한 디기관 연구에 특별한 관심을 기울일 필요가 있습니다.

While workshops and presentations are the most common methods used to help faculty members and residents to improve teaching skills, programs using guided refl ection, coupled with practice and feedback, suggest that a broader array of approaches can be effective (Alteen et al. 2009 ; Branch et al. 2009 ; Cole et al. 2004 ; Kumagai et al. 2007 ; Rabow et al. 2007 ; Steinert et al. 2010 ; Tang et al. 2009 ). A multi-institutional study of a longitudinal faculty development program to improve clinical teaching using refl ection deserves special note.


이 예는 교수진이 향상된 교수 기술을 개발하는 데 도움을 줄 수있는 다양한 접근 방식과 상황을 설명하기위한 것입니다. 이 두 가지 예 중 특히 흥미있는 점은 교육 개선 프로그램의 설계, 구현 및 평가에있어 기관 간 협력의 힘입니다.

These examples are meant to illustrate a range of approaches and contexts in which faculty members can be helped to develop improved teaching skills. Of particular interest in two of these examples is the power of collaboration among institutions in the design, implementation, and evaluation of teaching improvement programs.

 


 

2.4.4 영역 3 : 학습자에 대한 평가 및 피드백

2.4.4 Domain 3: Assessment and Feedback to Learners


이 장에서 다룰 마지막 AoME 영역 인 Domain 3은 학습자에 대한 평가와 피드백에 중점을 둡니다. 이 영역의 교수진 개발 프로그램은 일반적으로 (1) 시험 개발; (2) 다양한 평가 방법의 사용에 대한 일반적인 훈련; 및 (3) 피드백이 있다. 보건 전문가 교육에 사용되는 평가 도구의 범위에는 다양한 형태의 지식 검사 유형, 임상 진료 중 역량 평가 도구 및 시뮬레이션 된 임상 환경에서의 performance evaluation exercises 이 포함됩니다 (Wass and Archer 2011). 그러나 이러한 교수 개선의 영역은 문헌에서 잘 설명되지 않았기 때문에 교수 개발 프로그램에서 다루어지지 않는 경우가 적다는 것을 암시 할 수있다.

The last AoME area to be addressed in this chapter, Domain 3, focuses on assess- ment and feedback to learners. Faculty development programs in this domain gener- ally focus on (1) test development; (2) general training in the use of a variety of assessment methods; and (3) feedback. The range of assessment tools used in health professions education includes various forms of knowledge examination types, tools for evaluating competencies during clinical care, and performance evaluation exercises in simulated clinical settings (Wass and Archer 2011 ). However, this area of teaching improvement has been less well described in the literature, which may refl ect that it is less often being addressed in faculty development programs.


 

시험 개발 및 표준 설정 개선에 중점을 둔 보건 전문가의 FDP에 대한 연구는 거의 없습니다. Jozefowicz et al. (2002)는 훈련받지 않은 문항 개발자는 표준 방법을 사용하여 훈련 된 사람보다 시험 항목을 작성하는 데 그리 좋지 않다는 것을 보여주었습니다 (예 : NBME (National Board of Medical Examiners) 항목 작성, 작성 문안 작성 기초 및 임상 과학에 대한 시험 문제 (Case and Swanson 1998).

There are few studies of faculty development programs in the health professions that focus on improvement of test development and standard setting. Jozefowicz et al. ( 2002 ) showed that untrained test item writers are not as good at writing exam items as those who are trained using a standard method, such as the one outlined in the National Board of Medical Examiners (NBME) text on item-writing, Constructing Written Test Questions for the Basic and Clinical Sciences (Case and Swanson 1998 ).


효과적인 피드백을 제공하는 것은 종종 교수진이 숙련되고 싶어하는 기술 일 뿐이지 만 피드백 분야의 교육에 초점을 둔보고 된 연구는 거의 없으며 특히 평가 데이터를 제공하는 연구 참가자 만족 정도이다

Although giving effective feedback is often the skill that faculty members list as one in which they would like to become more skilled, there are few reported stud- ies that focus on training in the art of feedback, especially ones that provide evalu- ation data beyond participant satisfaction.


의학교육이 역량 기반 및 발달적 (즉, 교육 연속체에 따른 목표 달성) 교육 모델 (Dath and Iobst 2010, Holmboe et al. 2011)로 신속하게 이동함에 따라 이 분야에서보다 광범위한 FDP의 개발 및 평가가 필요할 것입니다 Ross et al., 2011).

Development and evaluation of more extensive faculty development programs in this area will likely be needed as medical education moves quickly into competency-based and developmental (i.e. achievement of milestones along the educational continuum) educational models (Dath and Iobst 2010 ; Holmboe et al. 2011 ; Ross et al. 2011 ).


2.5 교육 개선 활동 설계
2.5    Designing  Teaching  Improvement  Activities


교사 행동이나 학습자 결과의 실제 변화와 관련된 몇몇 연구는 특정 형식이 다른 학습 개선 형식보다 효과적임을 시사한다 (Chism and Szabo 1997; Steinert et al., 2006; Wilkerson and Irby 1998).

Those few studies associated with actual changes in teaching behaviors or learner outcomes suggest that certain teaching improvement formats are more effective than others (Chism and Szabo 1997 ; Steinert et al. 2006 ; Wilkerson and Irby 1998 ).


교육 활동 개선을 위한 새로운 접근법은 학습자에게 정보를 '밀어 넣기'위해 이미 임상 교육에 사용되는 것과 같이 소셜 미디어 및 기타 간단한 전자 통신 방법의 사용 증가를 활용할 가능성이 높습니다 (Boulos 외. 2006). 비록 교육 기술에 대한 웹 기반 모듈이 수년 동안 이용 가능 하였지만, 교육 개선을 위한 목적으로 사용한 도구에 대해서 기술하거나 평가하는 문헌은 현재 거의 없다 (예 : Practical Doc, http://www.practicaldoc.ca / teaching / practical-prof /).

New approaches to teaching improvement activities will likely capitalize on the growing use of social media and other methods of brief electronic communication, such as those already being used in clinical teaching to ‘push’ information to learn- ers (Boulos et al. 2006 ), but there is little in the literature currently that describes or evaluates the use of these tools for teaching improvement purposes, although Web- based modules on teaching skills have been available for many years (e.g. Practical Doc, http://www.practicaldoc.ca/teaching/practical-prof/ ).


이메일 리마인더를 사용하거나 향후 트위터를 사용하여 교수진 개발의 보조 도구로 사용할 수 있습니다. 더 많은 밀레니엄 학생들이 교수진이되어 감에 따라 우리는 문자 메시지 및 Twitter를 통해 소량의 정보를 수신하고 커뮤니케이션을 위해 소셜 미디어를 사용하는 것에 익숙한 세대에 교수진 개발을 제공하는 방법을 검토해야 할 수도 있습니다.

Use of e-mail reminders, or in the future possibly the use of Twitter to serve as an adjunct to faculty development, may become more common. As more millennial students become faculty members, we may need to examine how we deliver faculty development to a generation that is accustomed to receiving bits of information through texting and Twitter and using social media for communication.


O'Sullivan과 Irby (2011)는 교사, 학습자, 조직 및 환자가 원하는 변화를 이끌어내는 특성을 보다 잘 이해하기 위해보다 복잡한 FD 모델이 필요하다고 제안했습니다. 저자는 개인 참가자들에게만 집중하는 것이 아니라 참가자 및 직장 공동체의 교수진 개발 공동체에 중점을 둘 필요가 있음을 제안합니다.

O’Sullivan and Irby ( 2011 ) have sug- gested that we need a more complex model of faculty development in order to better understand the features that lead to desired changes in teachers, learners, organiza- tions, and patients. The authors suggest the need to include a focus on the faculty development community of participants and the workplace community rather than focusing only on the individual participants.


Influencer : 무엇이든 바꿀 수있는 힘이라는 책에서 Patterson et al. (2008)은 개개인과 조직의 '영향력의 여섯 가지 원인'이 포함될 때 변화의 가능성이 증가한다고 제안했다. 동료의 압력을 이용하고 조직의 보상과 책임 성 측정을 개발하는 것; 변화를위한 개인의 헌신적 인 노력 구축; 다른 사람들의 참여를 통해 새로운 능력을 강화한다. 목표 된 행동이 보상받을 수 있도록 환경을 구조화하는 것.

In the book, Influencer: The Power to Change Anything Patterson et al. ( 2008 ) suggest that the likelihood of change is increased when individual and organizational ‘six sources of infl uence’ are included:

  • making the undesirable desirable;

  • capitalizing on peer pressure and

  • developing organizational rewards and accountability measures;

  • building the individual’s personal commitment to change;

  • reinforcing new abilities through the engagement of others; and

  • structuring the environment so that the targeted behaviors are rewarded.


2.6 FDP에서의 개선 활동에 대한 시사점

2.6 Implications for Teaching Improvement Activities in Faculty Development


학술 활동 및 교육 Scholarship(Boyer 1990)이 보건 전문가 교육에서보다 가치있는 활동이되고 승진과 테뉴어에서보다 영향력 있는 위치를 차지함에 따라 더 많은 기관과 더 많은 정부가 따라갈 것입니다. AoME가 개발 한 역량 프레임 워크는 교수진이 교육 표준을 충족시킬 수 있도록 교수진을 양성하는 프로그램을 만드는 데있어서 교수진 개발자에게 유용한 지침이라고 생각합니다.

As teaching as a scholarly activity and educational scholarship (Boyer 1990 ) become more valued faculty activities in health professions education and assume a more infl uential place in the promotion and tenure process, it is likely that more institutions, and perhaps more governments, will follow the lead of the Netherlands. We believe that a competency framework, such as the one developed by the AoME, is a useful guide for faculty developers in creating programs to train faculty mem- bers to meet teaching standards.


자원은 항상 부족합니다. 예산은 줄어들고 시간은 점점 줄어들고 있습니다. 우리가 Faculty developer로서 우리 전문 학교 내에서 계속 존재한다는 것을 정당화한다면, 우리의 프로그램이 일반 교수진과 기관에 가치가 있음을 입증하기 위해 더 많은 조사가 필요할 것입니다. 학생들과 다른 Trainee에게 해야하는 것처럼 구체적인 능력을 갖추기 위해 교수진을 훈련시키는 포괄적 인 교수 개발 프로그램을 설계함으로써 그렇게 할 수 있습니까? 다양한 역량을 획득하고 역량을 유지하기 위해 교수진을 교육 할 수 있다는 것을 입증 할 개발 모델 (Dreyfus and Dreyfus 1986; Green et al. 2009)을 고려해야합니까?

Resources get scarcer all the time. Budgets are smaller and time seems to be ever shrinking. If we as faculty developers are to justify our continued existence within our professional schools, we will likely need to meet greater scrutiny to demonstrate that our programs are worthwhile to our faculty members and institutions in gen- eral. Can we do that by designing comprehensive faculty development programs that train our faculty members to meet specifi c measureable competencies, just as students and other trainees must do? Should we also consider a developmental model (Dreyfus and Dreyfus 1986 ; Green et al. 2009 ) that will demonstrate that we can train our faculty members to achieve varying levels of competency and maintain their competency over time?


 

O'Sullivan과 Irby (2011)는 참가자들이 knowledge gap를 확인한 다음 그 차이를 채웠다는 것을 입증 할 수있는 자신의 방법을 개발할 것을 제안합니다. 역량 프레임 워크를 사용하면 교수진에게 교육 기관의 가치와 기대 사항을 알리고 교사로서 식별 된 기준을 충족시킬 필요가 있다고 판단 할 수 있습니다. Comprehensive FDP에서 역량 프레임 워크를 사용하면 개별 교수진뿐만 아니라 더 큰 범위의 교수 커뮤니티에도 커다란 영향을 미쳐서 가르치고 일하는 맥락에 영향을 미칠 수 있습니다. 이는 O'Sullivan과 Irby (2011)가 교수 개발의 궁극적 인 목표라고 제안한 것과 일치합니다. 그들은 그 시스템이 복잡하고 우리 프로그램에 의해 영향을 받는 다양한 실천 공동체와 우리 프로그램이 어디에 위치해 있는지를 고려해야한다고 주장한다.

O’Sullivan and Irby ( 2011 ) suggest that participants identify a knowledge gap and then develop their own methods to demonstrate that they have fi lled that gap. The use of a competency framework should inform faculty members about the values and expectations of the institution, allowing them to eval- uate their own needs to meet identifi ed standards as teachers. Using the competency framework within a comprehensive faculty development program could inform not only the individual faculty member but also the larger community of faculty mem- bers, affecting the context in which they teach and work. This is consistent with O’Sullivan and Irby ( 2011 ) who suggest that this is the ultimate goal of faculty development. They contend that the system is complex and requires us to consider the various communities of practice that are affected by our programs and where our programs are situated.




2.7 Conclusion


1950 년대에는 교수법 개선을위한 교수진 개발이 고등 교육에서 출현하기위한 교수진 개발의 첫 번째 유형 중 하나였습니다. 오늘날, 그것은 여전히 ​보건의료전문직에서 가장 공통적 인 FD방식입니다. 이 장에서는 보건 의료 교사를 가르치기위한 여러 가지 역량 프레임 워크를 검토했습니다. 우리는 이러한 프레임 워크의 대부분이 다음과 같은 것을 포함하여 각 프레임 워크와 상당히 겹치는 것을 발견했습니다. (a) 커리큘럼 디자인 기술. (b) 학습자를 가르치고 지원하는 것; (c) 평가 및 피드백.

 

교수 학습 개발 문헌의 여러 우수 사례를 통해이 세 가지 역량을 어떻게 배울 수 있는지 보여주고 다양한 교수 개선 활동의 효과에 대해 알려진 내용을 설명합니다. 문헌은 교사, 학생, 교육 및 환자 간호가 모두 이루어지는 시스템에 대해 유효한 증거의 질에있어 한계가 있습니다. Faculty developer로서 우리는 초보자에서부터 숙련 된 교사에게 진보함에 따라 health professions teachers 에게 필요한 역량을 정의하고 가르치는 데 계속해서 혁신을 기울일 필요가 있습니다.

In the 1950s, faculty development to improve teaching was one of the fi rst types of faculty development to emerge in higher education. Today, it is still the most com- mon form of faculty development in the health professions. In this chapter, we reviewed a number of competency frameworks to improve teaching for health pro- fessions teachers. We found that most of these frameworks had considerable overlap with each one including: (a) skills in curriculum design; (b) teaching and supporting learners; and (c) assessment and feedback. Several best practice examples from the faculty development literature demonstrate how these three competencies might be learned and illustrate what is known about the effectiveness of a variety of teaching improvement activities. The literature is limited in the quality of evidence available about what works for teachers, their students, and the systems in which both educa- tion and patient care occur. As faculty developers, we will need to continue to inno- vate in defi ning and teaching the competencies necessary for our health professions teachers as they progress from novice to master teachers.


2.8 Key Messages


 

• 교수법 개발을 향상시키기위한 FD은 보건 전문 분야 문헌에서보고 된 가장 일반적인 교수 개발 활동 유형입니다.

• 보건 전문 교사의 교육 향상을위한 많은 역량 프레임 워크가 존재합니다. 이들 대부분은 다음을 포함한다 : (a) 커리큘럼 디자인 기술; (b) 학습자를 가르치고 지원하는 것; (c) 평가 및 피드백.

• 영국의 의학 교육자 아카데미가 개발 한 역량 프레임 워크는 교수 표준을 충족시키기 위해 교수진을 양성하는 프로그램을 개발하고자하는 교수진 개발자에게 유용한 가이드입니다.

• 많은 성공적인 교수 개발 프로그램은 교과 과정을 개발하고, 가르치고, 평가하고 피드백을 학습자에게 제공하기 위해 교수진을 훈련 시켰습니다. 많은 사람들은 교수 개발 프로그램에 참여한 후 행동 변화에 대한 자기보고를 넘어 더 엄격한 평가 방법을 포함 시켰습니다.

• 향후 교수진은 특정 능력을 갖추기 위해 교수진을 훈련시키는 포괄적 인 개발 프로그램을 개발할 것을 고려해야합니다.

• Faculty development to improve teaching is the most common type of faculty development activity reported in the health professions literature. 

• Many competency frameworks for improving the teaching of health professions teachers exist; most of these include: (a) skills in curriculum design; (b) teaching and supporting learners; and (c) assessment and feedback. 

• The competency framework developed by the Academy of Medical Educators in Great Britain is a useful guide for faculty developers who wish to create pro- grams to train faculty members to meet teaching standards. 

• Many successful faculty development programs have trained faculty members to develop curricula, to teach, and to assess and provide feedback to learners. Many have also gone beyond self-report of behavioral change following participation in a faculty development program and have included more rigorous evaluation methods. 

• In the future, faculty developers should consider developing comprehensive fac- ulty development programs that train our faculty members to meet specifi c mea- sureable competencies.


Domain 1: Design and Planning of Learning Activities




Domain 2: Teaching and Supporting Learners



 


 

Domain 3: Assessment and Feedback to Learners



 

 

 

 

 

 




Dath, D. & Iobst, W. (2010). The importance of faculty development in the transition to competency- based medical education. Medical Teacher, 32 (8), 683–686.




Chapter

Faculty Development in the Health Professions

Volume 11 of the series Innovation and Change in Professional Education pp 29-52

Date: 

Faculty Development for Teaching Improvement

  • Carol S. Hodgson 
  • LuAnn Wilkerson

Abstract

In the mid to late 1950s, the idea of preparing university faculty members as teachers emerged in medical education and since then has become the most common type of faculty development in health professions education. Several competency frameworks for health professions teachers have been described in the literature, each of which includes skills in curriculum design, teaching and support of learning, and assessment and feedback. Several best practice examples demonstrate how these competencies might be addressed in faculty development programming. The literature is limited in the quality of evidence available about what works for teachers, their students, and the systems in which both education and patient care occur. Understanding the ‘what’ and ‘how’ of teaching improvement in health professions education will require more rigorous outcome measures and attention to the individual and shared needs of teachers and learners and the communities of practice in which they work.




교육의 스칼라십: 21세기의 필수불가결 요소(Acad Med, 2000)

Scholarship in Teaching: An Imperative for the 21st Century

Ruth-Marie E. Fincher, MD, Deborah E. Simpson, PhD, Stewart P. Mennin, PhD, Gary C. Rosenfeld, PhD, Arthur Rothman, EdD, Martha Cole McGrew, MD, Penelope A. Hansen, PhD, Paul E. Mazmanian, PhD, and Jeffrey M. Turnbull, MD




배경

BACKGROUND


 

우리는 일반적으로 의과 대학에서 적용되는 스칼라십의 정의가 불필요하게 좁아서 학교의 교육 사명을 수행하는 데 필수적인 합법적 인 학업 활동 및 생산성 영역을 배제한다는 사실을 관찰합니다. 이 좁은 정의에 따르면, 스칼라십은 연구, 결과에 대한 동료 심사 및 새로운 지식의 보급에 의해서만 증명됩니다. 이러한 이유로 인해, 의대의 핵심 교육 사명에 필수적인 교수진은 수락 된 스칼라십의 형태에 참여하지 않기 때문에 승진하지 않는 경우가 많습니다.

We observe that the definition of schol- arship generally applied by medical schools is unnecessarily narrow and excludes areas of legitimate academic activity and productivity that are vital to the fulfillment of the school’s educational mission. According to this narrow def- inition, scholarship is demonstrated only by research, peer review of results, and dissemination of new knowledge. For this reason, faculty who are essential to the core educational mission of their medical schools often are not promoted be- cause they do not engage in accepted forms of scholarship.


일부 교육자는 자신의 전문 지식을 학과나 다른 학교의 교수진과 공유하거나 지역 또는 국가 회의에서 발표 할 수 있습니다. 그럼에도 불구하고 이러한 활동에 내재 된 동료 검토 및 전파활동에도 불구하고 현재의 스칼라십 승진 기준을 충족하지 못할 수 있습니다.

Some educators may be invited to share their expertise with faculty in their depart- ment or at other schools, and through presentations at re- gional or national meetings. Nevertheless, despite the peer review and dissemination inherent in these activities, they may not meet the current promotion criteria for scholarship.



원칙, 준거, 권고

PRINCIPLES,CRITERIA, AND RECOMMENDATIONS


미국 의과 대학 협회 (AAMC) 교육 당국 (GEA)은 교육 장학금의 확대 된 전망을 개발, 보급 및 촉진하기위한 프로젝트에 착수했다.
The Group on Educational Affairs (GEA) of the Asso- ciation of American Medical Colleges (AAMC) undertook a project to develop, disseminate, and facilitate the imple- mentation of a broadened view of educational scholarship.



장학금에 관한 GEA 프로젝트는 다음을 가정한다.
The GEA project on scholarship is predicated on the assumptions that

 

  • 교육 스칼라십을 정의 할 수 있다.

  • 학습을 지원하는 교육 및 기타 활동은 학술적 활동이 될 수 있다.

  • 스칼라십을 평가하기 위한 준거(피어 리뷰 포함)은 개선 및 개선이 가능하다.

  • 학습을 지원하는 교육 및 기타 활동이 합법적인 학술 활동으로 인정되고 보상되기 위해서는 평가되어야 한다.

  • 학자로서 교육자(educators as scholars)를 지원하기위한 organizational 인프라가 개발되어야 한다.
     

  •  educational scholarship can be defined; 

  •  teaching and other activities supportive of learning can be scholarly; 

  •  criteria, including peer review, for the assessment of schol- arship in teaching and other activities supportive of learn- ing can be refined and improved; 

  •  teaching and other activities supportive of learning must be evaluated if they are to be recognized and rewarded as legitimate scholarly activities; and 

  •  an organizational infrastructure for supporting educators as scholars must be developed.


원칙: 스칼라십의 정의

Principles: Definition of Scholarship


한센 (Hansen)과 로버트 (Roberts)는 지능을 informed, disciplined, and creative manner으로 적용함으로써 지식이 발전되거나 변형 되고, 이것이 스칼라십을 보여주는 것이라 주장한다. 결과물은 동료 평가에 의해 피어 리뷰를 받아 공개되어야합니다. Scholarship Reconsidered에서 1 Boyer는 우수한 교육과 스칼라십을 명확히 구분하지 않았습니다. 이 구별은 Hutchings and Schulman (6)이 정의한 바 있습니다. 그는 교수법에 대한 현재의 지식과 현재의 교 육 결과를 보여주고 동료 평가를 초대하고 학생들의 학습을 탐구하는 것을 포함할 때 스칼라십이 된다고 주장합니다. scholarship in teaching 필수적인 특징은 교수법이 공개되고, 평가가 가능하며, 다른 사람들이 만들 수있는 형태로 제공된다는 것입니다 .6 scholarship in teaching 장려에 대한 책임을 지는 교육자로서, 우리가 사용하는 방법의 상대적 영향력 뿐만 아니라 어떤 방법이 다른 것보다 더 효과적인지 이유를 이해해야합니다.

 

Hansen and Roberts5 argue that scholarship is demonstrated when knowledge is advanced or transformed by application of one’s intellect in an informed, disciplined, and creative manner. The resulting products must be assessed for quality by peer review and made public. In Scholarship Reconsidered,1 Boyer did not make a clear distinction between excellent teaching and teaching as scholarship. This distinction has been defined by Hutchings and Schulman,6 who argue that teaching becomes scholarship when it demonstrates current knowledge of the field and current findings about teaching, invites peer review, and involves exploration of students’ learning. Essential features of teaching as scholarship include the teaching’s being public, being open to evaluation, and being presented in a form that others can build upon.6 As educators who accept responsibility for fostering scholarship in teaching, we not only must recognize the relative influ- ences of the methods we use, but also should understand the reasons some methods are more effective than others.



스카라십을 교육에 적용하기

Applying Scholarship to Teaching


표 1은 발견 (전통적 연구)과 가르침에서 장학금을 평가하는 데 Glassick의 6 가지 기준을 적용하는 방법을 보여줍니다.

Table 1 illustrates how Glassick’s six criteria can be ap- plied to evaluate scholarship in discovery (traditional re- search) and teaching.

 


 

스칼라십 준거의 조작화

Operationalizing the Criteria of Scholarship


개별 교수

Individual faculty.


강의, 실험실, 소그룹 및 임상 설정을 포함한 다양한 장소에서의 교육은 정의 된 표준이 충족되었음을 보여주는 적절한 증거가 제시되면 스칼라십으로 인정받을 수 있습니다. 조언이나 멘토링, 교과 과정이나 교재 개발, 교육 행정 등과 같은 다른 학습 관련 활동은 적절한 증거가 제시되면 스칼라십으로 인정받을 수 있습니다.

 

Teaching in various venues, including lecture, laboratory, small groups, and clinical settings, can be scholarly if appropriate evidence is presented to show that defined standards have been met. Other learning-related ac- tivities, such as advising or mentoring, developing curricu- lum or instructional materials, and educational administra- tion also can be scholarly if appropriate evidence is presented.


연구비 또는 피어-리뷰 저널에 발표 된 원고와 같은 학문적 발견 (예 : 기초 과학, 임상 또는 교육 연구)의 전형적 결과물과는 달리, 교육 관련 스칼라십의 결과물은 웹 기반 자료, 교과서 간행물, 커리큘럼 단위 또는 교수 모듈, 지속적인 교육 프레젠테이션, 커리큘럼 변경 또는 커뮤니티 교육이 포함될 수 있습니다. 교육자의 과제는 이러한 활동의 ​​학술적 특성을 보여주는 증거를 제공하는 것입니다. 표 2는 사용할 수있는 증거의 종류를 보여줍니다

In contrast to the typical products of the schol- arship of discovery (i.e., basic science, clinical, or educa- tional research), which include grants and manuscripts that are published in the peer-reviewed literature, the products of scholarship related to education might include Web-based materials, textbook publications, curriculum units or teach- ing modules, continuing education presentations, curricular change, or community education. The challenge for educa-tors is to provide the evidence that demonstrates the schol-arly nature of these activities. Table 2 illustrates the kinds of evidence that can be used

 

 


 


 

교육의 스칼라십 장려/평가/보상하기 위해 필요한 인프라

Infrastructure needed to foster, assess, and reward scholarship in teaching and other activities supportive of learning.


교육 스칼라십과 관련된 근거를 개발하려면 학과, 의과 대학, 대학 및 전문 기관이 교육 학자의 결과물 창작을 지원하고, 비판적으로 검토하고, 격려하는 메커니즘을 제공해야합니다. 이 조직 구조가 없으면 교수진은 의학 교육 분야의 지식을 발전시키는 교육자 및 학자로서 계속 struggle 할 것입니다.

Developing the evidence associated with educa- tional scholarship requires that departments, medical schools, universities, and professional organizations provide mechanisms to support the creation, critical review, and dis- semination of educational scholars’ works. Without this or- ganizational infrastructure, faculty will continue to struggle as educators and scholars who advance knowledge within the field of medical education.

 

의과대학와 전문 단체는 피어 리뷰 연구를 지원하는 메커니즘을 가지고 있지만 교수 학습의 동료 평가를 위한 병렬 메커니즘은 매우 다양합니다. 특히 학술 결과물이 논문이 아니라 강의 비디오 테이프, CD-ROM, 강의 계획표 또는 교수법 인 경우 더 그러하다.

Med- ical schools and professional organizations have mechanisms to support peer-reviewed research, but parallel mechanisms for peer review of teaching scholarship are highly variable, particularly if the scholarly products are instructional vid- eotapes, CD-ROMs, course syllabi, or teaching, rather than manuscripts.8


교육 장학금을 발전시키는 것은 각 의과 대학 및 전문기구가 교수진을 교육자로 지원할 수 있는 기반을 가지고 있는 정도를 체계적으로 입증해야합니다. Bolman과 Deal9는 4 가지 프레임을 제안했다.

Advancing teaching scholarship requires a systematic ex- amination of the degree to which each medical school and professional organization has the infrastructure to support faculty as educators. Bolman and Deal9 outline four ‘‘frames,’’ or perspectives,



Frame 1: Structural. 구조적


의과 대학 및 관련 학술 보건 과학 센터의 구조적 틀은 조직도와 내부 정책 및 절차를 통해 확인할 수 있습니다. 이 다이어그램과 문서는 교수진의 직위, 역할 및 보고 라인, teaching scholarship을 지원할 수 있는 잠재적 인 자원 및 학부, 대학원 및 계속 교육과 관련된 공식 구조와의 관계를 나타냅니다.

The structural frame of a medical school and its associated academic health science center may be ascertained by viewing their organizational charts and in-stitutional policies and procedures. These diagrams and doc- uments indicate the positions, roles, and reporting lines of faculty, potential resources available to support teaching scholarship, and their relationships to the formal structures associated with undergraduate, graduate, and continuing ed- ucation.


Frame 2: Human resources. 인적자원


인적 자원 프레임은 사람의 지식, 기술, 태도 및 에너지의 주요 변수를보고 조직을 만들거나 깨뜨리는 방법입니다. 이 프레임의 사람들은 조직의 우선 순위를 달성하기위한 투자로 간주됩니다.

 

The human resources frame is a way to view key variables of people’s knowledge, skills, atti- tudes, and energy that either make or break an organization. People, in this frame, are seen as an investment toward achiev- ing the organization’s priorities.

 

이 기관들이 교수진의 지식, 기술 및 행동을 교육자로서 지속적으로 발전시킬 수있는 범위.

the extents to which these organizations sup- port continuous advancement of their faculty members’ knowl- edge, skills, and behaviors as educators.


Frame 3: Political frame. 정치적 프레임


의과 대학 및 전문 직업인 단체의 자원이 더욱 강해지면서 교육자는 우선 순위 및 자원 할당을 결정하는 결정을 적극적으로 지시하거나 비공식적으로 영향을 주어야합니다. 정치적 관점에서 교육자는 scholarship in teaching을 지원할 조직 내에서 진전을 이루려면 자신의 힘을 활용해야합니다. 임상의 및 기초 과학 교사는 정식 및 비공식 정책 결정 그룹의 회원으로 봉사해야하며 핵심 학술, 임상 및 행정위원회의 회원 / 위원장으로 봉사해야하며 다른 교육자와 협력하여 교육의 질을 향상시키는 데 필요한 변화를 효과적으로 옹호해야합니다.

 

As resources within medical schools and our professional organizations become more con- strained, educators must actively direct or informally influ- ence decisions that determine priorities and resource allo- cations. From a political perspective, educators must utilize their power if they are to make progress within organizations that will support scholarship in teaching. Clinician and basic science educators must serve as members of formal and in- formal policy-setting groups, serve as members/chairs on key academic, clinical, and administrative committees, and form coalitions with other educators to effectively advocate changes needed to enhance the quality of education.



Bolman and Deal는 정치 조직이 조직의 목표가 조직의 상층부에서 결정되는 것이 아니라, 핵심 인력 간의 협상과 상호 작용의 과정을 거쳐 진행된다고 가정한다. 교육자는 조직 내에서 효과적으로 협상을하는 핵심 요원이되어야합니다.

Bolman and Deal argue that the political frame assumes that an or- ganization’s goals are not set from the top, but through an ongoing process of negotiation and interaction among the key players. Educators must become key players who effec- tively negotiate within the organization.



Frame 4: Symbolic. 상징적


조직의 상징적 활동은 가치관, 구성원 및 조직 구성원이 조직에 참여하는 방법을 전달합니다. 예를 들어, 교육자들의 활동과 성취가 우리 의과 대학 및 학회에서 얼마나 publicly and prominently 표시되는지를 고려하십시오. 학과 회의, 교직원 협의회, 경제위원회 및 학장 회의 내용, 대학 출판물 및 행사 내용은 그 의과 대학이 무엇을 가치있게 생각하는지를 보여줍니다.

An organization’s symbolic activities communicate its values, who its members are, and how these members are to participate in the organization. Consider, for example, how publicly and how prominently educators’ activities and accomplishments are displayed in our medical schools and by their academic societies. The content of meetings of departments, the faculty council, ex- ecutive committees, and deans, and the content of college publications and events reveal what is valued by our medical schools.


요약

SUMMING UP


 

대부분의 의과 대학 및 전문직 단체는 교육자가 이러한 질문에 답할 수있는 기반 시설이 부족하여 연구 및 다른 유형의 학술 활동과 동일한 기준에서 교육, 특히 교육을 평가합니다. 우리는 scholarship in teaching을 지원하기 위해 조직 구조, 인적 자원 활동, 정치적 연합 및 상징을 지속적으로 발전시켜야합니다. 교육 자료, 교과 과정 혁신, 평가 도구 및 도구, 표준화 된 환자 사례 및 기타 교육 스칼라십 결과물에 대한 피어 리뷰를 위해 더 많은 포럼을 만들어야합니다.

Most medical schools and professional organizations lack the infrastructure to enable educators to answer these questions and thereby to put ed- ucation, especially teaching, on the same level as research and other types of scholarly activities. We must evolve con- tinuously our organizational structures, human resources ac- tivities, political coalitions, and symbols to support schol- arship in education. We must create more forums for the peer review of educational materials, curricular innovations, assessment tools and instruments, standardized patient cases, and other products of educational scholarship.



 

 

 




 2000 Sep;75(9):887-94.

Scholarship in teaching: an imperative for the 21st century.

Author information

  • 1Department of Medicine, Medical College of Georgia School of Medicine, Augusta, Georgia, USA. rfincher@mail.mcg.edu

Abstract

At some medical schools broader definitions of scholarship have emerged along with corresponding changes in their academic reward systems. Such situations are not common, however. The definition of scholarship generally applied by medical schools is unnecessarily narrow and excludes areas of legitimate academic activity and productivity that are vital to the fulfillment of the school's educational mission. The authors maintain that creative teaching with effectiveness that is rigorously substantiated, educational leadership with results that are demonstrable and broadly felt, and educational methods that advance learners' knowledge are consistent with the traditional definition of scholarship. Faculty whose educational activities fulfill the criteria above are scholars and must be recognized by promotion. The authors specifically address scholarship in education, focusing on teaching and other learning-related activities rather than on educational research, which may be assessed and rewarded using the same forms of evidence as basic science or clinical research. They build on Boyer's work, which provides a vocabulary for discussing the assumptions and values that underlie the roles of faculty as academicians. Next, they apply Glassick et al.'s criteria for judging scholarly work to faculty members' educational activities to establish a basis for recognition and reward consistent with those given for other forms of scholarship. Finally, the authors outline the organizational infrastructure needed to support scholars in education.

PMID:
 
10995609
[PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]


Chapter 15. 국제교수개발

Chapter 15 International Faculty Development Partnerships

Stacey Friedman , Francois Cilliers , Ara Tekian , and John Norcini






15.1 Introduction


 

iFDP은 상호 이익을 위해 형성되는 관계이며 개선 된 건강 관리와 같은 공동적이고 때로는 복잡한 목표를 달성하기 위해 노력합니다. 이들은 파트너가 독립적으로 할 수있는 것보다 효과적으로 특정 목표를 달성하고자하는 바람에 동기 부여됩니다 (Kolars 외. 2012; Leffers and Mitchell 2011). 또한 보건 전문 교육, 연구 및 실행의 세계화에 대한 대응이기도하다 (Marchal and Kegels 2003). 세계화에는 국경 간 통합과 아이디어와 자원의 교환이 포함 된 글로벌 용어로 보건 전문 교육을 개념화하는 것이 포함된다 (Hodges et al., 2009).

 International faculty development partnerships are relationships that form for mutual benefit and seek to achieve shared, and sometimes complex, goals such as improved health care. They are motivated by a desire to achieve specific goals more effectively than any partner could independently (Kolars et al.  2012 ; Leffers and Mitchell  2011 ). They are also a response to the globalization of health professions education, research, and practice (Marchal and Kegels  2003 ). Globalization includes conceptualizing health professions education in global terms, with cross-border integration and exchange of ideas and resources (Hodges et al.  2009 ).  

 

iFDP는 다음과 같은 이름들로 불린다.

International faculty development partnerships have variously been called collaborations, networks, coalitions, alliances, consortia, task forces, joint-working, and twinning (Dowling et al.  2004 ). 


 

참여기관의 경우, 파트너십은 기관에 대한 세계적인 인식을 구축하고, 학생 모집 및 교수진 유지를 향상 시키며, 학생, 교직원 및 졸업생을위한 자원을 제공 할 수 있습니다 (Kanter 2010).

For institutions that participate, partnerships may

  • build global awareness of the institution,

  • improve student recruitment and faculty retention, and

  • provide a resource for students, faculty members, and alumni (Kanter 2010 ).

 

잘 작동하는 파트너쉽을 통해 교수진은 (Locally 경험하기 힘든) 다양한 교수 및 학습 방법, 연구 기회 확대, 임상 적 맥락, 자료 및 방법에 노출 될 수 있습니다 (McAuliffe and Cohen 2005). 또한 교수진은 공동 연구자 네트워크와 자신이 일하는 community of scholarship를 확장 할 수 있습니다.

Well-functioning partner- ships allow faculty to be exposed to different methods of teaching and learning, expanded opportunities for research, and clinical contexts, materials, and methods that they may not encounter locally (McAuliffe and Cohen 2005 ). Moreover, they allow faculty to expand their networks of collaborators and the communities of schol- arship in which they work.


 

iFDP(International faculty development partnerships)은 다양한 요구와 기회에 대응하여 발생하지만 목표를 달성하기위한 수단으로 교육의 질과 관련성을 향상시키기 위해 노력합니다. 일부 교수진 개발 파트너십이 해결하기 위해 노력하는 가장 큰 요구 중 하나는 고소득 국가와 저소득 국가의 보건 의료 종사자의 품질, 수량 ​​및 / 또는 분배가 부적절하다는 것입니다 (Norcini and Banda 2011, WHO 2008). 이 필요성의 한 차원은 지역 사회의 요구와 관련이있는 기초 및 고급 자격을 갖춘 충분한 보건 인력의 생산이다 (Scheffl et al., 2009). 또 다른 차원은 교수진에게 자신의 교육 기관에서의 전문적인 성장과 기능 할 수있는 만족스러운 지역 환경을위한 적절하고 적절한 기회를 제공 할 수있는 능력입니다 (Marchal 및 Kegels 2003).

International faculty development partnerships arise in response to a range of needs and opportunities, but they all seek to enhance the quality and relevance of education as a means of achieving their goals. One of the biggest needs some faculty development partnerships seek to contribute toward addressing is that of inadequate quality, quantity, and/or distribution of health care workers in both high and low income countries (Norcini and Banda 2011 ; WHO 2008 ).

  • One dimension of this need is the production of enough health workers with basic and advanced qualifi cations that are relevant to the needs of the community (Scheffl er et al. 2009 ).

  • Another dimension is the ability to offer faculty members adequate and appropriate opportunities for professional growth in their own institutions and a satisfactory local environment in which to function (Marchal and Kegels 2003 ).

교원의 결정에 영향을 주어 다른 교육 기관, 국가 또는 지역으로 이전 할 수있는 전문적 요인 및 개인적 요소에는 보상, 장비 및 첨단 기술에 대한 접근, 직업 및 훈련 기회, 기술 개발, 전문 네트워크 창출, 경력 향상 기회, 근무 환경이 포함됩니다 , 다른 환경에서의 경험 기회, 건강 관리의 지역 정치, 지역에서의 의약품 개선 욕구, 사회적 조건, 개인의 안전, 개인의 자유 정도, 가족 문제 (Burch et al., 2011; Burdick et al., 2006) ).

Professional and personal factors that may influence faculty decisions to relocate to a different institution, country, or region include

  • remuneration,

  • access to equipment and advanced technology,

  • career and training opportunities,

  • skills development,

  • professional network creation,

  • opportunities for career advancement,

  • work environment,

  • opportu- nity for experience in a different environment,

  • regional politics of health care,

  • desire to improve medicine in region,

  • social conditions,

  • personal safety,

  • degree of personal freedom, and

  • family issues (Burch et al. 2011 ; Burdick et al. 2006 ).


 

이 장의 사례에 설명 된 바와 같이, iFDP는 구조와 목적, 조직적 독립성 (Gajda 2004)의 상응하는 정도에서 서로 다르며 시간이 지남에 따라 발전합니다. 조직 독립성은 

  • Cooperation (독립적 인 조직이 정보를 공유하는 곳)에서부터

  • Coordination (독립적 인 조직이 활동을 지원하거나 이벤트를 공동 후원하는 경우)

  • Collaboration (조직이 상호 목표를 달성하기 위해 독립성을 포기하는 경우)

...에 이르기까지 연속적으로 개념화 될 수 있습니다.

As illustrated by the examples in this chapter, international faculty development partnerships differ (and evolve over time) in structures and purposes, and in the corresponding degree of organizational independence (Gajda 2004 ). Organizational independence can be conceptualized along a continuum from cooperation (where fully independent organizations share information) to coordination (where indepen- dent organizations align activities or co-sponsor events) to collaboration (where organizations give up some independence to achieve mutual goals).


 

파트너십은 파트너 리소스 및 요구 사항 측면에서 다양합니다. 파트너 기부 및 혜택의 성격은 파트너 리소스 및 필요에 따라 부분적으로 다릅니다. 상대적으로 자원이 풍부하고 자원이 제한적인 기관들간의 파트너십에서 자원이 풍부한 기관은 이타주의와 향상된 명성, 영향력, 관점과 지식을 넓히고자 하는 잠재성에 의해 동기 부여가 될 수 있습니다.

 

이상적인 파트너십은 각 파트너와 동등하거나 별개의 이익을 얻는 것입니다. Einterz et al. (2007)은 '선진국과 개발 도상국의 의료 시스템은 본질적으로 불평등하다'는 점에서 Equality보다는 Equity이 생산적인 관계의 특징이되어야한다고 주장했다 (Einterz 외, 2007 p 813). 파트너쉽은 상호 공헌과 혜택으로 지원됩니다. 이는 모든 파트너의 역량 강화와 제도적 힘 강화에 중점을 둡니다.

Partnerships also vary in terms of partner resources and needs. The nature of partner contributions and benefi ts differ in part depending on partner resources and needs. For partnerships between relatively well-resourced and resource-limited institutions, the well-resourced may in part be motivated by altruism, as well as the potential for enhanced reputation, infl uence, and broadened perspectives and knowledge. The ideal partnership would be one in which there were equal, if distinct, benefi ts to each partner involved. Einterz et al. ( 2007 ) argue that equity, rather than equality, should be a characteristic of productive relationships, given that ‘medical systems in the developed and developing world are inherently unequal’ (Einterz et al. 2007 p. 813). Partnerships are supported by mutual contributions and benefi ts. This entails empowerment of all partners and a focus on fostering institutional strength.


 

15.2 iFDP의 장점은 무엇인가?

15.2 What Are the Benefits of International Faculty Development Partnerships?


필연적으로 국제적인 교수진 개발 파트너십에는 다양한 이해관계자가 있습니다. 각각의 파트너는 서로 다른 맥락에서 운영되며 각각 독특한 요구와 강점을 가지고 있습니다. (도 15.1 참조).

There are inevitably multiple stakeholders in international faculty development partnerships, each operating within a different context and each with unique needs and strengths. (see Fig.  15.1 ). 

 


 

교수진 개발 평가는 종종 개인 수준의 결과에 초점을 맞 춥니 다. 그러나 교수진 개발의 '관계'측면을 검토 할 필요성이 점차 커지고있다 (Asthana 외 2002, El Ansari 외 2001, Halliday 외 2004, O'Sullivan and Irby 2011).

Faculty development evaluation has often focused on individual- level outcomes; however, there is increasing recognition of the need to examine ‘relationship’ aspects of faculty development (Asthana et al. 2002 ; El Ansari et al. 2001 ; Halliday et al. 2004 ; O’Sullivan and Irby 2011 ).


15.2.1. 개인의 이득

15.2.1 Individual Benefits


그러나 일부 혜택은 국제 프로그램에 참여하는 개별 교수진에게 특히 중요합니다. 새로운 맥락에서의 건강과 문화뿐만 아니라 궁극적으로 다른 나라의 아이디어와 노출은 교수진에게 동기 부여가 될 수있다 (Kanter 2010). 파트너십에 참여하는 것은 다른 문화에서 질병과 건강에 대한 지식을 향상시킴으로써 교수진과 학생의 성장에 기여할 수 있으며, 따라서 보건 전문가 교육과 건강 관리를 강화할 수 있습니다 (Brook et al. 2010; Kanter 2010). 또한 혜택에는 저 자원 환경에서 보건 전문가 교육 혁신에 참여함으로써 얻은 향상된 업무 만족도가 포함될 수 있습니다 (Kolars 외. 2012). 이러한 파트너십에 참여한 사람은 전문성을 인정 받거나 승진 할 수도 있습니다 (Tekian and Dwyer 1998).

However, some benefi ts are particular to indi- vidual faculty members participating in an international program.

  • Exposure to fac- ulty and ideas from other countries, as well as to health care and culture in new contexts, can be motivating to faculty (Kanter 2010 ).

  • Participation in partnerships can contribute to faculty and student growth by enhancing their knowledge about illness and wellness in different cultures and can thereby enrich their practice of both health professions education and health care (Brook et al. 2010 ; Kanter 2010 ).

  • Benefits might also include enhanced work satisfaction accrued from participating in innovations in health professions education in low resource settings (Kolars et al. 2012 ).

  • Greater professional recognition and advancement may also accrue to individuals for involvement in such partnerships (Tekian and Dwyer 1998 ).


15.2.2 기관의 이득

15.2.2 Institutional Benefits


대부분의 교수진 개발 이니셔티브는 참여 기관의 역량을 높이고 교육의 질을 향상시키기위한 것입니다. 이러한 혜택은 학생들의 학습과 건강 관리로 확대되어야합니다. 이상적으로, 이러한 이점은 교수진 개발 파트너십의 기간을 넘어 서서 유지되는 것이어야합니다. 이니셔티브의 디자인은 참여한 개인 너머에 어떤 유익이 발생 하는지를 결정하는 몇 가지 중요한 요소 중 하나이다 (Grossman and Salas 2011; Holton et al., 2003).
Most faculty development initiatives are intended to increase capacity and improve the quality of education at the participating institutions. These benefi ts should in turn extend to student learning and health care. Ideally, these benefi ts should be such that they are sustained beyond the duration of the faculty development partnership. The design of the initiative would be one crucial factor among several in determining whether any benefi t accrues beyond participating individuals (Grossman and Salas 2011 ; Holton et al. 2003 ).


파트너십에 참여하면 파트너가 자원을 공유하거나 개발할 수 있습니다.
Involvement in partnerships can result in resource sharing or development by partners.


파트너쉽 참여는 자원이 제한적인 환경에서 가능하지 않은 역량 개발을 가능하게하는 funding에 대한 접근을 생성 할 수있다 (Kanter 2010; Kolars 외. 2012). 관련 기관은 기관을 통해 전달되는 외부 기관의 자금 지원 (예 : 보조금 지원)을받을 수 있습니다. 이 기금은 파트너십에 참여한 교수진 시간을 buy함으로써 부서 및 / 또는 기관 리소스를 늘릴 수 있습니다.

Involvement in partner- ships can also generate access to funding that allows the development of capacity that would not otherwise be possible in resource-constrained environments (Kanter 2010 ; Kolars et al. 2012 ). Institutions involved may benefi t from funding of external agencies (such as grant funding) that is channeled through their institutions. This funding may augment departmental and/or institutional resources by buying out faculty time for their involvement in the partnership.


교원 개발 파트너십이 고소득 국가와 저소득 국가의 기관들 사이에있을 때, 고소득 국가의 파트너에 대한 가치 제안은 부분적으로 이타 적이 될 수 있습니다 (Kolars 외. 2012). 자원 제약이있는 환경에서 보건 전문가의 교육이나 건강의 질을 향상시키는 것을 돕는 것은 고소득 국가의 기관의 명성을 향상시킬 수 있습니다 (Kanter 2010).

When the faculty development partnership is between institutions from high and low income countries, the value proposition for partners from high income nations may be in part altruistic (Kolars et al. 2012 ). Helping to improve the quality of health professions education or health in resource constrained settings can enhance the reputation of institutions from high income countries (Kanter 2010 ).


 

또한 모든 파트너의 명성은 혁신의 공동 작업과 개발을 통해 향상 될 수 있습니다 (Kanter 2010). 국 제, 지역 및 국제 자금 지원 기관 (Conaboy et al., 2005; Tekian and Dwyer 1998)과 같은 중요한 역할을 담당하는 파트너가있는 경우 국제 협력에 대한 참여가 신뢰를 얻을 수 있습니다. 장기적인 관점에서 볼 때 이러한 혜택은 더 나은 교수진과 학생들을 끌어들이도록하여 교육 기관을 강화시킬 수 있습니다 (Kanter 2010).


Moreover, the reputation of all partners can be enhanced through collaboration and development of innovations (Kanter 2010 ). Involvement in international collaborations can gain credibility for partners with infl uential role players like legislators and national, regional, and international funding agencies (Conaboy et al. 2005 ; Tekian and Dwyer 1998 ). Over the longer term, benefi ts such as these could strengthen institutions by allowing them to attract better faculty and students (Kanter 2010 ).

 


 

15.2.3 시스템과 사회의 이득

15.2.3 System and Societal Benefits


많은 국제 교수진 개발 파트너십의 궁극적 인 목표는 일반적으로 교육 시스템을 강화하는 방법으로 자국 내에서 의료 서비스를 강화하는 것입니다 (Kanter 2010). 국제 파트너십의 중점은 주요 질병, 전문 교육 분야 또는보다 일반적인 교육 분야에있을 수 있습니다. 파트너 국가에서 교육을 강화하는 교수진 개발은 특히 보건 의료 노동자 migration가 문제가되는 곳에서 의료 종사자의 retention에 기여할 수있다 (Burch et al. 2011; Clinton et al. 2010). 국가 간 및 빈곤 지역 (종종 농촌 지역) 간의 이 migration를 막을 경우 국가의 건강 필요를 충족시키는 데 드는 비용을 잠재적으로 줄일 수 있습니다 (Kanter 2010).

The ultimate goal of many international faculty development partnerships is strengthening health care in their countries, typically by way of strengthening educa- tional systems (Kanter 2010 ). The focus of international partnerships may be on a major illness, an area of specialty training, or more general areas of education. Faculty development that enhances education in partners’ countries may contribute to the retention of health workers, especially where health care worker migration is an issue (Burch et al. 2011 ; Clinton et al. 2010 ). Stemming this migration, both between countries and from underserved (often rural) areas within countries, poten- tially reduces the costs of meeting the health needs of a nation (Kanter 2010 ).


그러나 교수진의 교육 준비, 커리큘럼 개발 기술, 다른 보건 전문가 교육자와의 네트워크 구축 능력, 의료 시스템에서 리더십과 관리 역할을 맡을 수있는 능력 (Kolars 외, 2012)과 같은 문제는 그러한 이니셔티브에 의해 해결 될 수 있습니다.

However, issues like

  • faculty preparedness to teach,

  • curriculum development skills,

  • the ability to network with other health professions educators, and

  • preparation to assume leadership and management roles in the health care system (Kolars et al. 2012 )

can be addressed by such initiatives.

 

 


고소득 국가의 강사 개발 파트너는 전 세계 보건 전문가 교육의 질 향상 (Guo 외 2009)과 같은 인도주의적 목표 달성에 기여함으로써 어느 정도 이익을 얻을 수 있으며 자원이있는 지역 또는 국가의 건강 증진 건강 전문가의 교육의 질과 관련성을 개선함으로써 긴급한 건강 문제를 해결할 수 있도록 돕는다 (Kanter 2010, Kolars 외). 저소득 국가의 건강 관리 강화 및 건강 증진은 모든 파트너에게 혜택을 줄 수 있습니다. 예를 들어, 이것은 한 국가에서 다른 국가로 병의 확산을 감소시키는 데 기여할 수 있습니다 (Kanter 2010).

Faculty development partners from high income countries may benefit to some degree by

  • contributing to the realization of humanitarian goals like improving the quality of health professions education around the world (Guo et al. 2009 ),

  • enhancing health in a district or nation where resources are limited, and

  • helping solve pressing health problems by improving the quality and relevance of the educa- tion of health professionals (Kanter 2010 ; Kolars et al. 2012 ).

Strengthening health care and enhancing health in lower income countries may have benefi ts that extend to all partners. For instance, this could contribute to decreasing the spread of illness from one country to another (Kanter 2010 ).


15.2.4. 관계적 이득

15.2.4 Relationship Benefits


파트너십을 통해 팀을 구성하고 네트워크를 강화할 수 있습니다 (Kolars 외. 2012).

Partnerships can build teams and strengthen networks (Kolars et al. 2012 ).


15.3 사례

15.3 Examples of International Faculty Development Partnership Programs

 

 


 

15.3.1 다기관 참여와 코디네이팅 기관

15.3.1 Coordinating Organization with Multi-institution Participation


International partnership programs that involve a central coordinating organization with multi-institution participation are capable of global reach. The following two examples illustrate this geographic breadth.


첫 번째 사례: The Harvard Macy Institute: Program for Educators in Health Professions

One example of a program run by a coordinating organization is The Harvard Macy Institute: Program for Educators in Health Professions ( http://www. harvardmacy.org ; Armstrong et al. 2003 ; Armstrong and Barsion 2006 ; Armstrong 2007 ). Program faculty come from a range of institutions and countries. Some program alumni are involved as faculty. International participants are healthcare professionals with a role as educators. The program was established with a grant from the Josiah Macy Jr. Foundation, and additional funding comes from tuition fees paid by participants. Additional support comes from faculty and staff time from Harvard and other institutions.


  • The program consists of two residential sessions about 4 months apart.

  • There are five curricular themes: learning and teaching, curriculum, evaluation, leadership, and information technology.

  • Participants undertake an educational project (e.g. revision of curriculum or implementation of a faculty development program in the participant’s home institution).

  • The informal curriculum is noted to be as important as the formal curriculum (i.e. largely ad hoc interpersonal interactions between and among students and faculty are as important to the achievement of program goals as the formally stated and intended curriculum).


효과성

Desired benefits of the program include

  • enhancing the professional development of health professionals as educators,

  • supporting institutional changes via changes in participant teaching behaviors and professional activities, and

  • developing communities of practice across disciplines and institutions.

 

목표 달성의 근거

Evidence of goal achievement includes participants’ (learners’) report of:


  • • Increased awareness and use of a greater array of teaching methods; increased knowledge about and comfort with active learning.

  •  • Increased enthusiasm for and commitment to medical education as a primary career direction and stronger identity and confidence as a medical educator.

  •  • New understanding of, and appreciation for, ways in which medical education is implemented in institutions nationally and globally (i.e. broadened perspectives).

  •  • Evidence of organizational change via participant behaviors (e.g. additional projects, joining educational committees, educational grant applications).

  •  • Creation/expansion of a global network of resources and connections, including support from like-minded colleagues.

두 번째 사례: FAIMER Institute and FAIMER Regional Institutes

The Foundation for Advancement of International Medical Education and Research (FAIMER): FAIMER Institute and FAIMER Regional Institutes are also examples of programs with a coordinating organization ( http://www.faimer. org ; Burdick et al. 2006 2007 2010 2011 2012 ; Norcini et al. 2005 ).

  • The FAIMER Institute program has on-site sessions based in the USA with international participants;

  • FAIMER Regional Institutes have on-site sessions and participants based in their regions (including programs based in India, Brazil, China, and South Africa).

 

The core program faculty and leadership include

  • FAIMER personnel,

  • alumni of the fel- lowships (including local alumni for the Regional Institutes), and

  • other international faculty.

 

Health professions educators apply in a competitive process to participate in the fellowship programs, with evidence of institutional support as part of the application process.


  • The FAIMER programs are 2-year fellowships, with two residential sessions (at the start of each year) interspersed with an 11-month intersession of learning at a distance.

  • An educational innovation project is central as an opportunity for hands- on application of fellowship learning and work towards institutional or regional change in health professions education.

  • Community building occurs via extensive interaction during residential sessions, overlap of the on-site sessions of year 1 and 2 fellows, and continued engagement with program alumni.


Desired benefits of the programs include

  • strengthening fellows’ skills in health professions education methods, leadership, management, research, and scholarship.

  • At the institutional level, there is the desire to improve health pro- fessions education in the fellows’ home institutions and countries/regions, stimu- late growth in the field of health professions education, and improve opportunities for professional advancement.

  • The programs also aim to build a transnational community of practice by creating a critical mass of health professions educators and facilitating interaction, resource sharing, and collaboration.

 

목표 달성의 근거

  • • Fellows have reported applying knowledge and skills gained from the fellowship experience in their home institutions, including achievement of a range of project outcomes.

  •  • The majority of fellows have reported that their educational innovation projects have been incorporated into the curriculum or institutional policy, and/or replicated in their institution or another setting.

  •  • Follow-up data indicate that fellowship program alumni have health professions education career paths, produce education scholarship, engage in collaborative projects, and serve as resource experts in health professions education.

  •  • Fellows have reported a community of practice characterized by support, shared learning and problem solving, and a network of expanded breadth in terms of geographic diversity and expertise.




15.3.2 학위 수여 기관

15.3.2 Health Professions Education Degree- and Diploma- Conferring Institutions


 

파트너 기관의 역할장기간의 지속가능성 계획에 따라 다양하다

International partnerships for health professions education degree/diploma programs (Tekian and Harris 2012 ) vary in

  • the roles of each partner institution (including degree conferral), and

  • plans for long-term sustainability (e.g. joint degree program versus capacity building for program administered by one partner institution).


The Joint Master of Health Professions Education (JMHPE) Maastricht University – Suez Canal University ( http://www.maastrichtuniversity.nl/web/ show/id=449891/langid=42 ; http://www.themedfomscu.org ; Mohamed et al. 2012 ) involves core program faculty and leadership from both Maastricht and Suez Canal Universities. Global faculty are chosen from program graduates. Participants are graduates of any health professions education institution (e.g. medicine, nursing, dentistry, pharmacy, health sciences, physiotherapy, and speech therapy).


The program is a 1 year (9 blocks) Master program, conducted entirely via distance learning. By the end of the program a master degree is jointly granted, and the certificate is co-signed by both Maastricht and Suez Canal Universities.


Desired benefits of the programs include

  • 참가자들에게 건강 전문 직업 교육 및 연구 분야에서 필요한 지식과 기술을 갖추도록
    equipping participants with the knowledge and skills required for a career in health professions education and research, and

  • 그들의 교육 기관에서 의학 교육의 향상에 적극적으로 참여할 수있는 졸업생의 critical mass을 개발합니다.
    developing critical masses of graduates who can actively participate in the enhancement of medical education in their home institutions.

 

목표 달성의 근거

Evidence of goal achievement includes the following:


  • • Program graduates and participants (learners) report that the program supports increased knowledge of health professions education as well as enhanced capacity building and career development at the national, regional, and international levels.

  •  • The Medical Education Department of Suez Canal University was awarded a Leadership and Management Award in 2010 by Management Sciences for Health, an international non-profi t organization working with individuals, communities and institutions in developing nations to build stronger health systems, improve health services, and respond to priority health problems.




Another example of a degree- or diploma-conferring partnership is the University of Illinois at Chicago (UIC) and KLE University in Belgaum, India – Diploma and Masters in Health Professions Education (MScHPE) program ( http://www. kleuniversity.edu.in/udeph/index.html ; A. Tekian, personal communication, August 22, 2012).

  • 교수자
    The core teaching faculty
    for this program come from UIC and are full- time professors. There are other local faculty as well who were trained at UIC. All the participants come from India.

  • 참여 우선권
    Priority is given to KLE University faculty members; however, a few health professionals from neighboring provinces are accepted as well.

  • 참가자 전공분야
    All participants are health professionals, with the majority from medicine, dentistry, and nursing.


  • 이 과정은 2 년 과정이며 일정한 주간 코스가 정기적으로 제공됩니다.
    This is a 2-year program, with mandatory week-long courses offered at regular intervals.

  • 모든 교재는 교육 및 문화에 대한 인도의 상황을 고려하여 UIC에서 개발됩니다
    All course material is developed at UIC taking into consideration the Indian context of education and culture.

  • 프로그램을 완료하려면 관석이 필요합니다. 모든 관석 프로젝트는 Belgaum에서 개최 된 보건 전문 교육 연례회의에서 상영됩니다.
    Completion of the program requires a capstone. All capstone projects are presented at an Annual Conference in health professions education held in Belgaum.


The program is funded by KLE University and is housed at the University Department of Education for Health Professionals (UDEHP). UDEHP provides in- kind support for the daily operation of the program, including coordination of communication, educational resources such as handouts, and the physical facility.


학비는 보조금을 받고 참가자는 기관에서 지원 받거나 스스로 지불합니다.

Tuition fees are subsidized and participants are supported by their institutions, or pay themselves.


Desired benefi ts of the program include

  • acquisition and improvement in knowledge and profi ciency in essential skills in medical education, including

    • teaching and learning,

    • curriculum development,

    • scholarship, and

    • leadership.

 

또한 프로그램 참여자가 대학 및학과 내에서 change agents 및 자원으로 활동하고, 기관 간 협업을 촉진하며, 교육 및 장학금 분야에서 탁월한 교육 환경을 조성하는 데 도움이되기를 기대합니다.

It is also hoped that program participants will

  • act as change agents and resources within their colleges and departments,

  • promote collaboration institution wide, and

  • help to create an educational climate within the institution that fosters excellence in education and scholarship.

 

시스템 차원에서이 프로그램은 고등 교육 시스템 내에서, 보건 및 교육부와 관련된 기관 내에서, 그리고 전문 사회를 통한 교육 혁신의 보급을 촉진함으로써 전국적으로 교육 체계를 강화할 것으로 기대된다.

On a systems level, it is hoped that the program will strengthen the edu-cational system nation-wide by fostering dissemination of educational innovations within the country’s higher education system, within institutions associated with the Ministries of Health and Education, and through professional societies.

 

 

이 프로그램은 또한 아이디어를 교환하고 자원을 공유하는 건강 전문가들 사이에서 실천의 공동체를 만들기 위해 참가자들 간의 관계를 지원하는 것을 목표로한다. 데이터를 공유하고 기관 간 장학금을 실시하기 위해 기관 간 협력 관계 및 협업을 창출한다. 연구비 지원을위한 다기관 보조금 제안서를 준비하고 제출하는 것.

The program also aims to support relationships among participants in order to create a community of practice among health professionals who exchange ideas and share resources; to create working relationships and collaborations among institutions to share data and conduct inter-institutional scholarship; and to prepare and submit multi-institutional grant proposals to fund research.

 

목표 달성의 근거

Evidence of goal achievement includes the following:


  • • Participants of the program have been involved in introducing education changes at their institutions (primarily KLE) and have published and presented education scholarship. For example, the concept of competency-based curriculum has been introduced for the fi rst time in the College of Dentistry.

  •  • Faculty development activities in medical education are organized and conducted by the participants of the program. UDEHP and a few participants of the program organized the fi rst medical education conference in Belgaum in 2012.

  •  • A select number of participants have been asked to serve as educational consultants to committees that guide national policies.

  •  • Networking among the participants has initiated multi-institutional projects attracting research funding.


The examples above illustrate different models for partnership capacity building – i.e.

  • creation of a joint degree program (Suez-Maastricht) versus

  • enhancing capacity of one partner institution to independently offer degree/diploma conferral (KLE- UIC).

 

There are also differences in whether the degree/diploma program is

  • focused on faculty from one of the partner institutions (e.g. KLE University) or

  • whether it is geared to more broad dissemination (e.g. Suez–Maastricht, which also uses distance learning to broaden its reach).




15.3.3 Two-Institution Partnerships


There are several documented examples of partnerships between two institutions in different countries. These programs vary in their structures and goals, including faculty development as part of a larger initiative such as

  • development of a new resi- dency program (e.g. Alem et al. 2010 ),

  • bilateral exchange of faculty and students (e.g. Wong and Agisheva 2004 2007 ), and

  • long-term institutional partnerships (twinning, e.g. Lacey-Haun and Whitehead 2009 ; Tache et al. 2008 ).


The Indiana University – Moi University (IU-Moi) Partnership (Einterz et al. 2007 ) involves collaboration between virtually all disciplines at both schools and relationships at both individual and department levels.


 

기대 이득

Desired benefits of the partnership include

  • 파트너 기관과 개인 참가자 모두에게 상호 공평한 혜택을 제공합니다.
    achieving mutual, equitable benefi ts for both partner institutions and their individual participants;

  • 미국과 케냐의 건강 관리 분야의 지도자 육성
    developing leaders in healthcare for the United States and Kenya; and

  • 의료계의 가치를 키우고
    fostering the values of the medical profession and

  • 협력과 교육을 통한 건강 증진.
    promoting health through collaboration and education.

 

두 가지 프로그램

  • One program based on the Indiana-Moi partnership is the Academic Research Ethics Partnership (AREP).

  • A second program based on the Indiana-Moi partnership is the Academic Model for the Prevention and Treatment of HIV/AIDS (AMPATH).


목표 달성의 증거로는 AREP 및 AMPATH와 같은 계획 수립 및 교수진, 학생 및 환자에게 제공되는 기회와 서비스를 포함한 이러한 프로그램의 성과가 포함됩니다.

Evidence of goal achievement includes establishment of initiatives such as AREP and AMPATH, and the achievements of these programs including the opportunities and services offered to faculty, students, and patients.


위의 예와 같은 파트너십의 특징 

  • 다양한 요소 (예 : 학생 및 교수진 교환, 교수진 개발, 공동 프로그램),

  • 파트너의 요구에 대한 대응 (예 : HIV 전염병에 중점을 둠) 및

  • 추가 파트너와의 협력 (의료기관 및 병원, 정부 기관, 지역 사회, 기금 제공 업체)

Partnerships such as the above example are distinguished by

  • having multiple components (e.g. student and faculty exchanges, faculty development, joint programs),

  • evolution over time in response to partner needs (e.g. focusing on HIV pandemic) and

  • collaboration with additional partners (medical institutions and hospitals, government institutions, communities, funders) to achieve specific goals.

 


 


15.4 Descriptors of International Faculty Development Partnerships


일반적으로 프로그램 제공의 핵심에는 두 개 이상의 기관간에 협업 관계 (파트너가 일부 독립성을 포기)가 있습니다. 그러나 종종 다른 기관이나 파트너 기관간에 다른 목적으로 다른 협력적이고 조정적인 관계가 있습니다. 예를 들어, 국제 의학 교육 연구 진흥 재단 (FAIMER) 프로그램은 지역 교수 개발 프로그램을위한 현물 자원을 제공하는 기관들과 참가자들이 참석하는 기관들과의 협력 관계를 수반한다.

Generally there is a collaborative relationship (i.e. partners giving up some independence) between two or more institutions at the core of program delivery. However, there are often other cooperative and coordinating relationships – either with additional institutions or between the partner institutions but for other purposes.

 

For example, the Foundation for Advancement of International Medical Education and Research (FAIMER) programs involve collaboration with the institutions hosting and providing in-kind resources for regional faculty development programs as well as cooperative relationships with the institutions from which participants come.


따라서 파트너십은 변화하는 요구 사항을 충족시키고 새로운 기회에 대응하기 위해 구조, 목적 및 독립 정도에서 시간이 지남에 따라 발전하는 일련의 관계로 개념화 될 수 있습니다.

Thus, partnerships can be conceptualized as a set of relationships that evolve over time in structure, purpose, and degree of independence in order to meet changing needs and respond to emerging opportunities.




15.5 Factors That Facilitate Successful Partnerships


 

국제 협력 개발을위한 성공 요인에 대한 더 많은 연구가 필요하지만 (El Ansari 외 2001, Glendinning 2002, Halliday 외 2004, O'Sullivan and Irby 2011), 국제 협력을 포함한 성공적인 파트너십에 관한 기존 문헌 의학 교육에서 iFDP의 관련 요인을 지적한다 (Kolars et al., Tekian and Dwyer 1998).

While there is a need for more research on success factors for international faculty development partnerships (El Ansari et al. 2001 ; Glendinning 2002 ; Halliday et al. 2004 ; O’Sullivan and Irby 2011 ), existing literature on successful partnerships, including international collaborations in medical education, point to relevant factors for international faculty development partnerships (Kolars et al. 2012 ; Tekian and Dwyer 1998 ).


'성공'은 파트너십의 과정과 결과에 의해 정의됩니다.

‘Success’ is defined by both the process and outcomes of the partnership.

 

프로세스 성공의 지표로는 파트너의 높은 참여와 참여, 파트너십의 목적과 필요에 대한 동의, 높은 수준의 신뢰와 존중,지지적인 주변 환경 (재정 환경, 제도 및 법적 구조,보다 광범위한 조직 간 관계) 파트너십에 대한 적절한 모니터링과 평가, 적극적이고 효과적인 리더십과 관리 (Dowling et al. 2004).

Indicators of process success include

  • high engagement and commitment of the partners,

  • agreement about the purpose and need for the partnership,

  • high levels of trust and respect,

  • supportive surrounding environments (fi nancial climate, institutional and legal structures, broader inter-organizational relationship),

  • adequate monitoring and evaluation of the partnership, and

  • active and effective leadership and management (Dowling et al. 2004 ).


프로세스 성공은 파트너십 형성을 통한 성공과 시간이 지남에 따른 파트너십 유지로 이어질 수 있습니다 (Leffers and Mitchell 2011).

Process success can further be divided into success with partnership formation and success with sustaining partnerships over time (Leffers and Mitchell 2011 ).

 

결과 성공 지표는이 장의 앞부분에서 설명한 개인, 제도, 시스템 및 관계 이점의 달성과 관련됩니다. 여기에는 파트너 기관(예 : 교수의 질)과 지역사회 (예 : 졸업생의 능력, 지역 사회의 건강)의 긍정적인 변화가 포함될 수 있습니다.

Outcome success indicators relate to

  • achievement of the individual, institutional, system, and relationship benefits described earlier in this chapter.

  • These may include positive changes in the partner institutions (e.g. quality of teaching) as well as the community being served (e.g. competence of graduates, health of community).

 



15.5.1 Partnership Formation


파트너쉽을 수립하는 세 가지 핵심 요소.

Three key elements in the establishment of partnerships are

  • the respective partners;

  • certain human, financial, and material resources; and

  • a process of engagement (Leffers and Mitchell 2011 ).


 

파트너십 형성과 관련된 요소들

  • Recognition and acceptance of the need for partnership,

  • frequent and two-way communication,

  • mutual goal setting,

  • adequate resources (including not only tangible assets but also time, expertise, trust, and understanding of each other),

  • knowledge and information sharing, and

  • cultural competence

...are cited as factors sup- porting the establishment of partnership relationships (Asthana et al. 2002 ; Gajda 2004 ; Kolars et al. 2012 ; Leffers and Mitchell 2011 ; Tekian and Dwyer 1998 ).

파트너십, 빈번한 양방향 의사 소통, 상호 목표 설정, 적절한 자원 (유형 자산뿐만 아니라 시간, 전문 지식, 신뢰 및 서로 이해함), 지식 및 정보 공유, 문화적 역량. (Asthana et al., 2002; Gajda 2004, Kolars et al., Leffers and Mitchell 2011, Tekian and Dwyer 1998).


 

이러한 요소들을 파트너십에 통합하는 데는 주의 깊은 계획이 필요합니다. 예를 들어

  • 기관 간 정보 공유를 방해 할 수있는 조직 장벽 (예 : 정보 공유 제한 정책)을 인식하고 최소화해야 할 필요가 있습니다.

  • 상호 목표 설정은 모든 파트너가 이익을 얻도록 보장하는 데 중요할 뿐만 아니라, 한 파트너의 다른 파트너에 대한 의존도를 잠재적으로 조장(foster)하는 것을 피하는 데 도움이됩니다 (Kolars 외. 2012).

Incorporating these factors into a partnership requires mindful planning. For example, there is a need to recognize and minimize organizational barriers that may impede sharing information between institutions (e.g. policies restricting information sharing). Mutual goal setting is important to ensure that all partners benefi t; it also helps to avoid the potential fostering of dependency of one partner on the other (Kolars et al. 2012 ).


 

문화적 역량은 조직 문화의 차이로 인해 발생하는 문화적 차이와 함께 개방적이고 가치있는 차이를 평가하는 것을 포함합니다 (Asthana 외 2002).

  • 문화적 인식, 지식 및 기술의 차이 해결 (Tekian 및 Dwyer 1998, Campinha-Bacote 2002)과 함께

  • 언어 차이를 해결하는 것이이 부분 일 수 있습니다 (Wong and Agisheva 2007).

  • 문화의 연결은 또한 교육 문화로 확장됩니다 (Wong and Agisheva 2007). 교수진은 교수 개발 활동 중에 다른 환경의 교수 전략에 복종하는 것에 익숙하지 않을 수도 있습니다.

Cultural competence includes being open to and valuing differences, with cultural differences arising also from differences in organizational cultures (Asthana et al. 2002 ).

  • Addressing language differences may be part of this (Wong and Agisheva 2007 ),

  • along with cultural awareness, knowledge, and skills (Tekian and Dwyer 1998 ; Campinha-Bacote 2002 ).

  • The bridging of cultures also extends to educational cultures (Wong and Agisheva 2007 ). Faculty in one setting may not be accustomed to being subjected to teaching strategies in the course of faculty development activities that are commonplace in another setting.


Tekian과 Dwyer (1998)는 중국과 이집트의 보건 전문 교육 (MHPE)에서 석사 과정을 설립하기위한 국제 파트너십을 비교하여 효과적인 의사 소통의 중요성과 언어 차이의 문제점을 강조합니다. 여기에는 교직원들이 서로 의사 소통하고 의사 소통이 제한된 언어로 된 문학의 사용이 제한되어 있습니다 (번역사가없는 경우).

In a comparison of international partnerships to establish Masters programs in Health Professions Education (MHPE) in China and Egypt, Tekian and Dwyer ( 1998 ) highlight the importance of effective communication and the challenges of language differences. This includes potential diffi culty with faculty members communicating with each other and with students (in the absence of translators), and limited use of literature in languages where faculty and students have limited fl uency.

 

iFDP를 개발할 때 문화적 인식, 즉, 상대의 가치, 정치적 기후 및 국가의 사회 경제적 지위를 이해하는 것이 중요합니다. 따라서 파트너는 서로의 상황, 필요, 자원 및 우선 순위를 이해하고 이러한 인식을 파트너십 아젠다 개발의 기초로 사용하도록 노력해야합니다.

Cultural awareness, understanding of accepted values, political climate, and the socioeconomic status of the country are important when developing international faculty development partnerships. Thus, partners need to work toward understanding each other’s contexts, needs, resources, and priorities, and using this awareness as a basis for developing the partnership agenda.

 


 

문화적 역량을 성취하기위한 전략에는

  • 문화적으로 친숙한 교수 및 평가 도구를 찾고,

  • 선입견에 저항하며,

  • 다른 사람들과 문화의 특징에 대해 토론하고,

  • 정체성에 관한 문학을 검토하고,

  • 문화적 역량을 다루는 전문성 개발에 참여할 수 있습니다 (Willis 1999).

 

Strategies to achieve cultural competence may include

  • seeking culturally- friendly teaching and assessment tools,

  • resisting stereo-types,

  • discussing features of culture with others,

  • reviewing the literature on identity, and

  • participating in professional development that addresses cultural competence (Willis 1999 ).

프로그램을 현지 요구에 맞게 조형 및 조정하고 지역 환경에 적합한 사례 및 사례 연구를 통해 내용을 적용 및 보완하는 등의 신중한 준비도 성공에 필수적입니다 (Tekian and Dwyer 1998).

Careful preparation, including

  • molding and tailoring a program to local needs and

  • adapting and supplementing the content with examples and case studies appropriate to local environments,

is also imperative to success (Tekian and Dwyer 1998 ).

 

 


 

문화적 시각, 개인적 특성, 개인적 기대, 파트너 국가에 대한 지식은 모두 파트너 관계 개발에 중요한 역할을합니다. 다른 문화에서 가르치려는 교수진을 주의 깊게 선택하면 교수진의 생산성과 기여도가 향상됩니다.

또한 문화적 오해를 최소화하고 여러 렌즈를 통해 세상을 보는 것에 대한 관용을 증대시키기 위해 국제 과제 수행에 관심있는 교수진을 준비하는 데 충분한 시간을 할애해야 합니다 (Tekian and Dwyer 1998).

Cultural perspectives, personal attributes, personal expectations, and knowledge of the partner country all play a role in the development of the partner relationship. Careful selection of faculty who are willing to teach in a different culture improves the productivity and contribution of the faculty. Additionally, suffi cient time should be devoted for preparing faculty interested in undertaking international assignments in order to minimize cultural misunderstandings and increase tolerance to seeing the world through multiple lenses (Tekian and Dwyer 1998 ).


다양한 논문을 인용하면서, Leffers and Mitchell (2011 p 99)은 효과적인 파트너십을위한 다양한 특질의 역할을 강조했다.

  • 상호 동의

  • 커뮤니케이션, 상호 지원, 상호 신뢰, 존중, 평등 및 분쟁 관리를 포함하는 호혜적 동료 관계;

  • 전문가 간의 공유, 협력 및 시너지를 포함하는 상호 의존성;

  • 빈번한 피드백;

  • 합의하고 평등 주의적 인 권력과 리더십 '

Citing various papers, Leffers and Mitchell ( 2011 p. 99) highlight the role of various attributes for effective partnerships, including the following:

  • ‘agreement to partner;

  • collegial relationships that include reciprocity, communication, mutual support, mutual trust, respect, equality and confl ict management;

  • interdependency that involves sharing, cooperation, and synergy between professionals;

  • frequent feedback; and

  • power and leadership that is consensual and egalitarian’.

 

아래는 효과적인 협업을 위한 중요한 기술입니다 (Kolars 외, 2012; Leffers and Mitchell 2011, Tekian and Dwyer 1998).

  • 효과적인 의사 소통,

  • 공유 된 의사 결정

  • 협상

Effective communication, shared decision making, and negotiation are important skills for effective collaboration (Kolars et al. 2012 ; Leffers and Mitchell 2011 ; Tekian and Dwyer 1998 ).

 

이는 협력자 들간의 직접 대면 회의 (Kolars et al. 2012)에 의해 지원됩니다. 상호 합의 된 목표를 수립하는 것은 진행중인 교환 과정의 일부입니다. 이것은 서로 공유하는 가치를 개발하는 과정입니다.
This is aided by face-to-face meetings between collaborators (Kolars et al. 2012 ). Establishing mutually-agreed goals is part of the on-going process of exchange. Implicit in this process is the development of a shared set of values.


 

적절한 목표를 구성하고 목표를 측정하는 방법에 대한 명확한 의제를 설정하면 효과적인 파트너십을 확보하는 데 도움이 될 수 있습니다. 이를 달성하는 한 가지 방법은 요구도 평가 프로세스를 함께 고안하고 착수하는 것입니다 (Guo et al. 2009). 북아메리카와 사하라 사막 이남 아프리카 기관 들간의 협력 관계 중 하나는 그들의 토론과 처음에 원하는 증거의 틀을 알리기 위해 10 가지 학습 질문을 고안했다 (Kolars 외. 2012). 이 단계를 더욱 발전 시키려면 잠재적 이득와 위험을 평가하여 협력에 참여한 당사자들이 관련 이슈에 대해 알리고 최적으로 해결할 수있는 견고한 접근 방식을 개발해야합니다 (Kanter 2010).

Setting a clear agenda for both what constitute appropriate goals and how those goals will be measured may help ensure an effective partnership. One way of achieving this is devising and undertaking a needs assessment process together (Guo et al. 2009 ). One collective of partnerships between North America and sub-Saharan African institutions devised ten learning questions to inform their discussions and a framework of desired evidence at the outset (Kolars et al. 2012 ). Taking this a step further, robust approaches need to be developed to assess potential benefits and risks so that parties engaging in a collaboration are both informed about and optimally able to address relevant issues (Kanter 2010 ).




15.5.2 파트너십 지속가능성

15.5.2  Partnership  Sustainability


이 장의 시작 부분에서 설명한 것처럼 파트너십 구조와 목표는 시간이 지남에 따라 발전 할 수 있습니다. 상호 지원 및 격려(Mutual support and encouragement )는 파트너십의 모든 단계에서 중요합니다. 프로세스의 여러 단계에서 에너지를 제공하는 파트너는 상호 이익과 마찬가지로 지속 가능성에 중요 할 수 있습니다. 이타주의 만이 파트너십을 유지하기에 충분조건이되지 못한다 (Einterz 외. 2007).

As discussed in the beginning of this chapter, partnership structures and goals may evolve over time. Mutual support and encouragement are important at all stages of partnerships. Partners contributing energy at different stages of the process can be important for sustainability, as are mutual benefi ts. Altruism alone is not a suffi cient condition for maintaining a partnership (Einterz et al. 2007 ).


능동적이고 효과적인 리더십과 관리 및 공유 된 프로젝트 소유권은 파트너십의 지속 가능성을 지원하는 것으로 나타났습니다 (Asthana 외 2002, Leffers and Mitchell 2011). 관계가 지속 가능하기 위해서는 특정 개인에 대한 의존성을 초월할 필요가 있습니다 (관련된 개인은 시간이 지남에 따라 변경 될 수 있기 때문에). 관계와 가치가 파트너십이 운영되는 방식과 과정의 일부분이되도록 네트워크를 제도화하여 지원할 수 있습니다 (Asthana 외 2002). 파트너쉽의 평가는 파트너쉽을 개선하고 유지하는데 유용한 정보와 책임성을 제공 할 수도있다 (Asthana 외. 2002).

Active and effective leadership and management and shared project ownership have been noted to support sustainability of partnerships (Asthana et al. 2002 ; Leffers and Mitchell 2011 ). For relationships to be sustainable, there is a need to transcend dependence on specifi c individuals (since the specifi c individuals involved are likely to change over time). Institutionalizing networks so that relationships and values are part of the structure and process of how the partnership operates may support this (Asthana et al. 2002 ). Evaluation of partnerships may also provide information and accountability that is useful for improving and sustaining the partnership (Asthana et al. 2002 ).


관련 업무에 종사하는 다른 단체와의 연계를 구축하면 파트너십의 성공과 지속 가능성이 강화 될 수 있습니다 (Asthana 외 2002). 대규모 협력은 대학, 정부 부처 및 중앙 정부가 참여하기 전에 개인, 부서 및 기관 수준에서 관계를 수립함으로써 효과적으로 수립 될 수있다 (Einterz et al., 2007).

Establishing linkages with other organizations engaged in related work may strengthen the success and sustainability of partnerships (Asthana et al. 2002 ). Large collaborations may be effectively established by fi rst establishing relationships at personal, departmental, and institutional levels, before involving universities, government ministries, and central governments (Einterz et al. 2007 ).


 

지속 가능성에 대한 관심은 파트너 사가 일시적인 관계 및 이익보다는 제도적 강화에 초점을 맞추기 위해 그 자체로 중요합니다 (Kolars 외. 2012). 이러한 능력 구축은 챔피언, 리더십, 전문 지식 구조, 정책, 절차 및 자원에 대한 관심을 수반 할 수 있습니다 (Leffers and Mitchell 2011). 궁극적 인 파트너십 목표에 따라 시간이 지남에 따라 성공하려면 충분한 용량이 확보 된 후에 공동 소유권에서 파트너로 프로그램 소유권을 이전해야합니다. 또한 개발 도상국의 보건 시스템 구축에 영향을 줄 가능성을 높이기 위해 정부 및 자선 기금 제공처에 장기 제도적 파트너십 구축을 지원할 것을 촉구했다 (Einterz 외. 2007).

Attention to sustainability is in itself of great importance so that partners focus on institutional strengthening rather than transitory relationships and benefits (Kolars et al. 2012 ). This sort of capacity building may entail attention to champions, leadership, expertise structures, policies, procedures, and resources (Leffers and Mitchell 2011 ). Depending on the ultimate partnership goals, success over time may involve transfer of program ownership from joint to one partner, once sufficient capacity exists. There has also been a call for government and philanthropic funders to direct support to the establishment of long-term institutional partnerships so as to increase the likelihood of impact on building developing countries’ health systems (Einterz et al. 2007 ).


15.6 Conclusion


성공적인 파트너십 형성을 지원하는 일반적인 요소로는 잦은 양방향 의사 소통, 상호 목표 설정, 분명한 의제 설정, 적절한 자원 및 문화적 역량이 포함됩니다. General factors that support successful partnership formation include

  • fre- quent two-way communication,

  • mutual goal setting,

  • setting a clear agenda,

  • ade- quate resources, and

  • cultural competence.

파트너쉽의 지속 가능성은 상호 이익의 실현, 효과적인 리더십 및 관리, 프로젝트 소유권 공유, 타 조직과의 연계성 제정 및 강화 및 역량 강화를 통해 지원됩니다.

Partnership sustainability is supported by

  • realization of mutual benefits,

  • effective leadership and management,

  • shared project ownership,

  • establishment of linkages with other organizations, and

  • insti- tutional strengthening and capacity building.


15.7 Key Messages


• Building relationships is crucial for productive, sustained international faculty development partnerships.

• Well-functioning partnerships allow faculty exposure to methods, materials, opportunities, contexts, and contacts/networks that they may not encounter locally.

 • Cultural bridging, effective and frequent communication, and mutual goal setting are important to partnership success.

 • Success in partnerships is defined by both process and outcomes success, and rests on attention to and planning for not only partnership formation but also sustainability.

 • International faculty development partnerships vary in their structures and purposes, with both potentially evolving over time in response to partner needs and goals.



 



 



 



 




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Chapter

Faculty Development in the Health Professions

Volume 11 of the series Innovation and Change in Professional Education pp 311-329

Date: 

International Faculty Development Partnerships

  • Stacey Friedman 
  • Francois Cilliers
  • Ara Tekian
  • John Norcini

Abstract

International faculty development partnerships are motivated by a desire to achieve mutual goals. They are also a response to the globalization of health professions education, research, and practice. For participating institutions, partnerships may build global awareness, improve recruitment, and provide resources for students, faculty members, and alumni. Well-functioning partnerships allow faculty exposure to methods of teaching and learning, opportunities for research, and clinical contexts, materials, and methods that they may not encounter locally. Partnerships allow faculty to expand their networks of collaborators and the communities of scholarship in which they work. This chapter will describe various examples of international faculty development programs. We will also discuss facilitators of success for international partnerships, including the need for cultural competence, shared values, and mutual support.



교수개발에 관한 Systematic review : 10년간의 업데이트 (BEME Guide No. 40)

A systematic review of faculty development initiatives designed to enhance teaching effectiveness: A 10-year update: BEME Guide No. 40


Yvonne Steinerta, Karen Mannb, Brownell Andersonc, Bonnie Maureen Barnettd, Angel Centenoe, Laura Naismithf, David Prideauxg, John Spencerh, Ellen Tulloi, Thomas Viggianoj, Helena Wardk and Diana Dolmansl


aCentre for Medical Education, Faculty of Medicine, McGill University, Montreal, Canada; bDivision of Medical Education, Faculty of Medicine, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Canada; cInternational Programs, National Board of Medical Examiners, Philadelphia, PA, USA; dDepartment of Integrated Studies in Education, Faculty of Education, McGill University, Montreal, Canada; eFaculty of Biomedical Sciences, Austral University, Buenos Aires, Argentina; fHoPingKong Centre for Excellence in Education and Practice and The Wilson Centre, University Health Network, Toronto, Canada; gPrideaux Centre for Research in Health Professions Education, School of Medicine, Flinders University, Adelaide, Australia; hSchool of Medical Education, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK; iNewcastle NIHR Biomedical Research Centre in Ageing and Chronic Disease and Institute of Health and Society, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK; jMayo Clinic College of Medicine, Rochester, MN, USA; kMedicine Learning and Teaching Unit, School of Medicine, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia; lSchool of Health Professions Education (SHE), Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands





도입

Introduction


교육 및 평가의 새로운 교육 추세에 대응하여 대부분의 의과 대학 및 교육 기관에서는 교수 및 교사로서의 기술을 향상시키는 데 도움이되는 다양한 프로그램 및 활동을 제공합니다 (Steinert 2014).

In response to new educational trends in teaching and assessment, most medical schools and educational organizations now offer a variety of programs and activities to help faculty members improve their skills as teachers and educators (Steinert 2014).


FD는 health professionals가 개인 및 그룹 환경(individual and group settings) 모두에서 교사, 교육자, 지도자 및 관리자, 연구원 및 학자로서 지식, 기술 및 행동을 향상시키기 위해 추구하는 모든 활동을 나타냅니다 (Steinert 2014).

Faculty development, refers to all activities health professionals pursue to improve their knowledge, skills and behaviors as teachers and educators, leaders and managers, and researchers and scholars, in both individual and group settings (Steinert 2014).


최근 교수진의 비공식 학습informal learning이 진정한authentic 환경에서의 교육 전문성 개발이 강조되고 있다(Webster-Wright 2009).

it has recently been suggested that faculty members informal learning develop educational expertise through opportunities in authentic environments (Webster-Wright 2009).


그림 1 (Steinert 2010)에서 볼 수 있듯이 FDP는 형식formal (예 : 일회성 워크샵에서 종단 프로그램으로)과 목적purpose (예 : 교육신념, 교육리더십, 스칼라십 등), 개인 및 그룹 설정 모두 다양한 교육 전략을 사용합니다.
As Figure 1 illustrates (Steinert 2010), faculty develop- ment programs can differ in format (e.g. from one-time workshops to longitudinal programs) and purpose (e.g. from focusing on teaching beliefs and skills to educational leader- ship and scholarship), in both individual and group settings, using a variety of educational strategies.

 

 

 


2006 년 우리는 교수 효과를 높이기 위해 고안된 교수 개발 활동을 검토했습니다 (Steinert 외. 2006). 1980 년에서 2002 년까지의 논문을 요약한

 

리뷰의 주요 결과는 교수 개발 프로그램에 대한 높은 만족도, 교수 개발 및 가르침에 대한 태도의 긍정적 변화. 교육적 원칙과 교수법에 대한 지식과 기술에 대한 자기보고 된 이익; 교사의 행동에 대한 자기보고 된 변화. 조직의 실천 (예 : 동료 네트워크의 수립) 또는 학생 학습의 변화가 거의 없습니다.

 

효과적인 교수 개발의 주요 특징은 또한 다음을 포함하여 확인되었습니다 : 체험 학습의 사용; 피드백 제공; 효과적인 동료 및 동료 관계; 교수 및 학습의 원칙에 따라 잘 설계된 개입; 및 단일 개입 내에서 교육 방법의 다양성. 현장에서의 연구를위한 권고도 제안되었다.

In 2006, we conducted a review of faculty development activities designed to enhance teaching effectiveness (Steinert et al. 2006). That review, which summarized articles from 1980 to 2002, reported the following outcomes:

  • high satisfaction with faculty development programs;

  • positive changes in attitudes toward faculty development and teach- ing;

  • self-reported gains in knowledge and skills of educa- tional principles and teaching;

  • self-reported changes in teaching behavior, with some observed changes in teaching performance; and

  • few changes in organizational practice (e.g. establishment of collegial networks) or student learn- ing.

 

Key features of effective faculty development were also identified, including:

  • the use of experiential learning;

  • the provision of feedback;

  • effective peer and colleague relation- ships;

  • well-designed interventions following principles of teaching and learning; and

  • a diversity of educational methods within single interventions.

 

Recommendations for research in the field were also proposed.



 

2006 년 이래로 고등 교육 (Stes et al., 2010 Amundsen & Wilson 2012), 치과학 (Hendricson 외 2007), 가정 의학 (Sorinola & Thistlethwaite 2013), 의학 교육 (Leslie et al., 2013)등에서 review가 있었다. 

  • 예를 들어, Stes et al. (2010)은 다양한 기간, 형식 및 참여자 그룹의 이니셔티브의 차별적 영향을 조사하기 위해 고등 교육에서의 교수 개발에 대한 체계적인 검토를 실시했습니다. 이 저자들은 1977 년과 2007 년 사이에 발간 된 고등 교육 교사의 36 가지 이니셔티브에 관한 기사를 검토 한 결과, 장기간에 걸친 개입이 일회성 개입보다 참가자 행동 수준에서 더 긍정적 인 결과를 갖는다 고 결론 지었다. 또한 대안 또는 하이브리드 형식 (예 : 피어링 코칭 또는 공식 과정과 코칭 및 프로젝트 작업)이 워크샵과 같은 기존 방식보다 긍정적 인 결과를 가져올 수 있다고 제안했습니다.

  • Leslie et al. (2013)은 강한 디자인의 22 개 고급 연구에 중점을 두었습니다. 대부분의 FDP 연구는 10 일에서 2 년 사이의 일련의 워크샵 또는 종단 프로그램으로 설명되었으며 FD 이니셔티브가 single, one-time work- shops 에서 벗어나 prolonged exposure의 방향으로 변화하고 있었다.

  • O'Sullivan and Irby (2011)는 교수 - 발달과 교수 및 학습이 이루어지는 풍부한 맥락을 조사하기 위해 사회 시스템social system에 기반을 두고 두 개의 실천공동체에 초점을 둔 교수 개발에 관한 연구 모델을 제안했다. : 교수진 개발 공동체 및 직장 공동체the faculty development community and the workplace community.

Since 2006, several reviews of faculty development designed to enhance teaching effectiveness have been pub- lished in higher education (e.g. Stes et al. 2010; Amundsen & Wilson 2012), dentistry (Hendricson et al. 2007), family medicine (Sorinola & Thistlethwaite 2013), and medical edu- cation (Leslie et al. 2013).

  • For example, Stes et al. (2010) conducted a systematic review of instructional development in higher education to investigate the differential impact of initiatives with varied duration, formats, and participant groups. These authors reviewed 37 articles reporting on 36 different initiatives of teachers in higher education, pub- lished between 1977 and 2007, and concluded that inter- ventions over time have more positive outcomes at the level of participant behavior than one-time events. They also suggested that alternative or hybrid formats (e.g. peer coaching or formal courses plus coaching and project work) yielded more positive results than more traditional approaches such as workshops.

  • Leslie et al. (2013) focused on 22 high quality studies with strong designs, Most studies were described as a series of workshops or longitudinal programs ranging from 10 days to two years, and the authors postulated that faculty develop- ment initiatives are moving away from single, one-time work- shops to more prolonged exposure.

  • Making a plea to examine the rich context in which fac- ulty development—and teaching and learning—occur, O’Sullivan and Irby (2011) proposed a model for research on faculty development that is grounded in social systems and focuses on two communities of practice: the faculty development community and the workplace community.

 


 

리뷰 방법론

Review methodology


리뷰 그룹

Review group


As in 2006, an international Topic Review Group (TRG) of individuals representing six countries was constituted.


파일럿

The pilot process


A three-phase pilot process was undertaken to prepare for this systematic review.


Phase I


Phase II


Phase III


개념 프레임워크

Guiding conceptual frameworks


포함/배제 기준

Inclusion/exclusion criteria


FD에 초점을 둔 연구

Faculty development focus


대상 집단

Target population


모든 분야의 기초 과학 및 임상 교수를 위한 교수 개발 활동이 선정되었습니다. 수련중인 레지던트나 다른 보건 전문가 (예 : 간호)의 교육 효과를 향상시키기 위해 고안된 intervention은 제외되었다.

Faculty development activities for both basic science andclinical faculty in all areas of medicine were selected. Interventions designed solely to improve teaching effective-ness of residents-in-training or other health care professio-nals (e.g. nursing) were excluded. 



연구 설계

Study design


We included all study designs across the

  • 실증주의 positivist (empirical observation and measurement),

  • 해석주의 interpretist (construction of understanding), and

  • 참여적 participatory (action research) para-digms (Creswell 2003; Freeth et al. 2005).

However, we excluded studies that only reported participant satisfaction;




출판연도

Year of publication


언어와 지역

Language and geography


Though we did not exclude any articles on the basis of lan-guage or geography, our database search mostly returned English-language results



문헌 탐색 전략, 연구 출처

Search strategy and sources of papers



선정 방법, 방법론적 퀄리티 판정

Selection methods and judgment of methodological quality 




자료 추출, 분석, 통합

Data extraction, analysis and synthesis


 

연구결과의 리뷰

Review of findings


This review is based on 111 articles focused on faculty development interventions designed to improve teaching effectiveness in medical education. (Tables 1 A–E, available online as Supplementary Material, summarize these articles).



  •   Description of the interventions

  •    Study characteristics

  •    Summary of outcomes by intervention type

  •    Key features of faculty development programs

  •    Effects on community building.




인터벤션의 개요

Description of the interventions


환경

Setting


국가

Of the 111 interventions,

    • 79 took place in the United States (71%); other countries included

    • Canada (n¼8;  7%),

    • the UK (n¼6; 5%),

    • Turkey (n¼3; 3%),

    • Russia (n¼2; 2%),

    • Sweden (n¼2; 2%), and

    • Australia, Denmark, Germany, India, Israel, Italy, Iran, Nepal, Pakistan, Singapore, and Switzerland (one each).

 

국제 프로그램

Only one intervention (Burdick et al. 2010) described an international program that took place in the US and 19 other countries in South America, Africa and South Asia.



전공과목

Professional discipline


대부분은 practicing clinicians을 대상으로 함. 내과, 가정의학과, 소아과 등.

The majority of faculty development interventions targeted practicing clinicians. The disciplines that were identified most frequently included Internal Medicine, Family Medicine, and Pediatrics.


참가자 수는 6명~543명. 평균 66명, 중간값 46명.

Participant numbers ranged from six to 543, with a mean attendance of 66 and a median attendance of 46.


자발적 참여가 62%, 의무 참여가 11%, 언급 안함이 27%

Participation was primarily on a volunteer basis (62%); participation was mandatory in 11% of the inter- ventions, and 27% did not specify the nature of participation.




인터벤션의 목적

Focus of the intervention


아래와 같은 것들..

The faculty development interventions in this review focused on the

  • improvement of teaching performance (in the classroom and the clinical setting),

  • teaching conceptions and learning approaches,

  • the acquisition of specific teach- ing skills (e.g. interactive lecturing and small group facilita- tion; giving feedback),

  • learner assessment,

  • instructional design and curriculum development,

  • educational leadership, and

  • educational scholarship.

 

다수의 개입 (16 %)은 특정 내용 영역 (예 : 알콜 중독 및 기타 약물 남용 장애, 노인 의학, 완화 치료, 1 차 진료 유전학)에 대한 교육 개선을 연계 시켰으며 일부는 제도적, 지역적 또는 국가적 네트워크 형성을 명시적으로 중점을 둡니다.

A number of interventions (16%) linked educational improvement to specific content areas (e.g. alcoholism and other substance abuse disorders; geriatric medicine; palliative care; primary care genetics), and a few identified an explicit goal of creating institutional, regional or national networks focused on education.




인터벤션 유형

Intervention type


종단 프로그램은 아래와 같이 불렸음

The longitudinal interventions were further described as

  • fellowships (n¼8; 7%),

  • scholars pro-grams  (n¼13; 12%), and

  • longitudinal programs (n¼19; 16%).



교육 방법

Instructional methods


All reports described a wide range of instructional methods that included

  • small-group discussions and interactive exer- cises,

  • experiential learning (during the intervention or in the workplace),

  • structured opportunities for reflection,

  • didactic lec- tures,

  • role-plays and simulations,

  • films, and

  • videotape reviews of performance.

1/3 이상에서 프로젝트-기반 학습을 수행하였음. integrated independent and online learning, peer observation and coaching을 활용하기도

Over a third of the programs included project-based learning; others integrated independent and online learning as well as peer observation and coaching.



진행 기간

Duration


30분~4년

The duration of faculty development interventions ranged from 30 minutes to four years.

  • Workshops were primarily one-time interventions, ranging in duration from one hour to six days, with a median of three hours.

  • Short courses ranged from two days to one month, with a median of four days, with some courses being offered over a four to six- month time period.

  • Seminar series ranged from one hour (offered 10 times over one year) to four hours (offered 12 times over three months), with a median of eight hours.

  • Longitudinal interventions lasted from five weeks to four years, with a median of 18 months.




Study characteristics


연구의 목적, 이론/개념 프레임워크

Study goal and theoretical/conceptual framework


대다수의 연구는 그들의 목표를 명시적으로 명시했다 (n = 87, 78 %); 대다수 (83 %, 75 %)는 또한 관련 문헌을 인용했다.

The majority of studies stated their objectives explicitly (n¼87, 78%); a majority (n¼83, 75%) also cited the rele- vant literature.

 

Thirty-six studies (32%) explicitly placed their work within a conceptual framework, drawing primarily upon principles of adult learning, experiential and collabora- tive learning, and reflective practice.

 

 

Several studies also referred to the conceptual frameworks underlying

  • the Stanford Faculty Development Program (Stratos et al. 2006),

  • the One-Minute Preceptor (Salerno et al. 2002) and

  • Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick’s model for evaluating training programs (2006).

 

그러나 명시 적으로 언급 한 경우에도 개념적 프레임 워크는 주로 프로그램 디자인이나 내용을 알리기 위해 연구 초기에 언급되었습니다. 그들은 결과에 대한 토론이나 해석 부분에서 거의 re-visit하지 않았다. 이것은 2006 년 리뷰와 비슷합니다.

However, even when explicitly mentioned, the conceptual frameworks were primarily mentioned at the outset of the study, to inform program design or content; they were rarely re-visited in the discussion or interpretation of outcomes. This is comparable to the 2006 review.



연구 설계

Study design


quasi-experimental 이 대부분.

The majority of studies were quasi-experimental and used (n¼83, single-group designs 75%), of which

  • 사전-사후 검사 39 (35%) included pre–post-test measures and

  • 사후 검사 44 (40%) relied on post-tests only.

  • 지연된 사후검사 Fifty-one percent of the studies using post- tests (n¼42) included a delayed post-test, and many single group designs collected data from multiple cohorts.

 

non-equivalent control group의 사용

Sixteen studies (14%) used a non-equivalent control group, with

  • 14 of these (88%) using pre-post testing and

  • 2 (12%) using post-tests only.

 

무작위대조군

Four studies (4%) were randomized control studies, and one study used a prospective observational design.

 

질적연구

Seven studies (6%) used a qualitative methodology, with a primary focus on interpretive description, and

 

Mixed method.

25 (23%) reported a mixed-methods approach.

 

 

 

표 1에서 볼 수 있듯이, 2006 년 연구의 대부분은 설계에서 quasi-experimental 이었다. 순수한 질적 연구 (21 %가 정성적인 방법이나 분석을 포함하고 있음)가 없었으며 혼합 방법 접근법이보고되지 않았습니다.

As indicated in Table 1, in 2006, the majority of studies were quasi-experi- mental in design; there were no purely qualitative studies (although 21% had incorporated a qualitative method or analysis), and no mixed-methods approaches were reported.

 

 



자료수집 방법

Data collection methods



Questionnaires가 가장 많이 쓰임

Questionnaires were the most popular data collection method.

  • Sixty-two studies (56%) used a questionnaire only.

  • Thirty-six (32%) combined questionnaires with another method (i.e. observation, interview, focus group, CV ana- lysis).

 

Questionnaires의 validity

  • The majority of questionnaires were designed for a particular study or program evaluation and were not validated.

  • Approximately 10 studies used a pre-validated questionnaire and another 10 provided psychometric prop- erties for a newly designed questionnaire.


질문지 사용은 2006 년 조사와 유사했는데, 인터벤션의 55 % 만 설문지를 사용했고 38 %는 설문지와 다른 방법을 사용했습니다. 이번 검토에서, 직접 관찰을 포함한 연구는 14 개(13 %)였고, 이것은 2006 년에보고 된 30 %보다 낮은 비율이다. 17 개의 연구 (15 %)가 인터뷰를 사용했다.

The use of ques- tionnaires was similar to the 2006 review, in which 55% of the interventions used a questionnaire only and 38% used a questionnaire and another method. In the current review, fourteen studies (13%) included direct observation, a lower proportion than the 30% reported in 2006; seventeen stud- ies (15%) used interviews.



자료 출처

Data sources


대부분은 참가자로부터 수집

  • One hundred and four studies (94%) relied on data from program participants to assess changes in teaching behav- iors.

  • Thirty studies (27%) included students and residents to assess these changes,

  • 16 (14%) used program coordinators or faculty developers,

  • two (2%) used colleagues or peers, and

  • 11 (10%) used other data sources such as external evaluation teams, external or blinded observers, and stand- ardized students.

 

2006 년과 마찬가지로, 대다수의 프로그램은 자체보고 된 교육 등급에 의존했습니다. 이 검토에서는 제3자 관찰자의 사용이 증가했다.

As in 2006, the majority of programs relied on self-reported ratings of teaching; the use of third- party observers increased in this review.



평가한 성과의 수준

Level of outcome assessed


As highlighted in Table 1, in 2006,

  • the percent- age of studies assessing reaction (74%) and learning (77%) was higher;

  • the percentage of studies examining behavior (72%) and

  • results at the organizational level (19%) were slightly lower than in this review.



연구의 퀄리티와 연구결과의 Strength

Study quality and strength of findings


5점 척도로 평가하였음.

Study quality was rated on a five-point scale (1 ¼ low; 5 ¼ high). With a range of scores from 1 (one study) to 4.5 (four studies), the mean study quality was 3 (as in 2006).


5점 척도로 평가하였음.

Strength of findings was also based on a five-point scale (1 ¼ no clear conclusions can be drawn, not significant; 3 ¼ conclusions can probably be based on the results; 5 ¼ results are unequivocal). The mean rating for strength of findings was 3 (only slightly higher than 2.88 in 2006).



인터벤션 유형별 정리

Summary of outcomes by intervention type


워크숍

Workshops


Thirty-two interventions (summarized in Table 1A, available online as Supplementary Material) were described


Level 1—Reaction


많은 워크샵 구성 요소가 가치가있는 것으로 밝혀졌습니다. 동료 및 동료와의 교류. 사용 된 방법론 (예 : 소그룹 토론, 역할극 및 시뮬레이션); 교수 및 학습을위한 기본 틀의 제시; 안전한 학습 환경 조성.

Many workshop components were found to be of value: the interchange with colleagues and peers; the methodologies used (e.g. small group discussions; role plays and simula- tions); the presentation of frameworks for teaching and learning; and the creation of safe learning environments.



Level 2a—Learning


대부분의 워크샵은 가르침과 학습에 대한 태도와 인식에있어서 자기보고 된 변화를 이끌어 냈습니다. 여기에는 교육에 대한 안락감과 자신감 (일반적인 교육 전략과 관련하여), 인식 및 교육 신념 변화, 교수 및 교수 개발에 대한 관심 증가 등이 포함되었습니다.

Most workshops led to self-reported changes in attitudes and perceptions towards teaching and learning.

This included increased comfort and confidence in teaching (both in gen- eral and with respect to specific teaching strategies), altered awareness and teaching beliefs, and increased interest in teaching and in faculty development.



Level 2b—Learning


많은 참가자들이 피드백, 목표 설정 및 성찰 향상을 강조하였으며, 교육 과정 및 교수법과 관련된 지식과 기술에 대한 이득을 보고했습니다.

Many participants reported gains in knowledge and skills related to educational processes and teaching methods, with an emphasis on giving feedback, goal setting, and the promotion of reflection.



Level 3a—Behavior


교수법의 자가보고 된 변화의 예로는 교수의 효과 성 향상, 학습자와의 더 나은 의사 소통, 향상된 피드백 과정이 포함되었다. 교육 참가자는 특정 방법 (예 : 대화 형 교육)의 변화, 학습 원칙 사용 및 적절한 목표 및 목적 개발을보고했습니다.

Examples of self-reported changes in teaching practices included improved teaching effectiveness, better communi- cation with learners, and enhanced feedback processes. Participants also reported changes teaching in specific methods (e.g. interactive teaching), use of learning princi- ples, and development of appropriate goals and objectives.



Level 3b—Behavior


소수의 워크샵만이 제 3자가 관찰 한대로 직장으로의 학습 이전Transfer을 보고했습니다. 한 연구에서 교사는 개입 한 후에 가르치는 행동에 변화를보고했으나 레지던트는 그렇지 않았다 (Eckstrom et al., 2006); (Notzer & Abramovitz 2008)에서 교사의 효율성과 가용성availability에 대한 학생의 평가가 향상되었습니다. Green 등은 (2003)은 임상 내용 (예 : 1 차 진료 유전학)과 교수 기술을 통합하면 행동 변화가 촉진되는 것을 관찰했다.

 

Only a few workshops reported the transfer of learning to the workplace as observed by a third party. In one study, teachers reported a change in their teaching behaviors fol- lowing the intervention, but residents did not (Eckstrom et al. 2006); in another (Notzer & Abramovitz 2008), student ratings of teacher effectiveness and availability improved. Green et al. ( 2003) observed that integrating teaching skills with clinical content (e.g. primary care genetics) facilitated behavior change.



Level 4a and 4b—Results


교육 프로그램에 기인 한 광범위한 조직 변화가 드물게 나타났습니다. 그러나 몇몇 연구에서 지역 및 국가 네트워크의 변화가 보고되었습니다. 한 연구 (Laberge et al., 2009)에서 모든 팀은 개입 후 제도 수준에서 변화를보고했습니다 (예 : 학생의 요구에 대한 인식 증가, 공식 협력). 학습자의 성과 향상은 오직 한 연구에서만 관찰되었다 (Shields et al., 2007).

Wider organizational changes attributable to the educa- tional program were infrequently noted. However, a few studies reported changes in local and national networks. In one study (Laberge et al., 2009), all teams reported changes at the institutional level (e.g. increased awareness of student needs, formalized collaborations) following the intervention. Improvement in learners’ performance was observed in only one study (Shields et al. 2007).


 

단기 코스

Short courses


Fifteen interventions (summarized in Table 1B, available online were short courses as Supplementary Material)


Level 1—Reaction


Level 2a—Learning


Level 2b—Learning



Level 3a—Behavior


자기보고 된 행동 변화에는 새로운 교수법의 사용, 위원회 참여 및 보조금 신청의 증가, 전문 직업 개발의 ​​갱신 등이 포함된다 (Armstrong et al., 2003). 한 연구 (Sullivan et al. 2005)에서 참가자들은 명시적 학습 목표를 정의하고, 감정적 인 경험을 반영하도록 격려하고, 피드백을 제공하고, 학습자가 새로운 기술을 연습하도록 허용하는 교수 연습을 수행하는 등의 실제 변화를보고했다. 또 다른 연구 (Godfrey et al., 2004)는 학습자의 요구 사항을 협상하고 학습 활동을 계획하고 관리하는 데 개선이 있었다고보고했다.

Self-reported behavior changes included the use of new teaching methods, increased committee work and grant applications, and renewed professional and career develop- ment (Armstrong et al. 2003). In one study (Sullivan et al. 2005), participants reported changes in practice that included defining explicit learning objectives, encouraging learners to reflect on emotional experiences, giving feed- back, and conducting teaching exercises that allowed learn- ers to practice new skills. Another study (Godfrey et al. 2004) reported improvements in negotiating learners’ needs and planning and managing learning activities.


Level 3b—Behavior


여러 연구에 따르면 행동 변화가 관찰되었습니다. 예를 들어 Brown and Wall (2003)은 참여자가 고위 집행관senior house officers에 따라보다 긍정적으로 평가되었다는 것을 발견했다. Manwell et al. (2006)은 알코올 사용 장애 환자에 대한 평가(능력) 변화를 관찰했다. Ebrahimi and Kojuri (2012)는 학습자가 참가자의 교수 능력이 크게 향상되었다고 보고했다. 또 다른 연구에 따르면 참가자들 사이에 경력 향상이보고되었습니다 (Armstrong & Barsion 2006).

Several studies reported observed behavior changes. For example, Brown and Wall (2003) found that participants were evaluated more positively according to senior house officers; Manwell et al. (2006) observed changes in the assessment of patients with alcohol use disorders; Ebrahimi and Kojuri (2012) reported that learners observed significant improvements in participants’ teaching abilities. Another study reported career advancement among participants (Armstrong & Barsion 2006).



Level 4a and 4b—Results


한 연구 (Houston et al., 2004)는 팀 구축을위한 보호 된 시간protected time, 새로운 네트워크 기회, 자원에 대한 접근성 향상을 포함하는 제도적 편익을 보고했다. 또 다른 주목할 만한 변화는 institutional 리더십의 변화이다 (Stratos et al., 2006).

One study (Houston et al. 2004) reported institutional bene- fits, including protected time for team building, new net- working opportunities, and increased access to resources; another noted changes in institutional leadership (Stratos et al. 2006).



세미나 시리즈

Seminar series


Nine interventions (summarized in Table 1C, available online as Supplementary Material) were described as seminar ser- ies



Level 1—Reaction


Level 2a—Learning




Level 2b—Learning




Level 3a—Behavior


대부분의 연구에서 개선 된 피드백 및 평가 프로세스을 중심으로 자체보고 된 행동 변화가 나타났습니다. 한 연구 (Johansson et al. 2012)는 롤 플레잉에 참여한 그룹들 사이에서 자기보고 된 변화가 더 컸음을 나타냈다.

Most studies indicated self-reported behavior changes, with a particular focus on improved feedback and evaluation processes. One study (Johansson et al. 2012) indicated greater self-reported changes among groups who had par- ticipated in role-plays.


Level 3b—Behavior


상대적으로 소수의 세미나 시리즈에서 행동 변화를 관찰했다. 한 연구에서 (Salerno et al. 2002), 피드백 행동의 긍정적 변화가 관찰되었다. (Mazotti et al., 2010), 레지던트가 평가한 노인의학 교육 평가에 긍정적인 변화가 있음을 알 수있다.

Relatively few seminar series reported observed behavioral changes. In one study (Salerno et al. 2002), positive changes in feedback behaviors were observed; in another (Mazotti et al. 2010), ratings of geriatrics teaching by residents indi- cated positive changes.



Level 4a and 4b—Results





종단 프로그램

Longitudinal programs


Forty interventions (summarized in Table 1D, available online were as Supplementary Material) described as longitudinal programs.



Level 1—Reaction


Level 2a—Learning


Level 2b—Learning


Level 3a—Behavior



자기보고 된 행동 변화에는 향상된 교육 퍼포먼스 (예 : 소그룹 교육, 임상 평가, 피드백 제공), 새로운 교육 과정 및 프로그램 개발 (예 : 약물 남용), 로컬 세팅에서의 참여 증대 등이 포함되었습니다. 한 연구 (Williams et al. 2008)에서 참가자들은 새로운 '전문 기술'의 결과로 교육에 대한 인식과 지원이 증가하고 위원회 참여가 증가한 것으로보고했습니다. 다른 연구 (Lye et al., 2003)에서 몇몇 참가자들은 임상 교육에 대한 종단 프로그램에 참여한 후 교육 수상자가 늘어났다고 보고했다. 지역 사회에 대한 감각sense of community과 네트워킹 강화는 많은 종적 개입에서 나타났습니다.

Self-reported behavior changes included improved teaching performance (e.g. small group teaching; clinical assessment; provision of feedback), development of new educational curricula and programs (e.g. on substance abuse), and greater involvement in local settings. In one study (Williams et al. 2008), participants reported increased recognition and support for teaching and greater committee involvement as a result of their new ‘‘expertise’’. In another study (Lye et al. 2003), several participants reported the receipt of teaching awards following their involvement in a longitudinal pro- gram on clinical teaching. An increased sense of community and enhanced networking were noted in many of the longitudinal interventions.




Level 3b—Behavior


관찰 된 변화로는 새로운 교육 과정 및 교육행동practice (예 : 노인 교육 강화), 새로운 리더십 지위, 학업 성과 (동료 평가 프레젠테이션 및 출판물 포함) 증가, 커리어 승진 (예 : Morzinski & Simpson 2003; Frohnaetal.2006; Simpson et al. 2006; Steinert & McLeod 2006; Wilkerson et al., 2006)등이 있다. Retension in academia는 또한 여러 연구에서 주목을 받았다.

Observed changes included new educational courses and practices (e.g. increased geriatrics teaching), new leadership positions, increased academic output (including peer-reviewed presentations and publications), and career advancement (e.g. Morzinski & Simpson 2003;Frohnaetal.2006; Simpson et al. 2006; Steinert & McLeod 2006; Wilkerson et al. 2006). Retention in academia was also noted by several studies.



Level 4a and 4b—Results





Other activities


Other activities (summarized in Table 1E, available online as Supplementary Material) included peer observation peer coaching pedagogical consult- ation four-step cognitive train- ing method the use of audiotapes CD-ROMs and a web-based module and OSCE an Objective Structured Teaching Encounter



Level 1—Reaction


Level 2a—Learning


Level 2b—Learning



Level 3a—Behavior


자기보고 된 행동 변화에는 개선 된 교수 행동 (예 : 학습 환경, 강의 세션 제어), 피드백 기술 (예 : 특정 행동에 초점을 맞추고 부정적인 피드백 제공), 교육 반영 및 교육 계획 (예 : 강의 계획 및 교육 프로그램의 조정). 한 연구는 개인 학습과 동료 코치들 사이의 변화에 ​​주목했다 (Sekerka & Chao 2003).
 

Self-reported behavior changes included improved teach- ing behaviors (e.g. learning climate; control of teaching session), feedback skills (e.g. focusing on specific behav- iors and giving negative feedback), reflection on teaching, and educational planning (e.g. lesson plans and coordination of teaching programs). One study noted per- sonal learning and change among peer coaches (Sekerka & Chao 2003).



Level 3b—Behavior


관찰 된 변화는 9 가지 (64 %) 중재에서보고되었으며 임상 교육 행동 및 관행 개선 (예 : 피드백 제공, 비판적 사고의 자극) 임상실습 평가; 1 분 Preceptor의 사용; 그리고 강의 기술. 교사의 효과 성을 높이기 위해 교수 평가를 활용 한 두 가지 연구 (Maker et al. 2004, 2006)에서 레지던트는 교수의 교육 행동에 중대한 변화를 관찰했다. 저자는 또한 교수 평가가 가장 낮은 점수를 가진 교사에게 가장 큰 영향을 주었고, 실제로 몇몇 교수진은 평가가 좋지 않아 교수 책임을 면제 받았다고 지적했다. 

Observed changes were reported in nine (64%) interventions and included: improvements in clinical teaching behaviors and practices (e.g. provision of feedback; stimulation of crit- ical thinking); clerkship evaluations; use of the One-Minute Preceptor; and lecturing skills. In two studies (Maker et al. 2004, 2006) utilizing faculty evaluations to enhance teaching effectiveness, residents observed significant changes in fac- ulty members’ educational practices; the authors also noted that faculty evaluations had the highest impact on teachers who had the lowest scores, and, in fact, several faculty mem- bers were relieved of their teaching responsibilities as a result of poor evaluations.


Level 4a and 4b—Results




교수개발 프로그램의 핵심 특징

Key features of faculty development programs



2006년의 핵심 특징

In 2006, we highlighted a number of key features that con- tributed to program effectiveness. These included:

  • the use of experiential learning;

  • the provision of feedback;

  • effective peer and colleague relationships;

  • well-designed interven- tions following principles of teaching and learning; and

  • a diversity of educational methods within single interventions.



증거 기반의 교육 설계: 이론적 또는 개념적 프레임워크의 통합, 교수 및 학습의 원칙 준수, 다양한 목적을 달성하기위한 다각적 인 교수 방법의 사용

Evidence-informed educational design, which included the integration of theoretical or conceptual frameworks, adherence to principles of teaching and learning, and the use of multiple instructional methods to achieve diverse objectives.


(임상/교육과) 내용의 관련성 : 참가자의 임상 및 교육 책임에 적용됩니다. 

Relevant content, which was applicable to participants’ clinical and educational responsibilities.


경험 학습과 연습과 적용 기회: FDP내에서, 직장 내에서

Experiential learning and opportunities for practice and application, both within the the intervention and workplace.


 

피드백 및 성찰을 위한 기회: 참가자가 자신의 교수법 및 학습 방법, 가치 및 신념을 성찰할 수 있도록

Opportunities for feedback and reflection, which allowed participants to reflect on their teaching and learning practices, values, and beliefs.


교육 프로젝트: 장기간에 걸쳐 진행되는 프로그램에서 흔히 사용되며, 직장에서 학습을 적용 할 수 있도록 해준다.

Educational projects, which were most common in pro- grams that extended over time and allowed participants to apply their learning in the workplace.


의도적 공동체 구축: FDP 중 및 이후에 걸쳐 지속되는 커뮤니티. 안전하고 협조적인 학습 환경 제공, 협업 및 네트워킹의 명백한 격려, 효과적인 동료 및 동료 관계 촉진을 위하여.

Intentional community building, both during and after the faculty development intervention, which included the provision of a safe and supportive learning environment, explicit encouragement of collaboration and networking, and facilitation of effective peer and colleague relationships.


종단적 프로그램 설계: 연습 및 적용 기회, 피드백 및 성찰, 관계 구축 및 네트워킹 등과 같은 다른 설계 요소와 관련되어 있음. 

Longitudinal program design, which appeared to be asso- ciated with other design features such as opportunities for practice and application, feedback and reflection, and relationship building and networking.


기관 수준의 지원: 참여자와 프로그램의 재정적 지원 및 교수진의 자유 시간 제공

Institutional support, which was demonstrated through financial support of participants and programs as well as release time for faculty members.


 

커뮤니티 형성

Community building


FD Intervention이 FD community 구축에 기여했는지 여부에 대한 질문에 대해 연구의 거의 34 %가 이 목표에 기여하는 것으로 나타났습니다.

  • 예를 들어 여러 연구에서 참여자 간의 신뢰 구축과 관계가 주목 받았는데(비공식 학습 네트워크 개발과 intervention 후 협력 증대), 이들 모두는 동기 부여와 열의가 더 강하게 연관되어있었습니다.

  • 몇몇 저자는 FDP에서 개발 된 관계가 학습을 촉진하고 대규모 의료 센터에서 일하는 것에 대한 고립감과 스트레스를 줄이는 데 도움이되었다고 보고했다 (예 : O'Keefe 외 2009).

  • 한 연구 (Simpson et al. 2004)에서 학자의 20 % 이상이 참여자와의 네트워크 개발을 언급하며 FD에 대한 특별 관심 그룹이 만들어진 것을 프로그램의 가장 중요한 결과로 꼽았음.

  • 특히 Longitudinal intervention의 65 %, 세미나 시리즈의 50%에서 FD커뮤니티를 구축 한 것으로보고되었습니다.

In response to the question of whether the faculty devel- opment intervention contributed to building a faculty devel- opment community, reviewers observed that almost 34% of the studies appeared to contribute to this goal. For example, the building of trust and relationships among participants was noted in several studies, as was the development of informal learning networks and increased collaboration after the intervention, all of which were linked to a greater sense of motivation and enthusiasm. Several authors reported that relationships developed during the faculty development pro- gram facilitated learning and helped to reduce the sense of isolation and stress of working in large medical centers (e.g. O’Keefe et al. 2009). In one study (Simpson et al. 2004), more than 20% of the scholars cited the development of a network with participants, which led to the development of a special interest group on faculty development as the most important program outcome. Notably, 65% of the longitudinal interven- tions (n¼26) and 50% of the seminar series, which extended over time (n¼5) reported the building of a faculty develop- ment community.


 

Intervention이 근무지workplace에서 실천공동체COP를 구축하는 데 기여했는지 여부를 검토 한 결과, 거의 25 %가 이를 목표로 한다고 지적했습니다 (Armstrong 외 2003, Searle 외 2006, Beck 외 2008). 흥미롭게도 작업장에서 COP를 구축한다는 개념은 Longitudinal intervention의 45 %와 세미나 시리즈의 30 %에서 나타났습니다.

  • 한 연구에서 연구원은 IPE에 대한 기금 제안서funded proposal 의 개발을보고했다 (예 : Pinheiro 외. 2002).

  • 다른 곳에서는 직장에서 같은 생각을 가진 동료들like-minded colleagues 과의 새로운 관계가보고되었다 (Steinert & McLeod 2006);

  • 세 번째 연구에서, intervention은 enhanced 교육 리더십 능력을 갖춘 empowered 교수진을 critical mass로 양성하는 것으로 보였다 (Wilkerson et al., 2006).

  • 한 연구는 교사의 더 큰 공동체와의 "연결connected"이 개인적 및 직업적 성장을 향상 시키는데 도움이된다는 것을보고했다 (Lown et al.,

  • 다른 학자는 여러 계층에서 네트워크가 개발된다고 했다 (예 : Senior 또는 Peer 와의 네트워크) (Roberts & Devries 2004).

 

In examining whether the intervention contributed to building a community of practice in the workplace, reviewers noted that almost 25% aimed to do this (e.g. Armstrong et al. 2003; Searle et al. 2006; Beck et al. 2008). Interestingly, the notion of building a community of practice in the work- place was noted in 45% of the longitudinal interventions (n¼18) and 30% of the seminar series (n¼3). In one study, researchers reported the development of a funded proposal on interprofessional education (e.g. Pinheiro et al. 2002); in another, new relationships with like-minded colleagues in the workplace were reported (Steinert & McLeod 2006); in a third study, the intervention appeared to foster a critical mass of empowered faculty members with enhanced edu- cational leadership abilities (Wilkerson et al. 2006). One study reported that feeling ‘‘connected’’ with a larger com- munity of educators was instrumental in enhancing personal and professional growth (Lown et al. whereas another reported that scholars developed networks at various levels (e.g. with senior colleagues or peers), depending on their needs (Roberts & Devries 2004).

 

 

많은 개입 (48 %에 가까운)으로 직장에서의 교육 및 교육 활동이 향상되었습니다 :

  • 새로운 학부 및 대학원 과정 및 커리큘럼,

  • 교육 혁신,

  • 강화 된 교수법,

  • 참가자들의 환경에서 새로운 교수 개발 활동이 활발하게 진행되었다.

Many interventions (close to 48%) led to enhanced teaching and educational activities in the workplace. These included:

  • new undergraduate and postgraduate courses and curricula;

  • edu- cational innovations;

  • enhanced teaching practices; and

  • a plethora of new faculty development activities in partici- pants’ settings.

 

직장에서의 코칭 및 멘토링 향상은 드물었고, 더 많은 연구를 위해 중요한 영역으로 남아있다. 마지막으로 조직 프로세스의 개선이나 또는 (조직)문화적 변화에 대한보고는 거의 없었다 (예 : 새로운 정책 및 관행, 교육 우수성 및 스칼라십에 대한 관심, 제도적 자원 증대).

Enhanced coaching and mentoring in the workplace was infrequently observed and remains an important area for further investigation. Lastly, only a few interventions reported on enhanced organizational proc- esses or cultural changes (e.g. new policies and practices, greater attention to educational excellence and scholarship, increased institutional resources).



O'Sullivan과 Irby (2011)는 또한 누가 교수 개발 프로그램을 제공하는지 더 신중하게 검토 할 필요가 있음을 강조했다. Intervention의 30 % 미만이 프로그램 진행자에 관한 정보를 보고했습니다. 이 중 60 %는 FDer의 수를 말했고 40 %는 FDer의 교육 배경, 임상 전문 분야 또는 수년간의 경험을 기술했습니다. 그러나 이 리뷰에서는 교수진 개발자의 특별한 portrait가 등장하지 않았으므로 향후 연구를위한 또 다른 영역을 강조했다. 대부분의 저자는 다양한 프로그램을 제공하는 개인의 중요성을 인정하지만이 그룹에 대해서는 거의 알려져 있지 않습니다.

O’Sullivan and Irby (2011) also highlighted the need to more carefully examine who delivers faculty development programs. Less than 30% of the interventions reported any information about program facilitators. Of these, 60% stated the number of involved facilitators and 40% described facili- tators’ educational background, clinical specialty, or years of experience. However, no particular portrait of faculty devel- opers emerged in this review, highlighting another area for further study. Although most authors would acknowledge the importance of the individuals delivering the diverse pro- grams, very little is known about this group.




고찰

Discussion


FD Intervention

Faculty development interventions


대다수의 개입은 임상의사를 대상으로로 하여 개념을 가르치고 학습 접근법, 특정 교수법 습득, 교수 성과 및 학습자 평가 개선, 교수 설계 및 커리큘럼 개발, 교육 리더십 및 장학금에 중점을 두었습니다. 몇몇 개입은 임상 적 전문 지식 (예 : 노인 의학, 1 차 진료 계통)의 발전과 교육 개선을 연결함으로써 미래가 기대되는 접근법이다. 학생 학습 (McLachlan 2006, Wormald 외 2009) 및 역량 기반 의학 교육 (Holmboe 외. 2011)에서 중요한 역할에도 불구하고 평가에 중점을 둔 intervention은 거의 없었다.

The majority of interventions targeted practicing clinicians and focused on:

  • teaching conceptions and learning approaches,

  • the acquisition of specific teaching skills,

  • the improvement of teaching performance and learner assess- ment,

  • instructional design and curriculum development, and

  • educational leadership and scholarship.

Several interventions linked teaching improvement with the development of clin- ical expertise (e.g. in geriatric medicine, primary care genet- ics), an approach that may hold promise for the future. Few interventions focused on assessment, despite its critical role in student learning (McLachlan 2006; Wormald et al. 2009)and competency-based medical education (Holmboe et al. 2011).


 

흥미롭게도 대다수의 개입은 기술 습득을 강조하고 교수, 가치관 및 직업적 정체성에 대한 교수 동기의 동기를 종종 무시했습니다. 임상가들의 교육욕구에서 정체성identity의 역할에 대한 이해가 커지면서 (O'Sullivan & Irby 2014a, Steinert & Macdonald 2015), FDP를 기술 향상만을 위한 것이 아니라 개인적 및 전문적 성장에 관한 것으로 renewal and reflection를 위한 기회로 재개념화 할 때가 되었다.  O'Keefe et al. (2009)에 따르면, 이러한 접근법은 전문적인 고립professional isolation 또는 감소attrition를 줄이는 데 도움이 될 수도 있습니다.
Interestingly, the majority of interventions emphasized skill acquisition, often ignoring faculty members’ motiva- tions for teaching, values, and professional identities. Given our growing understanding of the role that identity plays in clinicians’ desire to teach (O’Sullivan & Irby 2014a; Steinert & Macdonald 2015), it may be time to re-conceptualize fac- ulty development as an opportunity for renewal and reflec- tion on personal and professional growth rather than an occasion for skill enhancement alone. As O’Keefe et al. (2009) observed, such an approach may also help to reduce professional isolation or attrition.


조직 개발이 교육 기관의 교육 사명을 지지support하는 핵심 요소 임에도 불구하고, 교육 효과를 향상시키기 위한 FDP는 주로 (그룹 내) 개별 교사의 발전에 중점을 두는 것으로 나타났습니다. 앞으로 조직 변화와 조직 역량 강화에 중점을 두는 것이 중요할 것이다. 예를 들어, FD는 수월성을 지원하고 보상하며, 혁신과 장학금을 인정하고 직업 발전을 가능하게하는 제도적 정책을 개발함으로써 문화의 변화를 촉진 할 수 있다 (Steinert, 2013). 이제는 FD가 조직 변화를 일으키는 데 있어 이점이 있음을 강조하고 기관 (뿐만 아니라 개별 교수진)이 "고객"이 될 수 있음을 기억하는 것이 시기 적절할 것입니다 (Jolly 2014).
This review also indicated that faculty development designed to enhance teaching effectiveness focuses primar- ily on the development of individual teachers in groups, even though organizational development is a key element in supporting the institution’s educational mission. Moving forward, an emphasis on organizational change and cap- acity building would be worthwhile. For example, faculty development can promote a culture of change by helping to develop institutional policies that support and reward excellence, recognize innovation and scholarship, and be enable career advancement (Steinert 2013). It would timely to capitalize on the benefits of faculty development in producing organizational change and remember that the institution (as well as the individual faculty member) can be the ‘‘client’’ (Jolly 2014).


 

그림 1에 FD Intervention의 range를 요약함. FD에 대한 이러한 묘사를 토대로 보면, 대다수의 intervention은 오른쪽 상단 사분면, 즉 그룹 설정에서 주로 발생하는 공식적인 접근법 (예 : 다양한 기간의 워크샵, 종단 프로그램, 단기 코스 및 세미나 시리즈)에 해당한다. 문헌 (Webster-Wright 2009, Steinert 2014)에서 나타나고 있는 교수 개발의 재 개념화를 감안할 때, 다른 사분면의 FD활동을 설계하고 평가하는 것이 중요합니다.

  • 예를 들어, 최근 몇 가지 연구가 교수진이 직장에서 배우는 방법을 관찰하고 (Cook 2009, Steinert 2012) 의료전문가는 '책임의 성격'과 'learning on the job'을 통해 자신이하는 일에 능숙해진다는 사실을 관찰했습니다. '(Steinert 2010).

  • 비공식적 인 학습이 종종 당연한 것으로 받아 들여지지만, role modeling, reflection, 동료로부터의 학습 등은 효과적 FD의 핵심 요소이다. (Mann 2014)

  • 이 리뷰에서의 몇몇 연구는 동료와의 협의와 관찰을 제공했지만 (Regan-Smith 외 2007, O'Keefe 외 2009), FD의 설계와 전달에보다 비공식적 인 접근을 포함시키는 것이 가치가있다. 직장 내 학습workplace learning을 눈에 보이게visible 함으로써 professional development의 정당한legitimate 한 형태로 인식 할 수 있도록 해야한다.

 

The range of faculty development interventions outlined in Figure 1 guided this review. Based on this portrayal of faculty development, it appears that the majority of inter- ventions in this review fell within the upper right quadrant, namely formal approaches that occur primarily in group set- tings (e.g. workshops of varying duration, longitudinal pro- grams, short courses and seminar series). Given the re- conceptualization of faculty development that is occurring in the literature (Webster-Wright 2009; Steinert 2014), it would be important to design and evaluate faculty develop- ment activities in the other quadrants.

  • For example, several studies have recently observed how faculty members learn in the workplace (Cook 2009; Steinert 2012) and that health professionals become adept at what they do by the ‘‘nature of their responsibilities’’ and ‘‘learning on the job’’ (Steinert 2010).

  • Although informal learning is often taken for granted, it incorporates role modeling, reflection and learning from peers (Mann 2014), key ingredients to effective faculty development.

  • Although a few studies in this review offered peer consultations and observation (Regan-Smith et al. 2007; O’Keefe et al. 2009), it would be worthwhile to incorp- orate more informal approaches into the design and deliv- ery of faculty development and to render workplace learning as visible as possible so that we can recognize it as a legitimate form of professional development.


이 리뷰는 또한 longitudinal intervention의 현저한 증가와 장기간에 걸쳐 진행되는 FDP의 잠재적 인 영향을 보여주었습니다. 몇 가지 사례에서 longitudinal program은 단순한 교육효과성의 향상 뿐만 아니라, 오랜 기간에 걸쳐서 집단이 만남을 이어갈 때 네트워크 및 협업이 발생함을 보여주었다 (Armstrong & Barsion 2006, Simpson 외. 2006). 또한 educational activities following the activity를 포함시켜서 지속가능성을 향상 시켰습니다.

This review also demonstrated a notable growth in longi- tudinal interventions and the potential impact of faculty development programs that extend over time. In several instances, longitudinal programs resulted in outcomes that went beyond teaching effectiveness, including the creation of networks and collaborations that arise when groups meet over time (Armstrong & Barsion 2006; Simpson et al. 2006). Seminars and programs that extended over time also led to more involvement in educational activities following the activity, implying enhanced sustainability.




연구의 특징들

Study characteristics


대다수의 연구는 실증주의 또는 사후 실증주의 패러다임에 의존하고, 본질적으로 실험적이었으며, 단일 그룹 디자인을 사용했습니다. 소수의 연구 만이 질적 방법론 또는 혼합 방법 접근법을 사용했습니다. 2006 년 이후로 질적 방법론의 사용이 증가 했음에도 불구하고, 이러한 연구는 계속 진행되어야 하는데, 그래야만 우리가 변화 과정을 분석하고, '명확화clarification'연구를 수행하여, "왜"와 "어떻게" FD가 작동했는지에 대한 연구를 수행할 수 있기 때문이다 (Cook et al. 2008),

The majority of studies relied on a positivist or post-positiv- ist paradigm, were quasi-experimental in nature, and used single-group designs; only a small number of studies used a qualitative methodology or mixed-methods approach. Despite an increase in the use of qualitative methodologies since 2006, the need to conduct such studies remains, as these methodologies would allow us to analyze the process of change, conduct ‘‘clarification’’ studies (Cook et al. 2008), and capture faculty members’ stories of ‘‘why’’ and ‘‘how’’ fac- ulty development works (Drescher et al. 2004;O’Sullivan& Irby 2014b).

 

연구원은 또한 교육 설계 연구 (Collins 외 2004), 네트워크 분석 (Moses et al. 2009, Jippesetal. 2013) 및 성공 사례 (Brinkerhoff & Dressler 2003)를 포함한 대체alternative 방법론을 고려해야합니다. 설화 탐구, 민족 지학 및 해석 현상학과 같은 다른 질적 연구 전통은 또한 교사 발달과 이 과정이 전개되는 맥락에 대한 심층적인 이해를 제공 할 수있다.
Researchers should also consider alternative methodologies, including educational design research (Collins et al. 2004), network analysis (Moses et al. 2009;Jippesetal. 2013), and success cases (Brinkerhoff & Dressler 2003). Other qualitative research traditions, such as narrative inquiry, eth- nography and interpretive phenomenology, could also pro- vide a more in-depth understanding of teacher development and the contexts in which this process unfolds.



psychometric properties가 없는 설문지는 계속해서 가장 많이 사용되는 데이터 수집 방법이었으며 프로그램 참여자가 가장 일반적인 데이터 소스였습니다. 앞으로 우리는 변화의 척도로서 행동 또는 성과 기반의 척도(예 : OSTE) 사용을 고려해야합니다. 또한 다양한 이해관계자들을 대안적인 데이터 소스로서 사용하가능한 많은 다른 것들을 확인할 수 있을 것이다. 장기간에 걸친 데이터 수집 (결과 보존의 가능한 유지)이 중요하다. 많은 연구에서 지연된 사후 검사를 시행하였지만 변화의 내구성을 확인하고 gain을 유지하는 데 필요한 지원 유형을 결정하는 것은 여전히 어려웠습니다.
Questionnaires, often lacking in tested psychometric properties, continued to be the most popular method of data collection, and program participants were the most common data source. Moving forward, we should con- sider greater use of behavioral or performance-based as measures of change (e.g. OSTEs) well as alternative stakeholder data sources to ascertain as many different as possible. perspectives It would also be important to better collect data over time, to understand the long- term (and retention possible decay) of outcomes. Although a number of studies included delayed post-test evaluations, it was difficult to ascertain the durability of change and determine what type of support would be needed to maintain gains.



성과

Outcomes



FDP에 대한 높은 만족도

High satisfaction with faculty development programs


FDP에 대한 전반적인 만족도는 높았습니다. 더욱이, 참여는 대부분 자발적 이었지만, 교사는 지속적으로 프로그램이 개인 목표에 도움이되고 즐겁고 관련이 있다는 것을 알게되었습니다. Transfer of leaning to workplace를 향상시킬 수있는 experiential and skill-based 방법을 사용하는 방법은 계속 가치가 있었습니다.

Overall satisfaction with faculty development programs was high. Moreover, although participation was mostly voluntary, teachers consistently found the programs helpful, enjoyable and relevant to their personal objectives. The methods used, especially those with an experiential and skill-based focus, which may enhance transfer of learning to the workplace, continued to be valued.


교육과 FD에 대한 태도 변화

Changes in attitudes towards teaching and faculty development


참가자들은 계속해서 이러한 프로그램에 참여한 결과 교사 및 교수진 개발에 대한 태도에 긍정적 인 변화가 있음을보고했습니다. 또한, 그들은 종종 효과적인 교육 실천에 대한 자신감, 열정, 인식을 증가 시켰습니다.
Participants continued to report a positive change in atti- tudes towards teaching and faculty development as a result of their involvement in these programs. In addition, they frequently reported increased confidence, enthusiasm, and awareness of effective educational practices.


지식과 술기 습득

Gains in knowledge and skills


참가자들은 교육 원리, 구체적인 교수 전략, 교수 및 학습 방법에 대한 지식이 증가한 사례가 자주보고되었습니다. 또한 기술의 향상에 대해서 언급할 때 교수 설계instructional design  및 효과적인 피드백에 중점을 두었다.

Participants frequently reported increased knowledge of educational principles, specific teaching strategies, and approaches to teaching and learning. They also described gains in skills, with a particular focus on instructional design and effective feedback.


행동 변화

Changes in behavior


개선 된 피드백이나 교수의 효과와 같이 교수 행동의 자체보고 된 변화는 가장 흔한 결과로 남아 있으며 대부분의 개입에서보고되었습니다. 교실이나 임상 환경에서의 교육을 넘어서는 (관찰 된) 변화에는 새로운 교육 이니셔티브의 설계 및 제공, 새로운 교육 책임 또는 리더십 지위, 생산성, 학업 성과 및 경력 향상이 포함되었습니다. 이러한 관찰 된 변화는 주요 결과 결과를 가르치는 성과 인 2006 년에 덜 주목 받았다.

Self-reported changes in teaching behavior, such as improved feedback or teaching effectiveness, remained the most common outcome and were reported in most interventions. Observed changes that extended beyond teaching in the classroom or clinical setting included the design and delivery of new educational initiatives, new educational responsibilities or leadership positions, and productivity, increased academic output and career advancement. These observed changes were less fre- was quently noted in 2006, where the major outcome teaching performance.

 

조직행동과 학생학습의 변화

Changes in organizational practice and student learning


학생 (또는 레지던트) 행동의 변화뿐만 아니라, 조직 시스템의 변화도 계속 탐구되었다. 조직 관행의 변화를 보고한 것은 연구의 3 분의 1에도 미치지 못하였으며, 연구의 5 %만이 학습자 행동의 변화를 평가했습니다. 그러나 조직의 관행을 조사한 연구에서 참가자들은 새롭거나 향상된 동료 네트워크 설립을보고했다. 후자의 결과는 시간 경과에 따른 동료 집단과의 반복 된 접촉을 허용하는 FDP(longitudinal programs and seminar series)에서 가장 빈번히 관찰되었습니다.

Changes in organizational systems, as well as changes in student (or resident) behavior, continued to be under- explored. Less than a third of the studies reported changes in organizational practices, and only 5% of studies assessed changes in learner behavior. However, in those studies that did examine organizational practice, participants reported the establishment of new or improved networks of col- leagues. The latter outcome was most frequently observed in longitudinal programs and seminar series, faculty devel- opment interventions that allowed for repeated contact with a group of colleagues over time.


 

 



효과적인 FD의 핵심 특징

Key features of effective faculty development


2006 년과 마찬가지로 다음과 같은 몇 가지 주요 기능이 포함되었습니다. 증거 기반의 교육 설계 (이론적 또는 개념적 틀의 통합, 교수 및 학습의 원리 준수, 다양한 목적을 달성하기위한 여러 가지 교수 방법의 사용) 관련 콘텐츠; 체험 학습 및 연습 및 적용 기회; 피드백과 반성을위한 기회; 교육 프로젝트; 의도적 인 공동체 건설; 종단 프로그램 설계; 및 제도적 지원.

 

 

As in 2006, a number of key features emerged in this review. They included:

  • evidence-informed educational design (which encompassed the integration of theoretical or conceptual frameworks, adherence to principles of teach- ing and learning, and the use of multiple instructional methods to achieve diverse objectives);

  • relevant content;

  • experiential learning and opportunities for practice and application;

  • opportunities for feedback and reflection;

  • edu- cational projects;

  • intentional community building;

  • longitudinal program design; and

  • institutional support.

 

내용의 관련성이 가장 많이 강조되었는데, 피드백을 통한 성찰을 포함시키고, 전문적인 요구를 해결하기위한 교육 프로젝트를 사용하는 것도 강조되었다. Longitudinal program 또한 새로운 핵심 기능으로 부상했습니다. 실제로, 긴 시간에 걸쳐 진행되는 프로그램이 더 광범위하고 지속 가능한 변화와 관련이있는 것처럼 보인다.

The relevance of content to the participants’ work was more frequently high- lighted in this review, as were the incorporation of reflection with feedback and the use of educational projects to address professional needs. Longitudinal programming also emerged as a new key feature; indeed, the extension of programs over time appeared to be associated with broader and more sus- tained changes.


 

커뮤니티 형성

Community building


O'Sullivan과 Irby의 모델 (2011)을 이 리뷰에 적용하는 것이 특히 도움이 된다. 왜냐하면 FD intervention은 FD community의 구축을 강화하며, 특히 시간이 지남에 따라 반복되는 접촉을 보장하고 지속적 동료간 협력을 보장하는 longitudinal program에서 그러했다. 동료들과의 지속적인 관계는 30 % 이상의 연구에서 공통의 목표와 개인적 성공의 달성을 가능하게하는 것처럼 보였습니다. 이것은 2006년엔 확인하지 못한 결과이다. O'Sullivan과 Irby (2011)는 또한 교수진의 역할을 강조했다. 우리는 FDer가 누구인지, 그리고 FD가 FDer에게 미치는 잠재적 영향이 무엇인지 알아 보는 것이 중요하다고 생각합니다. 가르치는 것은 두 번 배우는 것이다라고 했다. 흥미롭게도 현재까지 소수의 연구 (O'Sullivan & Irby 2014a)만이 FDer에게 요구되는 기술과 속성의 독특한 조화에 대해 연구했습니다.

Applying O’Sullivan and Irby’s model (2011) to this review was particularly helpful as we observed that faculty devel- opment interventions can enhance the building of a fac- ulty development community, especially in the context of longitudinal programs that ensure repeated contact over time and ongoing collaboration with colleagues. Supportive relationships with colleagues, noted in over 30% of the studies, appeared to enable the accomplish- ment of shared goals and individual success. This finding was not reported in 2006. O’Sullivan and Irby (2011) also highlighted the role of faculty developers in their model; based on this review, we believe it would be important to explore who faculty developers are and what the potential impact of faculty development on them might be. It has been said that ‘‘to teach is to learn twice.’’ Interestingly, few studies to date (O’Sullivan & Irby 2014a) have examined the unique blend of skills and attributes required of faculty developers.



우리는 FD가 직장에서의 공동체 의식 형성에 미칠 수있는 영향을 깨닫기 위해서는 더 많은 연구가 필요하다는 점도 지적했습니다. 소개에서 언급했듯이 FD 참가자는...

  • 다른 교사 나 직원과 협력하고,

  • 직장에서 관계와 네트워크를 갖추고,

  • 교육 프로그램 내에서 작업과 활동을 완수하고,

  • 직장 환경에서 멘토와 코치를두고,

  • 교육 문화를지지하거나 저해하는 문화에 의해 특징 지워지는 조직적 맥락에서 근무한다.

 

We also noted that more work is needed to realize the possible impact of faculty development on building a sense of community in the workplace. As noted in the introduc- tion, faculty development participants

  • collaborate with other teachers or staff members,

  • have relationships and net- works in the workplace,

  • fulfill tasks and activities within the educational program,

  • have mentors and coaches in the work setting, and

  • work in an organizational context charac- terized by a culture that either supports or inhibits educa- tional change (O’Sullivan & Irby 2011).

Academic setting에서, 직장에서 일어나는 일과 FD가 COP 구축에 영향을 줄 수 있는지 여부를 더 잘 이해해야 할 때이다. 더욱이, 이 리뷰는 많은 FDP가 직장에서의 교육 활동 참여에 긍정적 인 영향을 미쳤음을 입증했지만, Transfer of training의 개념은 더 많은 조사가 필요하다. De Rijdt et al. (2013)은 학습자의 동기와 경험, 교육 전략, 교육 시간, 학습 환경을 강조하면서 FD에서 educational practice로의 transfer of learning에 영향을주는 변수를 조사하기 위해 문헌을 검토했습니다. 작업 환경 내의 변수(교육 프로그램 내외부에서 네트워크를 수행하고 네트워크를 만들 수있는 기회 등)도 역할을 한다 (van den Bossche & Segers 2013). 이 '교훈'을 FD에 전달하는 것이 가치가 있을 것입니다.

It is time to better understand what occurs in the workplace and whether fac- ulty development can influence the building of a commu- nity of practice in the academic setting. Moreover, although this review demonstrated that many of the faculty develop- ment interventions had a positive effect on involvement in teaching activities in the workplace, the concept of transfer of training requires further investigation. De Rijdt et al. (2013) reviewed the literature to investigate which variables most impact transfer of learning from faculty development to educational practice, highlighting learners’ motivations and experiences, instructional strategies, training time, and learning climate. Variables within the work environment, including opportunities to perform and create networks both within and outside the training program, also play a role (van den Bossche & Segers 2013). Exploring the transfer of these ‘‘lessons learned’’ to faculty development would now be worthwhile.






실천을 위한 함의

Implications for practice


지금까지의 성공을 기반으로 구축
  Building on our successes to date


recognizable, replicable한 요소를 가진 성공적 프로그램들이 있다. 가능한 한 범위 내에서 Context의 중요성을 염두에 두면서, 우리는 프로그램 개발 및 구현에 대한 체계적인systematic 접근법을 채택하고, 이용 가능한 증거를 구축하고이 검토에서 강조된 핵심 기능을 통합해야한다. 또한 이론과 실습(실천)의 통합을 강화하고 관련성relevance과 적용을 강조하기 위해 노력해야합니다.

The literature describes successful programs with recog- nizable, replicable elements. To the extent possible, and being mindful of the importance of context, we should adopt a systematic approach to program development and implementation, building on available evidence and incorporating key features highlighted in this review. We should also strive to enhance the integration of theory with practice, highlighting relevance and application.


  개인 수준에서의 교육 효과성 향상 너머를 바라보는 넓은 관점 
  Broadening our focus beyond individual teaching effectiveness


교수진의 역할이 복잡하기 때문에, FDP의 초점을 교육 효과성 향상 그 이상으로 확장해야 합니다. 여기에는 교과 과정 디자인, 교육 리더십 또는 스칼라십 (종단적 개입에서 관찰 된 성과)뿐만 아니라 교사로서의 정체성 (교사의 가치, 동기 및 신념 포함)에 중점을 둘 수 있습니다. 조직에 초점을 맞추는 것, 교육의 탁월성이나 리더십 개발에 대한 인식을 높이는 데 중점을 두는 것이 큰 도움이 될 것입니다.

Given the complexity of faculty members’ roles, broaden- ing the focus of faculty development programs designed to enhance teaching effectiveness is needed. This could include an emphasis on

  • curriculum design,

  • educational leadership, or

  • scholarship (an outcome which was observed in longitudinal interventions), as well as a focus on

  • faculty members’ identities as teachers (including their values, motivations and beliefs).

 

A greater focus on the organization at large, be it an emphasis on promot- ing the recognition of educational excellence or leader- ship development, would also be beneficial.


 

장기간 지속되는 프로그램 개발

  Developing programs that extend over time


이 리뷰는 누적 학습, 실습 및 피드백 통해서 장기간 지속되는 FDP가 여러 이점이 있음을 나타냅니다. 앞에서 언급했듯이 종단적 FDP는 향상된 교수 성과를 넘어서서 향상된 자기 인식, 새로운 리더십 역할 및 책임, 학문적 인 생산량 및 생산성 향상 등의 장점이 있습니다. 종단적 FDP는 사회적 네트워크와 공동체 의식을 형성 할 수있는 잠재력을 지니며, 협업과 팀워크가 임상 및 교육 실무의 중요한 구성 요소로 등장함에 따라 특히 중요 할 수 있습니다.

This review indicated the multiple benefits of faculty development programs that extend over time, allowing for cumulative learning, practice and feedback. As noted earlier, the benefits of longitudinal approaches to faculty development include changes that go beyond improved teaching performance and include enhanced self-aware- ness, new leadership roles and responsibilities, and academic increased output and productivity. Longitudinal interventions also have the potential to fos- ter social networks and a sense of community, an out- come that might be particularly important as collaboration and teamwork have emerged as critical components of clinical and educational practice.


워크숍에서 직장현장으로

  Moving from workshops to the workplace


현재의 문헌은 워크숍, 단기 코스 및 세미나와 같은 공식적이고 구조화 된 접근 방식에 대한 과도한 의존도를 보여줍니다. 이러한 접근법은 바람직한 것이며expected, 더 체계적인 계획과 프로그램 설계를 위한 이 분야의 성장을 반영합니다. 그러나 구조화 된 접근법만으로 충분하지 않을 수 있습니다.

The current literature demonstrates a continuing over- reliance on formal, structured approaches such as work- shops, short courses and seminars. Such approaches are expected and reflect the growth of the field to incorpor- ate more systematic planning and program design. However, on their own, structured approaches may be insufficient.

 

구조화된 개입의 장점

Whereas structured interventions appear to have the stated advantage of

  • 스케쥴링 간편 ease of scheduling,

  • 커뮤니티 형성 build- ing a community of interested educators, and

  • 동기부여 increasing motivation,

 

workplace에서의 경험학습도 고려되어야 한다(guided reflection, peer coaching and mentorship)

other methods that take advantage of experi- ential learning in the workplace, which include guided reflection, peer coaching and mentorship, should be con- sidered. We should also identify ways to recognize and promote learning in the workplace.


실천공동체 형성

  Fostering communities of practice


Workplace작업장 학습과 밀접한 관련이있는 것은 실천 공동체의 개념입니다. 교수진은 종종 커뮤니티 활동에 참여함으로써 교육 및 기타 많은 역량에 대해 배우게됩니다. 커뮤니티에 속해 있으면 sense of membership이 강화되며, 훈련의 전이transfer를 촉진하며, 개인 목표를 달성 할 수 있다. 이러한 성과는 대규모 교육 기관에 도움이 되는 조직문화의 변화로 이어질 수 있는데, 집단적 학습collective learning이 구성원들의 새로운 지식과 이해를 구축하고, 새로운 기술과 전문 지식을 습득하며, 실무를 향상시킬 수 있기 때문이다. 

Closely related to workplace learning is the notion of communities of practice. Faculty members often learn about teaching—and many other competencies—by par- ticipating in the activities of a community. The results of this review have suggested that belonging to a commu- nity can enhance a sense of membership, promote trans- fer of training, and foster the attainment of individual goals. These outcomes can also lead to culture change, benefiting the institution at large, as collective learning allows community members to build new knowledge and understanding, acquire new skills and expertise, and improve practice.


 

기관 수준의 지지 확보

  Securing institutional support


이 검토 결과는 기관 지원의 역할을 강조했다. 2006 년 우리는 organizational context의 중요성에 주목했습니다. 프로그램을 context에 "일치"시키는 것과 마찬가지로 organizational context는 여전히 ​​중요합니다. 그러나 재정적 인 지원이나 자유release 시간을 통해 분명히 나타나는 바와 같이, 제도적 지원institutional support은 성공의 중요한 요소로 부상하고있다. 교수들이 각자의 모든 책임 분야에서 지속적인 quality improvement를 이룰 수 있도록 지원하고 보상하는 조직 문화를 구축하는 것이다.

The findings of this review highlighted the role of institu- tional support. In 2006, we noted the importance of organizational context. This remains important, as does the ‘‘matching’’ of programs to context. However, institu- tional support, as evident through financial support or release time, is emerging as a critical component of suc- cess; so is the establishment of an organizational culture that supports and rewards continuous quality improve- ment in all spheres of faculty members’ responsibilities.



연구를 위한 함의

Implications for research


이론적 또는 개념적 프레임 워크에서 연구 
  Embedding research studies in a theoretical or conceptual framework


앞으로 우리는 연구 연구를 이론적 또는 개념적 틀에보다 명시 적으로 embed하고 결과의 해석에 이론을 활용해야합니다 (Davidoff 외 2015). 또한 개별 학습자를 뛰어 넘는 이론적 및 개념적 접근법을 통합하고 커뮤니티에서 집단 학습collective learning이 어떻게 발생 하는지를 이해하는 데 도움이 될 것입니다.

Moving forward, we should embed research studies more explicitly in a theoretical or conceptual framework and utilize theory in the interpretation of our results It (Davidoff et al. 2015). would also be beneficial to incorporate theoretical and conceptual approaches that go beyond the individual learner and help us to under- stand how collective learning occurs in communities.




  보다 질적이며 혼합 된 방법 연구 실시
  Conducting more qualitative and mixed methods studies


2006 년 이래로 질적 방법의 사용이 증가 했음에도 불구하고, 우리는 여전히 "왜"와 "어떻게"변화가 FD에서 발생하는지 더 잘 이해할 필요가있다. 다양한 방법론과 혼합 된 방법을 사용하는 질적 연구는 intervention의 결과로서 개인과 조직 모두에서 변화의 과정을 더 잘 이해하는 데 도움이 될 수 있습니다. 추가 연구를 위한 이 길은 2006 년에 강조되었으며 여전히 중요합니다. 또한 질적 연구는 교수진 개발이 어떻게 실천 공동체CoP 구축을 향상시킬 수 있는지, 그리고 CoP가 어떻게 교수진 개발을 촉진시키는 데 도움이되는지를 이해하는 데 도움이 될 수 있습니다.

Despite an increase in the use of qualitative methodolo- gies since 2006, we still need to better understand ‘‘why’’ and ‘‘how’’ change occurs in faculty development. Qualitative studies, using a range of methodologies, as well as mixed methods approaches, can help us to better understand the process of change, both as a result of the intervention and within the individual and the organ- ization. This avenue for further study was highlighted in 2006 and remains important. Qualitative studies might also help us to understand how faculty development can enhance the building of communities of practice—and how communities of practice can help to promote the development of faculty members.




  여러 방법 및 데이터 소스를 사용하여 행동 및 조직 성과 평가
  Using multiple methods and data sources to assess behav- ioral and organizational outcomes


시뮬레이션 환경과 실제 환경 모두에서 제 3자가 관찰한 변화에 대해 보고하기 위해 더 많은 연구가 필요합니다. 이 리뷰에서의 여러 연구는 행동 변화를 평가하기 위해 OSTE를 활용했다. 그러한 성과에 기반한 변화 측정을 사용하는 것은 매우 중요합니다. 여러 가지 방법과 데이터 소스를 사용하면 데이터를 삼각검증 할 수 있습니다. 또한 FD의 잠재력을 최대한 보여주기 위해서는 시스템 차원의 변화를 측정하는 척도(예 : 새롭게 형성되었거나 개선 된 네트워크)가 필요합니다.

There is a need for more studies to report on changes observed by third parties, both in simulated environ- ments as well as in actual practice. Several studies in this review utilized OSTE’s for assessing change in behavior; employing such performance-based measures of change is invaluable. Using multiple methods and data sources would also enable triangulation of data. Additionally, measures of change in the system (e.g. the creation of new or improved networks) are needed to demonstrate the full potential of faculty development.




  변화에 대한 평가 및 시간 경과에 따른 실습
  Assessing change and transfer to practice over time


많은 연구에서 지연된 사후 테스트가 포함되었지만 변화의 '내구성'에 대해서는 아직 거의 알지 못합니다. 시간 경과에 따른 변화 패턴에 초점을 맞추면 개인 및 조직에 대한 FD의 영향에 대한 이해를 높이고 지속적인 변화와 관련된 개입을 파악하는 데 도움이됩니다. 종단적 후속 연구는 교수 경력을 통해 교수진의 발전을 밝혀 줄 수도 있습니다. FD는 우리가 다른 사람들에게 "가하는" 활동이 아닙니다. 그것은 authentic setting에서 시간이 지남에 따라 발생하는 프로세스입니다.

Although a number of studies included delayed post- tests, we still know very little about the ‘‘durability’’ of change. Focusing on patterns of change over time would enhance our understanding of the impact of faculty devel- opment on individuals and organizations and help to iden- tify which interventions are associated with sustained change. Longitudinal follow-up might also shed light on the development of faculty members throughout their careers. Faculty development is not an activity that we ‘‘do’’ to others; it is a process that occurs over time in authentic settings.




  FD의 핵심 기능 분석
  Analysing key features of faculty development


FD intervention은 많은 예측 불가능한 변수들이 역할을 하는 복잡한 환경에서 발생한다 (Steinert et al., 2006). 이 리뷰를 토대로, 우리는 서로 다른 변수들 간의 상호 작용을 조사하기 위해 더 많은 연구를 수행해야합니다. 이 검토에서 몇몇 연구 (예 : Ogden et al., 2008; Johansson et al. 2012, Julian et al. 2012)는 FD의 어떤 특징이 변화에 기여하는지 분석 할 수있는 다른 FD 접근법과 방법을 비교 및 ​​대조했다. 이러한 분석은 현장을 발전시키는 데있어 중요합니다.

Faculty development interventions occur in a complex environment in which many unforeseen and unpredict- able variables play a role (Steinert et al. 2006). Based on this review, we need to conduct more studies which investigate interactions between different features. Few studies in this review (e.g. Ogden et al. 2008; Johansson et al. 2012; Julian et al. 2012) compared and contrasted different faculty development approaches and methods to enable an analysis of which features of faculty devel- opment contribute to changes in teacher performance. Such analyses would be critical in advancing the field.



  더 큰 조직적 맥락에서 FD의 역할을 탐구 함.
  Exploring the role of faculty development within the larger organizational context in which it unfolds


우리가 관찰했듯이, FD의 잠재적인 영향을 관찰하는 데 더 많은 노력이 필요합니다. 이러한 연구는 직업 개발을 육성하는 workplace learning의 핵심 요소와 실천 공동체CoP가 수행 할 수있는 역할을보다 잘 이해하는 데 도움이 될 것입니다. 이 조사는 또한 교수진의 역할과 맥락이 복잡 할 때 사회적 네트워크 분석이나 민족 지학과 같은보다 복잡한 연구 설계가 필요합니다.

As we observed, more work is needed to observe the potential impact of faculty development on the organization at large. Such studies will help us to better understand the key elements of workplace learning that foster professional development and the role that communities of practice can play. This line of investigation will also require more com- plex research designs, such as social network analysis or ethnography, given the complexity of faculty members’ roles and contexts.




결론

Conclusion




강점과 약점

Strengths and limitations of the review


이 리뷰에는 또한 많은 제한이있었습니다. 리뷰 과정은 2002 년 2 월부터 2012 년까지 10 년 동안의 문헌 업데이트를 반영하여 시간 제한적이었습니다. 또한 검토 된 연구의 거의 대부분은 영어로 되어 있으며 북미 지역 연구이다. 다른 사람들이 지적했듯이 (Koppel et al., 2001; Freeth et al. 2002), 이는 국제적인 관점에서 교수진 개발의 전체적인 그림을 막는 publication bias을 반영 할 수있다. 부정적 결과는 드물게 보고된다는 점도 다른 가능한 publication bias이다. 다른 검토와 마찬가지로, 코딩 시트에 대한 해석자 간의 해석과 합의는 검토 프로세스 전반에 걸쳐 도전이었습니다. 우리가 합의를 도출하기 위해 취한 엄격한 프로세스에 따라 어려움이있었습니다. 또한 우리는 개인 및 연구 팀 (Freeth 외 2002)으로서 비판적인 재귀성critical reflexivity 을 유지하려고 노력했지만 데이터 코딩 및 품질 관리에 관해 가능한 한 경계하지 않았으므로보고 된 데이터의 개인적인 편견과 오해가 우리가 검토 한 연구의 최종 요약에서 약간의 오류가 발생했습니다. 마지막으로 검토 된 연구의 본질은 몇 가지 문제점을 제시했습니다. 연구 설계에 대한 설명은 종종 제한적이었습니다. 또한 저자는 응답률, 사용 된 통계 방법 또는 개입 상황 (예 : 학문분야, 기간)을 이해하는 데 중요한 기본 배경 정보를 생략하는 경우가 많습니다. 또한, 용어의 일관성없는 사용 (예를 들어, 프로그램 유형을 설명하기 위해 사용된 용어)은 종종 동일한 정보의 상반되는 해석을 야기했다.

This review also had a number of limitations. The review process was time-limited, as it reflected a 10-year update of the literature from February 2002 until 2012. Further, almost all of the reviewed studies were found in the English lan- guage, with a greater number in the North American litera- ture. As others have noted (Koppel et al. 2001; Freeth et al. 2002), this may reflect a publication bias that prevents a ful- ler picture of faculty development from an international perspective. Negative results are also rarely reported, reflect- ing another possible publication bias. As in other reviews, inter-rater interpretation and agreement on the Coding Sheet was a challenge throughout the review process, des- pite the rigorous process we undertook to achieve consen- sus. Moreover, while we sought to maintain critical reflexivity as individuals and a research team (Freeth et al. 2002), and we were as vigilant as possible about data cod- ing and quality control, personal biases and misinterpreta- tions of reported data may have led to some errors in the final summary of the studies that we reviewed. Lastly, the nature of the articles reviewed presented several challenges. Descriptions of study designs were often limited. As well, authors frequently omitted response rates, statistical meth- ods used, or basic background information critical to under- standing the context of the intervention (e.g. discipline, duration). In addition, an inconsistent use of terminology (e.g., to describe program types) often led to conflicting interpretations of the same information.




 

 

 


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Steinert Y, Macdonald ME. 2015. Why physicians teach: giving back by paying it forward. Med Educ. 49:773–782.


Van den Bossche P, Segers M. 2013. Transfer of training: adding insight through social network analysis. Educ Res Rev. 8:37–47.


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 2016 Aug;38(8):769-86. doi: 10.1080/0142159X.2016.1181851. Epub 2016 Jul 15.

systematic review of faculty development initiatives designed to enhance teaching effectiveness: A 10-year updateBEME Guide No. 40.

Author information

  • 1a Centre for Medical Education, Faculty of Medicine , McGill University , Montreal , Canada ;
  • 2b Division of Medical Education, Faculty of Medicine , Dalhousie University , Halifax , Canada ;
  • 3c International Programs , National Board of Medical Examiners , Philadelphia, PA , USA ;
  • 4d Department of Integrated Studies in Education, Faculty of Education , McGill University , Montreal , Canada ;
  • 5Faculty of Biomedical Sciences , Austral University , Buenos Aires , Argentina ;
  • 6f HoPingKong Centre for Excellence in Education and Practice and The Wilson Centre , University Health Network , Toronto , Canada ;
  • 7g Prideaux Centre for Research in Health Professions Education , School of Medicine, Flinders University , Adelaide , Australia ;
  • 8h School of Medical Education, Faculty of Medical Sciences , Newcastle University , Newcastle upon Tyne , UK ;
  • 9i Newcastle NIHR Biomedical Research Centre in Ageing and Chronic Disease and Institute of Health and Society , Newcastle University , Newcastle upon Tyne , UK ;
  • 10j Mayo Clinic College of Medicine , Rochester, MN , USA ;
  • 11k Medicine Learning and Teaching Unit, School of Medicine , The University of Adelaide , Adelaide , Australia ;
  • 12l School of Health Professions Education (SHE) , Maastricht University , Maastricht , The Netherlands.

Abstract

BACKGROUND:

This review, which focused on faculty development initiatives designed to improve teaching effectiveness, synthesized findings related to intervention types, study characteristics, individual and organizational outcomes, key features, and community building.

METHODS:

This review included 111 studies (between 2002 and 2012) that met the review criteria.

FINDINGS:

Overall satisfaction with faculty development programs was high. Participants reported increased confidence, enthusiasm, and awareness of effective educational practices. Gains in knowledge and skills, and self-reported changes in teaching behaviors, were frequently noted. Observed behavior changes included enhanced teaching practices, new educational initiatives, new leadership positions, and increased academic output. Organizational changes were infrequently explored. Key features included evidence-informed educational design, relevant content, experiential learning, feedback and reflection, educational projects, intentional community building, longitudinal program design, and institutional support.

CONCLUSION:

This review holds implications for practice and research. Moving forward, we should build on current success, broaden the focus beyond individual teaching effectiveness, develop programs that extend over time, promote workplace learning, foster community development, and secure institutional support. We should also embed studies in a theoretical framework, conduct more qualitative and mixed methods studies, assess behavioral and organizational change, evaluate transfer to practice, analyse key features, and explore the role of faculty development within the larger organizational context.

PMID:
 
27420193
 
DOI:
 
10.1080/0142159X.2016.1181851
[PubMed - in process]


신임 교수개발자의 정체성 형성과 동기부여: resource-contrained환경연구 (Med Teach, 2016)

Identity formation and motivation of new faculty developers: A replication study in a resource constrained university

PATRICIA S. O’SULLIVAN1, CHARLES MKONY2, JESSICA BEARD1 & DAVID M. IRBY1

1University of California San Francisco, USA, 2Muhimbili University of Health and Allied Sciences, Tanzania





도입

Introduction


UCSF의 연구에서 교수개발자들은, 심지어 occasional faculty developers조차, 그들의 전문직정체성이 시간에 따라 변화하며, 교수개발자의 역할을 맡음에 따라서 커리어가 advanced하였다고 응답했다.

In research at the University of California San Francisco (UCSF), we found that faculty developers, even occasional faculty developers, articulate how their professional identities change over time and their careers are advanced as they take on the role of being a faculty developer (O’Sullivan & Irby 2014).


이들 occasional faculty developers는 다양한 만족으로부터 동기부여된다.

These occa- sional developers are motivated to engage in this role from a strong sense of satisfaction resulting from

  • their demonstration of mastery,

  • meeting a sense of duty and purpose, and

  • having a set of relationships with others (O’Sullivan & Irby 2015).


MUHAS의 신임 교수개발자들은 극심한 교수 부족을 겪던 시기의 한 프로젝트로부터 나왔다. 이러한 resource-constrained 대학에서 교수개발프로그램 참여는 외부에서 fund를 맏을 수 있는 사람이나 비-의료전문직 기관에서 나온 교수개발자들이 시행하는 local workshop에 참여할 수 있는 사람에게만 기회가 제한적으로 주어진다. 이로 인해서 지속가능한 impact가 없고, 참가자들이 교수개발자가 되리라는 기대가 없고, 교수개발자로서 정체성 형성이되지 않는다. 반대로, 우리의 목표는 역량강화develop capacity를 통해 local context내에서 일군의 교수들이 동료들에게 교수개발워크숍을 할 수 있게 해주고, 교수개발자로서의 정체성을 개발시켜주고자 했다.

The new faculty developers emerged from a project with Muhimbili University of Health and Allied Sciences (MUHAS) that was experiencing a severe shortage of faculty (Mkony 2012). In such resource-constrained universities, participation in faculty development programs is often restricted to those who are able to garner the funds to attend an externally offered course or who can attend a locally offered workshop by faculty developers from non-health professions institutions. These approaches have limited sustainable impact and no expectation that participants will become faculty developers and develop an identity as a faculty developer. In contrast, our goal was to develop capacity within the local context through a cadre of faculty members who could offer faculty develop- ment workshops to their peers tailored to the local situation and who would gradually develop an identity as a faculty developer.


이 역량강화 과정capacity building process 은 교수들이 과거에 수행하지 않았던 역할을 하게 했다. 대학 입장에서도 새로운 역할이었다. 이를 도입함으로써 UCSF연구에서 발견한 것과 같은 lens로 무엇이 동기부여 시켜주는지 알아보고자 했다.

This capacity building process engaged these faculty members in new roles that they had not previously performed; roles that were novel for their univer- sity. This implementation provided the opportunity to examine how their identity evolved with this new role as a faculty developer and what motived them to participate using the same lens as we had in the UCSF research.


UCSF연구는 정체성형성에 관한 연구들과 Monrouxe 가 설명한 '다수 정체성 개념concept of multiple identities'을 기반으로 하였다. 우리는 면담한 30명의 모든 occasional faculty developers 가 교수개발을 해나감에 따라 educator로서의 정체성을 언급함을 확인하였다. 교수개발자로서의 정체성은 임상가/교사/연구자와 같은 다른 역할과의 관계 속에서 등장하였다.

In the UCSF research, we drew on identity formation research (Roccas & Brewer 2002; Monrouxe 2010; Goldie 2012; Monrouxe & Poole 2013) and specifically the concept of multiple identities as articulated by Monrouxe (2010). We found that all 30 of the occasional faculty developers we interviewed described an educator identity to which faculty development was added over time. Their faculty developer identity generally emerged in relation to their other roles as clinician, teacher and researcher in one of four ways:

  • (1) a merged identity in which the individual integrates multiple roles/identities simultaneously (e.g. physician, researcher, teacher);

  • (2) compartmentalized identity in which separate identities are maintained for different contexts (e.g. in the clinic a physician and in the classroom a teacher);

  • (3) a hierarchical identity in which the primary identity (e.g. physician) predominates but is closely associated with a less dominant identity (e.g. teacher); and

  • (4) a parallel identity in which the identities exist simultaneously but without a conscious overlap (O’Sullivan & Irby 2014).

 

이들의 교수개발자로서의 역할은 다른 사람들과 일하는 방식을 바꾸었고, 커리어의 발전방향을 바꾸었다. 교수개발은 기관문화에 영향을 주었고, 기관문화는 다시 교수개발에 영향을 주었다.

Their roles as faculty developers enhanced their status in their departments and influenced the way they worked with others and how it advanced their careers. Faculty development influenced the institutional culture and the institutional culture in turn supported faculty development.


우리는 Bandura, Maslow (1970), and Deci and Ryan 의 연구에 근거하여 교수개발자들의 동기부여를 탐구하였다. 우리는 다섯 개의 동기부여요인을 찾았고, 앞의 동기부여 이론들과 잘 맞았다. 교수들은 교수개발프로그램에 다음의 이유로 기여contribute하였다.

We also examined their motivation to become a faculty developer based on the work of Bandura (1986), Maslow (1970), and Deci and Ryan (2000). We found five motivators for occasional faculty developers, which aligned well with these theories of motivation (O’Sullivan & Irby 2015). These faculty members contributed to faculty development programs for the following reasons:

  • 만족 satisfaction (fun and fulfillment),

  • 숙달 mastery (learning and personal/professional development),

  • 관계성 relatedness (enjoyment of working with and learning from others),

  • 책임감 duty (obligation to give back as an academic citizen), and

  • 목적의식 purpose (opportunity to improve local teaching and ultimately patient care).

 

이 결과는 occasional faculty developers를 구성하고 이것을 어떻게 정체성과 동기부여가 교수개발의 확장을 위해 사용될 수 있는가에 대한 통찰을 주었다.

These findings provide useful insights into how identity and motivation can be used to foster the expansion of faculty development through the creation of a cadre of occasional faculty developers, those whose primary responsibilities are other than faculty development.


그러나 UCSF는 자원이 풍요로는 환경이다.

However, UCSF has a well-established faculty development program in a resource-rich environment that values teaching and faculty development. We wondered if these identities and motivations would be the same for new faculty developers in a resource-constrained university such asMUHAS


연구질문 

  • ‘‘How does the faculty developer identity emerge in these new faculty developers?’’ 

  • ‘‘What motivated them to become faculty developers?’’ 

  • ‘‘How do the new education skills and faculty development role influence them?’’






방법

Methods


설계

Design

 

교수개발 연구에 인터뷰가 유용함.

This study uses a content analysis of interview sensitized by the identity formation and motivation findings of our previous research. As the role of faculty developer was new to these faculty members, the researchers thought an interview would allow participants the best way to describe what this new role meant to them. Additionally, Monrouxe (2010b) noted that interviews are a useful method of studying identity develop- ment. Two of the authors were involved in the preparation of the new faculty developers (P.O’S. and C.M.). Their experience placed responses in context for the analysis. Two authors (P.O’S. and D.M.) had conducted the previous research in this area that provided the sensitizing constructs in this work (O’Sullivan & Irby 2014; O’Sullivan & Irby 2015). Their experience also influenced the analysis of the data.


 

연구세팅과 참여자

Setting and participants

 

This study took place at MUHAS, the premier public institution for health sciences in Tanzania. MUHAS has schools of dentistry, medicine, nursing, pharmacy and public health, as well as institutes of Allied Health Sciences, as well as Traditional Medicine. However, MUHAS has suffered severe shortages of teaching faculty for decades (Mkony 2012).


At the time of the study, MUHAS had 300 faculty members and over 2000 students,


There were 16 participants in this study, consisting of two cohorts of faculty members, representing all the school and institutes in MUHAS who were selected from among junior faculty with aptitude and interest in education. The participants were free to accept or decline the invitation to participate and everyone proposed accepted the opportunity.



개입

Intervention


자세한 training에 대하여...

To provide context, the training is described briefly here and is reported extensively elsewhere (Mloka et al. 2012).


(1) Teach a new 18-session graduate education course on pedagogy, curriculum development, and assessment required of all medical residents and other professional graduate students beginning in 2011–2012, and

(2) Conduct faculty development workshops for their peers.


 

인터뷰 가이드

Interview guide


Two of the researchers developed the interview guide which consisted of several broad questions and multiple probes. The interview guide was used previously with faculty members at UCSF and has been published (O’Sullivan & Irby 2014, 2015). This study focused on questions eliciting

  • why they got involved in faculty development,

  • how participation affected them and

  • how their identity changed.

 

예시 질문

Example questions included:

  • ‘‘How has being a faculty developer fit into your career trajectory?’’

  • ‘‘What are your various professional roles?’’

  • ‘‘How do you align your roles as a faculty developer with your other roles?’’

  • ‘‘Why do you do faculty development?’’

  • ‘‘What do you personally get out of this activity?’’



절차

Procedures


At the time of the interviews, the HPEGs had succeeded in offering at least seven workshops and had taught the 18-week postgraduate course twice. An individual (J.B.) uninvolved in the HPEG conducted the interviews in fall 2012 at MUHAS. All individuals consented and agreed to be audio-recorded.


분석

Analysis


Two researchers (P.O’S. and D.M.I.) read the transcripts applying codes from the two previous studies with faculty developers (O’Sullivan & Irby 2014, 2015). Each researcher read the transcripts individually. They met jointly to review all coding, adding, and deleting codes as needed. Although sensitized by their previous work, they were open to the possibility of additional codes. The 10 codes used to analyze the transcripts aligned with those from UCSF. The researchers applied the codes to address the questions posed by this study. Supporting quotes are indicated by the label ‘‘HPEG’’ followed by interviewee number. Another researcher (C.M.) reviewed audio recordings to confirm the appropriateness of the codes. Those interviewed in the study reviewed the results reported and concurred with the statements and interpretations.



Results


16명 중 15명을 인터뷰함.

Of the 16 HPEGs, 15 were interviewed. One person had assumed a leadership position outside the university and was unavailable for an interview.

  • 성별 Six women and nine men participated.

  • 전공 They came from the schools of medicine (n¼11), dentistry (n¼1), nursing (n¼1), pharmacy (n¼1) and public health (n¼1).

  • 직위 The majority (n¼12) were lecturers (the first rank for faculty) and had been faculty members for approximately five years. The remaining participants were senior lecturers who had been at their rank about eight years.

  • 교수개발경험 They all reported doing faculty development for 1.5–2 years.



정체성 형성

Identity development



모든 참가자들은 multiple role과 정체성에 대해서 언급했다 (의사/연구자/교사/멘토/관리자). 의사-연구자 또는 과학자-연구자의 정체성은 교육자로 확장되어갔다. 교육자 정체성의 진화는 새로운 것이었고 학습자와의 관계에 영향을 주었다.

All of the participants described the multiple roles and identities required at MUHAS: clinician, researcher, teacher,mentor, and administrator. Their identity of Clinician/Researcher or Scientist/Researcher was expanding to include educator. The evolution of the educator identity was new and influenced their interactions with their learners.



다양한 역할은 셋 중 하나로 묘사되었다.

Participants viewed these various roles as falling into one of three identities (Figure 1).

 

분절된 정체성

The ‘‘compartmentalized’’ was captured by, 

    • ‘‘All [roles] apply under different circumstances’’(HPEG 5). 

    • Another noted, ‘‘I teach, take care of patients, I am a PhD student, faculty developer. I see them as separate in manyways’’ (HPEG 15). 

 

그러나 교수개발이 하나의 정체성으로 포함되어있다는 것이 중요하다.

However, it is important to note that faculty development was included as one of these identities for most of these HPEGs with this compartmentalized identity.


위계적 정체성

Others saw their identity as ‘‘hierarchical’’;

    • ‘‘I am first, a clinician. And then a researcher...I feel like part of the [HPEG] group, but maybe not independent enough to say stand alone and maybe do faculty development somewhere else’’ (HPEG 11).


혼합된 정체성 

For many HPEGs the identity was ‘‘merged’’ among various roles and at times incorporating the faculty developer role.

    • One noted that his ‘‘Basic roles are teaching, research and patient care. My roles are not separate, but rather mixed together’’ (HPEG 7).



Local한 교수개발자의 가치를 인정해주기도 했다. 

There was recognition of the value of having local faculty developers:


 

 

동기부여

Motivation


 

1 의무

UCSF에서 동기를 부여해준 것으로 나타난 다섯 가지 주제는 MUHAS에서도 같았다. 일부 HPEGs는 그렇게 해달라고 요청을 받아서 하게 되었다. 교수개발은 하나의 "의무"로 보였다.

All five them es about what motivated participants to be a faculty developer that were found at UCSF also were found at MUHAS. Some HPEGs participated because they were asked to do so. Faculty development was viewed as a ‘‘duty’’: 


2 목적

Others had a sense of ‘‘purpose’’. 

    • One saying, ‘‘Improving the faculty side...should go hand-in-hand with the new curriculum...you are at the fore front of improving quality of medical training’’ (HPEG 10) 


3 숙달

Others expressed a sense of ‘‘mastery’’,

    • ‘‘It opened my eyes that actually, I need to improve my teaching’’ (HPEG 3) 


4 만족

Some identify a sense of ‘‘satisfaction’’ in doing faculty development, ‘‘I enjoy it’’ (HPEG 15) 


5 관계

They valued the ‘‘relationships’’ they formed within the HPEG community, and the resulting cohesion,





교수개발자가 되는 것의 성과

Outcome of being a faculty developer



자기자신에 대한 성과

Outcome on self


첫째, 워크숍과 동료의 교육을 보며 스스로의 교육방식에 변화가 있었다.

The HPEGs identified three ways in which being an HPEG had a direct effect on them. First, all of the HPEGs reported changes in their own teaching due to the workshops and observation of their peers teaching,


둘째, HPEG가 되는 것은 공동체의식을 만들어줬다. interact할 수 있는 많은 방법을 안다.

Second, being an HPEG created an important sense of community. Now, they found many ways in which they could interact:



MUHAS가 큰 기관은 아니지만, 여러 HPEG구성원들은 서로를 잘 모른다. 이제 그들은 스스로를 '가족'이라 여긴다.

Although MUHAS is not a large institution, many of the HPEG members did not know each other.

    • ‘‘I mean, through faculty development...we have been a very close group together’’ (HPEG9).

Now they saw themselves as ‘‘family’’ (HPEG 15).


셋째, HPEG가 됨으로써, 다른 사람과 상호작용하는 방식이 바뀌었고, 새로운 기회를 얻게 되었다. 어떤 HPEGs는 대학에서의 공식적 역할이 없음일 지적했지만, 동료의 follow-up에서 추가적 조언을 얻었다고 했다. 그들은 자기 자신을 더 중요하게 여기게 되었다. 그들은 동료에게 resource가 되었다.

Third, being an HPEG changed the ways in which they interacted with others and afforded new opportunities. Although some HPEGs noted the lack of an official role within the university, they did describe having peers follow- up with them after workshops for further advice. They saw themselves as important:

    • ‘‘My image has changed from just this is a pediatrician to more than being just a pediatrician. I can offer an educational innovation to my peers’’ (HPEG 1).

They are a resource to their colleagues,



다른 사람에 대한 성과

Outcome on others


 

HPEG 구성원들은 MUHAS의 교육이 달라지기 시작했다고 언급했다. HPEG는 다른 사람에게 더 나은 강의와 상호작용적 교육을 할 수 있게 영향을 주는 것, 전문직간 그룹을 포함시키는 것incorporating interprofessional groups를 언급하였다.

The HPEG members attested to changing the teaching at MUHAS.

  • ‘‘I can change others, the way they teach’’ (HPEG 13).

The HPEGs spoke about influencing others to create better lectures and interactive classes with student participation and incor- porating interprofessional groups.



기관 수준의 성과

Outcome on the institution


어떻게 기관의 문화가 달라졌는지 언급했다.

The HPEG members spoke about how the institutional culture responded to their efforts.

  • They created ‘‘cohesive groups...speaking the same language...transferring to the rest of MUHAS.....I think we’re getting there, but it’s a gradual process’’ (HPEG 11). 




고찰

Discussion


전체적으로 resource-rich environment 에서와 매우 유사한 것을 발견했다.

Overall, we found remarkable similarities in our study of faculty developers in a resource-rich environment and new faculty developers in an environment that had fewer resources to devote to faculty development.


그러나 차이도 있다.

However, there were some differences, which we will compare and contrast.

 


MUHAS에서 교수개발자의 정체성은 주로 교육자로서 '새로운' 정체성으로 발달하였다. 모든 HPEGs는 교육에 대한 적성과 관심이 있어도 공식적 교육을 거의 받지 못했다. UCSF에서는 모든 교수개발자들은 교육자로서 오랜 경험이 있고 명망이 있었다. 두 경우 모두, 시간이 지남에 따라서 교육자 역할로부터 교수개발자의 정체성이 드러나기 시작했고, 교육자와 교수개발자 모두로서의 경험을 갖기 시작했다.

In MUHAS, the faculty developer identity evolved primarily through their newly developing identity as an educator. All of the HPEGs had an aptitude and an interest in teaching but little formal preparation. At UCSF, all the developers had long standing experience and outstanding reputations as educators. In both instances, the faculty developer identity emerged from their educator role over time and with increasing experience as both an educator and faculty developer.



그러나 원래 연구에서의 Fig 1은 이 연구의 Fig 1과 조금 다르다.

However, when contrasting the Figure 1 in this study with Figure 1 in the original research (O’Sullivan & Irby 2014), there are several striking differences.

  • 첫째, 상대적인 중요도 인식을 동그라미의 크기로 반영했다. UCSF에서는 다양한 정체성이 있었지만, 임상가/연구자 정체성이 교육자 정체성만큼 중요했다. MUHAS에서는 교육자 정체성은 덜 중요했다. 비록 모든 HPEG가 교육을 자신의 역할 중 하나로 보았지만, 교육자 정체성이 dominating하진 않았다.
    First, they perceived the relative importance of the identities as different as reflected in the size of the circles in the two studies. Although the multiple identities were developing at UCSF, the Clinician/PhD identity was of comparable importance to that of educator. At MUHAS, educator identity was less important. Although all HPEGs saw teaching as part of their role, the educator identity clearly was not as dominating.

  • 둘째, UCSF에서 드러난 parallel identity(multiple role, not overlapping)는 위계적 정체성은 아니었다.
    Second, the parallel identity noted in the UCSF sample of an individual simultaneously doing these multiple roles, but not overlapping, was not hierarchical identity, described in MUHAS. Similarly, the although mentioned, was less manifest in the HPEGs.

  • 셋째, MUHAS에서 통합된 정체성merged identity은 교육자 정체성을 통해서 진화evolve하였는데, 반면 UCSF에서는 교수는 세 가지 역할 모두를(의사/과학자, 교육자, 교수개발자) 스스로 자신을 바라보는 방식에 통합시켰다. 우리는 이 multiple identities가 new developer에서조차 merge하지만, 교수개발자 정체성을 포함시키려면 강력한 교육자 정체성이 필요하다는 것이라고 결론을 내렸다.
    Third, as noted in the previous paragraph, the ‘‘merged’’ identity evolved through the educator identity; whereas at UCSF, there were faculty members for whom all three roles (clinician/ scientist, educator, and faculty developer) were integrated into how they saw themselves. We conclude that these multiple identities are merged even in new developers, but that to include a faculty developer identity requires a strong educator identity.


교수개발자가 되려는 motivation도 이전 연구와 부합한다

The motivations to become a faculty developer echoed the findings of our previous work (O’Sullivan & Irby 2015).



FDP를 교육의 질을 높이고 교육변화를 위해서 사용하는 방식에 대한 권고.

From our findings, we believe that we can make recom- mendations for other institutions that may be turning to faculty development programs as a way to enhance the quality of teaching and make educational changes.

 

literature supports

This faculty devel- opment program has characteristics that the literature supports are effective for train the trainer models including

  • various instructional strategies,

  • supplying all instructional materials and

  • providing organizational support (Pearce et al. 2012; Tobias et al. 2012).

 

지속가능성

Additionally, this program overcame one of the threats to train-the-trainer programs of sustainability by the institutionalization of the curriculum which helps to stabilize the trained faculty. We have identified the need for appropri- ate background and have demonstrated how it can be done by building an educator community with a relatively small team. The creation, delivery, and now requirement of the postgradu- ate course was important to both culture building of valuing education as part of professional preparation and capacity building because the postgraduates became teaching resources, which they had not been previously. The learners received better teaching as described by the HPEGs and this is both critical to the education in an area with health care professional shortages, but provides satisfaction that helps sustain the teachers in an area with faculty shortages.

 

문화

Finally, by making education part of the university culture, future transitions will be easier, which is essential when there are fewer resources.




O’Sullivan teach PS, in 1536–1540. Irby faculty DM. 2015. Why does a development workshops? faculty Acad memberMed 90:


Monrouxe L, Poole G. 2013. An onion? Conceptualising and researchingidentity. Med Educ 47:425–429. 


Monrouxe LV. 2010. Identity, identification and medical education: Whyshould we care? Med Educ 44:40–49.


O’Sullivan PS, Irby DM. 2014. Identity formation of occasional facultydevelopers in medical education: A qualitative study. Acad Med 89:1467–1473. 



 




 2016 Sep;38(9):879-85. doi: 10.3109/0142159X.2015.1132409. Epub 2016 Feb 8.

Identity formation and motivation of new faculty developers: A replication study in a resourceconstrained university.

Author information

  • 1University of California San Francisco , USA .
  • 2b Muhimbili University of Health and Allied Sciences , Tanzania.

Abstract

INTRODUCTION:

Previous studies on the identity development and motivation of faculty developers have occurred with seasoned developers in a research-rich environment. We sought to determine if the findings of those studies could be replicated with novice faculty developers in a resource-constrained environment.

METHODS:

We interviewed 15 novice faculty developers from Muhimbili University of Health and Allied Sciences (MUHAS) who, at the time, had led faculty development activities for no more than two years. We conducted a qualitative analysis sensitized by the previous findings.

RESULTS:

Results were very similar to the previous work. The developers described compartmentalized, hierarchical, and merged identities. The impact was on their teaching as well as on others at MUHAS and on the institution itself. The motivations related to mastery, purpose, duty, satisfaction, and relatedness.

CONCLUSION:

This replication led us to conclude that identity development as a faculty developer occurs even in novice developerswho do faculty development as only part of their work and despite constrained resources and a different culture. These developersfind the work richly rewarding and their motivations benefit the institution. This body of research highlights how faculty development provides benefits to the institution as well as engaging career opportunities.

PMID:
 
26855161
 
DOI:
 
10.3109/0142159X.2015.1132409
[PubMed - in process]


교육프로그램 평가를 위한 열두가지 팁(Med Teach, 2010)

Twelve tips for evaluating educational programs

DAVID A. COOK

Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, USA




Introduction



For the past 3 months, Judy and John have been planning a workshop to teach postgraduate physician trainees how to examine the thyroid gland. They have spent countless hours studying different examination techniques, searching the literature for similar courses, patients gleaning teaching tips from colleagues, lining up with thyroid abnormalities,arranging for rooms and refreshments, and inviting trainees to attend. At about 3:00 p.m. the day before the workshop,John calls Judy and asks, ‘How are we going to know if this workshop is any good? How will we evaluate this program?’There is a moment of silence on the line, and then Judy replies,‘That’s a good question. I don’t know. I don’t even know where to start.’ 


Sound familiar? I hope not – but it is something I have seen too often. At one time or another, nearly all educators will need to evaluate an educational program. Why? Because we want to know the value of the activity into which we have invested time, energy, and other resources. As one classic text states, ‘Many different uses may be made of those value judgments . . . but the central purpose of the evaluative act is the same: to determine the merit or worth of some thing.’ (Worthen et al. 1997, p 8) Yet, as attention focuses on effective program development and implementation, the program evaluation may get neglected. Alternatively or additionally, an outstanding teacher might not possess the skills to conduct an effective evaluation.



누구의 의견이 중요한가?

Tip 1. First ask, ‘Whose opinion matters?’


The most important step in planning your evaluation is to identify for whom the information is intended (Figure 1). Who will read the final report? An evaluation intended for the medical school dean will look very different than one intended for publication in a peer reviewed journal. An evaluation intended to help yourself improve a course for the next go-round will require very different information than that in a final report to a funding agency demonstrating your program’s success. 


Stakeholders – people with an interest in the program and its evaluation – might include administrators, students, teachers, secretaries, fund-ing agencies, and the educational community at large.



그 사람에게 의미가 있는 정보는 무엇인가?

Tip 2. Next ask, ‘What would really be meaningful to them?’ 


The second most important step is to determine what would really be meaningful to your audience Different types and quantities of information will be more or less valuable in different situations. For example,although learner knowledge is often considered more important than satisfaction, in evaluating a new program to orient students to medical school, satisfaction may be more meaningful than performance on the end-of-year compre-hensive exam. 



어떻게 평가 결과가 사용될 것인가

An important factor in this decision is how the evaluation will be used. Evaluations are generally used to inform policy and guide decisions, such as


. Determining effectiveness, 

. Identifying areas for improvement, 

. Optimizing resource allocation, or 

. Empowering individuals (teachers, students, administrators, policy makers, etc) in their respective roles.


It is also helpful at this stage to consider whether you need a summative evaluation, a formative evaluation, or both. 

  • Summative evaluations typically come at or near the end of a program or course. The intent is to inform a final pronouncement on the course: did it work or not? 

  • Formative evaluations, on the other hand, seek to identify areas of strength and weakness so that a course can be improved. 


  • Formative feedback is usually an ongoing process, whereas 

  • summative feedback typically takes place at a single time point. 


Of course, the two are not mutually exclusive – you can do both if needed (but see Tip 12).



(학생)평가와 (프로그램)평가를 혼동하지 말기

Tip 3. Do not confuse evaluation with assessment


Educators commonly use the terms evaluation and assessment interchangeably. However, I find it useful to distinguish on assessment, evaluation, which focuses programs, from which focuses on learners (see Wilkes & Bligh 1999). Simply put, you assess learners to determine how well the learner is doing, and you evaluate programs to determine their merit or worth.




다른 사람들로부터 도움 받기

Tip 4. Get input from others


The adage ‘two heads are better than one’ is true in planning and conducting an evaluation. Seek input, not only from other educators, but also from other stakeholders such as students and administrators. Both those who will use the evaluation and those who are providing data (e.g., students and teachers) can offer suggestions on what they might find important.



다양한 패러다임.

Tip 5. Consider various evaluation paradigms and approaches



Objectives-oriented


First, and probably the best known to educators today, is the objectives-oriented approach. In this method you define the instructional goals or objectives at the start of the activity, and then at the end you evaluate to determine if these goals have been met. The specific outcome(s) studied depends on the objectives (outcomes will be discussed next). 


The strength of this approach lies in its simplicity – it facilitates a relatively uncomplicated design and straightforward interpretation of results. 


However, the objectives-oriented approach has several disadvantages. 

    • First, it promotes tunnel vision and, by focusing on predetermined objectives, tends to be rather inflexible. It is poorly suited to capturing developments that arise unexpect- edly during implementation, and the evaluator can wind up a ‘slave’ to the objectives. 

    • Second, if objectives are not carefully chosen the corresponding outcomes can potentially be trivial (‘learners will enjoy the course’) or infeasible (‘participants will become internationally-renowned experts in this topic’). 

    • Third, educators may focus on achieving the outcomes themselves rather than facilitating lasting learning (teaching to the test), and they may inadvertently neglect other important teaching points.




Process-oriented



Next comes the process-oriented approach. In its most complete execution, this evaluation begins collecting data at the very inception of the idea for the program. It starts by determining if a need exists and if so what is the best way to meet that need. It then tracks the development process, monitors what actually happens during implementation, and typically concludes with a summative objectives-oriented evaluation at the end. 


The advantage in this approach is its comprehensiveness – providing information on each step in the program from start to finish. It thus provides both formative and summative information. 


단점 However, this comprehensive- ness comes at a price. It is very resource-intensive and complex, and generates voluminous data that may be difficult to interpret. It also requires tremendous foresight: once the program is underway, it is often too late to go back to the beginning and start collecting data.



Participant-oriented


Finally, we have the participant-oriented approach. This approach seeks to determine how the people involved perceived the program. It typically employs qualitative methods in which data collection and analysis follows an inductive and iterative process, with an ongoing cycle of data collection, data interpretation, recognition of need for specific additional data, and more data collection. Triangulation – the inclusion of data from multiple perspectives – is the key, and the evaluator will often solicit input from participants other than the learners themselves, such as teachers and support staff, as well as non-human sources such as the course syllabus or minutes of planning meetings. 


장점

This approach captures the complexity of a large program, including the local context, and includes a flexibility that enables it to respond readily to unintended effects. It also tends to be humanistic – focusing on the participants and their needs rather than intangible objectives and processes. 


단점

However, as with the process- oriented evaluation, this comes at the expense of cost and complexity. Also, both the data and its interpretation are highly subjective and strictly speaking apply only to the local context, which may bother some audiences.




성과를 먼저 정의하고, 그 다음 방법을, 그 다음 도구를

Tip 6. First select the outcome, then the measurement method, then the instrument, then the modality


When planning an evaluation, resist the tendency to start by selecting a specific instrument or tool (such as ‘licensure exam scores’ or ‘Mini-CEX’ or ‘SurveyMonkey’). Rather, first identify the outcome(s) you feel will be meaningful, then select the measurement method, then the instrument, and finally, the modality. I will discuss each of these in turn.


Outcomes are conceptual and often intangible constructs – things like ‘knowledge,’ ‘communication skill,’ ‘patient satis- faction,’ and ‘mortality.’ Kirkpatrick (1996) identified four broad classes of program outcomes: first Concentrating on the outcome at a conceptual level specific focus rather than jumping to a instrument helps attention on what would be most meaningful rather than what is convenient or familiar. For example, if communication skill will provide the most meaningful information to evaluate my course, then I should figure out how to assess communication skill rather than administer a written multiple-choice test


There are almost always multiple methods to measure a given outcome. For example, to assess knowledge, one could use self-report, a multiple-choice test, or faculty judgment. Each of these approaches has strengths and weaknesses, and each could be implemented in various ways.


We refer to specific implementations of a given method as instruments. Specific multiple-choice tests include the United States Medical Licensing Examination Step 1, an end-of-year cumulative exam, and a self-assessment quiz. Using assess- ment of clinical skills as another example, one method is direct observation of behavior, and one specific instrument using this method is the American Board of Internal Medicine’s Mini-CEX (Norcini et al. 2003).


Finally, many instruments can be implemented using the different modalities. For example, Mini-CEX can be implemented on paper, on the Internet, or on a personal digital assistance (PDA). A course evaluation survey could be administered on paper, via e-mail, by telephone (not com- monly done, but possible), or using an Internet-based tool such as SurveyMonkey (www.surveymonkey.com).



다양한 성과를 고려해보라 (그리고 측정방법과 측정도구도...)

Tip 7. Consider many different outcomes (and measures and instruments and modalities)


Before selecting the outcome(s) for your evaluation, spend some time thinking about alternatives.



교육목적과 부합하는 성과를 선택하라

Tip 8. Select outcomes that align with educational goals


It should go without saying that the evaluation outcomes should align with the educational goals, but unfortunately this is not always the case. For example, I have seen an evaluation in which the educational goal was to enhance learners’ communication skills, but the outcome assessed was actually knowledge about effective communication techniques. This knowledge might translate into enhanced communication, but there is no guarantee.


환자-관련 성과가 부적합한 세 가지 이유

However, I see at least three reasons not to treat patient-related outcomes as the holy grail of educational program evaluation. 

  • First is the risk of misdirected emphasis. For example, if a course’s educational goal is to improve knowledge, a focus on patient-care outcomes might cause educators to emphasize algorithms that improve the measured outcome rather than facilitating deep understanding of underlying principles. 

  • Second, since some patient-related outcomes are very difficult to assess, there is the risk of selecting an outcome measure (e.g., hemoglobin A1c levels) because it is measurable rather than because it is most important. 

  • Third, measuring patient-related outcomes is simply not feasible in many instances. Issues such as statistical power (sample size), outcome sensitivity to change, dilution of effect (students’ decisions will be diluted as supervising physicians, other team members, health systems, and patient preferences come to bear (Shea 2001)),



신뢰도와 타당도를 고려하라

Tip 9. Consider the validity and reliability (or trustworthiness) of instrument scores 


Once you select the outcome and the method, you will begin to consider various instruments. It is best to start with instruments that already exist, not only because it can save you the work of developing an instrument de novo, but because published instruments usually have accrued evidence to support the validity of the information.


Regardless of the origin of the instrument, when it comes time to interpret the data, you will need to know how well you can trust the results. This requires evidence to support the validity of your interpretations (Cook & Beckman 2006). Note that we do not speak of the validity of the instrument itself, but the validity of interpretations (Downing 2003). 


The same instrument, applied to different uses, may provide for more or less valid interpretations. Moreover, validity is not a yes/no variable – it is a matter of degree. Higher-stakes evaluations will require greater validity evidence. Validity evidence is often available (published, or unpublished from authors) for existing instruments. However, you should still collect fresh evidence to support the validity of inferences in your educational context. 





파일럿테스트를 해보라

Tip 10. Pilot test the evaluation process 


Once you have identified or created your instrument(s), take time to pilot test the instrument and the data collection process prior to full-scale implementation. This allows you to detect and correct poorly worded questions, suboptimal formatting,and problems in administration and collection.


Tip 11. Obtain a sufficiently large and representative sample



The saying goes, ‘If you’ve seen one case of chest pain, you’ve seen one case of chest pain.’ Being able to identify myocardial infarction in high-risk men does not guarantee that I would recognize ischemia in a moderate-risk woman, or pulmonary embolism or gastroesophageal reflux. The concept – known in many fields as content specificity (Norman 2008) – that it often takes more than one question (frequently many more) to appropriately assess a learner or evaluate a course holds true across most outcomes, methods, and instruments. Even using qualitative methods, a single question will rarely suffice.


Obtain enough information to see a clear picture of what you are trying to evaluate. The instrument should be as long as needed – but no longer. 


Similarly, when using evaluation surveys or assessments of learning, be sure you have collected data from enough individuals. Sampling methods and sample size will depend on the evaluation design. 

  • Quantitative outcomes typically involve statistical tests of inference, and sample size can be calculated using procedures available in standard texts.

  • Qualitative studies might intentionally select participants to provide contrasting perspectives (purposive sampling), and continue obtaining information until no new themes emerge(saturation). 


Tip 12. Plan ahead and be realistic(you can not have it all) 


You have realized by now that a lot of work goes into planning an evaluation. Yet it is better to invest energy up front, and save yourself the headache and frustration that comes when a poorly planned evaluation fails to provide the information required to satisfy the audience and facilitate necessary decisions. 


One of the most difficult tasks in the planning process is determining where to draw the line. As the plan evolves, the list of desired information tends to grow longer and longer. It could easily reach the point that data collection instruments(e.g., questionnaires) exceed a reasonable length, or that demands on time and other support surpass available resources. You will have to make choices that retain the highest quality and most important (most meaningful) data.






 2010;32(4):296-301. doi: 10.3109/01421590903480121.

Twelve tips for evaluating educational programs.

Author information

  • 1Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Rochester, MN 55905, USA. cook.david33@mayo.edu

Abstract

At one time or another, nearly all educators will need to evaluate an educational program to determine its merit or worth. These tipswill help readers collect information to inform a meaningful evaluation, whether for local use or broad dissemination (i.e., research). The two most important questions in any evaluation are, 'Whose opinion matters?' and 'What would really be meaningful to them?' Other key steps include getting input from others, focusing on desired outcomes before selecting instruments, considering the validity or trustworthiness of the data, and pilot testing the evaluation process.

PMID:
 
20353325
 
DOI:
 
10.3109/01421590903480121


만약 공식적 CME가 효과가 없다면, 왜 의사들은 여전히 참석하나?

If formal CME is ineffective, why do physicians still participate?

P.J. MCLEOD & A.H. MCLEOD

McGill University Centre for Medical Education, Montreal, Quebec, Canada



공식적, 전통적 CME는 주로 전문직협회, 대학, 병원 등에서 sponsored되는 학습경험이다. 일반적으로 강의, 소그룹, 등등으로 구성된 짧은 과정으로 구성된다.

Formal or traditional continuing medical education (CME)usually entails learning experiences sponsored by a profes-sional association, a university or a hospital department. It ordinarily consists of short courses featuring lectures and small groups; content experts usually do the majority of the lecturing and group facilitation. 


교수자-중심적 접근에 대해서 비판이 있어왔는데, 교수자와 학습자 간 협력이 최소화된 episodic한 방식은 non-reinforcing하고, 학습자의 요구에 제대로 반응하지 못하기 때문이다. 더 나아가 공식적 CME가 의사의 행동, 퍼포먼스, 환자성과를 변화시킨다는 근거가 부족하다. 우연하게도, 비공식적 CME는 점차 지지를 받고 있는데, 성인학습의 원칙이나 특성을 잘 보여주기 때문이다. 여기에는 자기주도학습, problem driven literature search, 실습세팅에서의 학습 등이 있다. 

Criticism is often leveled at this teacher-centered approach to enhancing learning because it is episodic, involves minimal collaboration between instructors and learners, is non-reinforcing and lacks responsiveness to learners’ needs (Moore, 1995; Grant & Stanton, 1999). Furthermore, there is limited evidence to indicate that formal CME changes physician behavior, physician performance or patient outcomes (Davis et al., 1995, 1999; Gifford et al., 1999). Coincidentally, informal CME is gaining adherents because it exemplifies the principles and features of adult learning. Prominent among these are self-directed learning, problem-driven literature searches and learning in the practice setting (Knowles, 1980; Bandura, 1986; Candy, 1991).


공식적 CME의 영향에 대한 연구는 영향력의 지표로 협소한 행동 변화만을 강조한다. 예컨대 test ordering이나 prescribing 등인데, 그러한 성과는 educational events의 효과성 지표로 삼기에는 너무 제한적이다.

Studies of the impact of formal CME tend to emphasize narrow behavior changes as indicators of impact. Test-order-ing behavior in a single clinical condition, or prescribing of a particular drug or drugs, are examples of changes which are often studied. Such outcomes are too limited to rely on as indicators of effectiveness of educational events (Grant,1999). 




A. Competence and patient care 높음


  • Maintain my professional competence 1 

  • Learn new knowledge and skills 2 

  • Improve my understanding of concepts 3 

  • Eliminate my clinical deficiencies 4 

  • Reassure me that I am doing ‘it’ right 5 

  • Evaluate or validate my knowledge and skills 7 

  • Better meet the needs of specific patients 9 


B. Professional relationships 낮음


C. Desire for personal well-being 높음


D. Rules, regulations, economic and institutional issues 낮음


  • Acquire CME credits 6 

  • Maintenance of certification 8

 


B영역과 D영역의 순위가 A영역이나 C영역의 순위보다 유의하게 낮은 것을 볼 수 있다.

Perusal of the rest of Table 1 reveals that motivators in categories B and D, ‘professional relation- ships’ and ‘rules, regulations, economic and institutional issues’, are ranked significantly lower than those in categories A and C, ‘competence and patient care’ and ‘desire for personal well-being’ respectively.


설문 결과는 우리의 bias를 확인해주었다. 의사들은 공식적 CME에 여전히 열심히 참여하는데 그렇게 하는 이유나 동기는 명확하다. 우리는 공식 CME가 실제 의사의 요구를 만족시킨다거나 역량을 유지/발전시킨다고 단언할 수 없으며, 비공식적 CME에 대해서도 마찬가지이다. 두 유형의 CME 모두에 대해서 일반화가능한 hard outcome은 별로 없다. 한 저자는 공식적 CME보다 비공식적 CME를 선호하는 경향에 대해서 '트렌디한 교육법'이 그것의 효과성이 증명되지 않았음에도 이미 시도되고 검증된 방법을 대체한다고 지적했다.

The survey results confirm our biases. Practitioners are still participating actively in formal CME courses and the reasons or motivators for doing so are clear. We cannot aver that formal CME events meet actual physician needs or that they maintain or improve competence, nor can we find strong evidence that informal CME does so. There are few generalizable ‘hard’ outcomes for either type of CME. One author, commenting on the trend to favor informal over formal CME, said that ‘trendy teaching methods’ are supplanting tried and tested methods even though their benefits have not been well evaluated (Davies, 1999).


우리의 관점에서 교육자들, 특히 공식적 CME에 관여하는 교육자들은 언제나 social marketing 전략을 활용해야 한다. 그리고 이 전략은 의사들의 perceived needs를 타게팅해야한다.

In our personal view, educators, and particularly those engaged in formal CME, should always employ a liberal dose of social marketing strategies when designing CME courses (Kotler & Zaltman, 1971). These strategies can assure accurate targeting of physicians’ perceived needs.


의사들이 공식적 CME의 효과가 없음에도 참석하는 이유는 sense of security and well-being, 그리고 competent professional이 되기 위함이다.

At the outset we posed the question of why physicians attend formal CME courses if this learning format is ineffective.  They do so because they are looking for a sense of security and well-being and because they want to be competent professionals



 





 2004 Mar;26(2):184-6.

If formal CME is ineffectivewhy do physicians still participate?

Author information

  • 1McGill University Centre for Medical Education, Montreal, Quebec, Canada. peter.mcleod@muhc.mcgill.ca

Abstract

Formal or traditional CME can be criticized because organizers often ignore adult learning principles when designing courses. Critics also suggest that formal CME courses have limited impact on attendees' behaviors and practices. The authors agree that attention must be paid to pedagogic principles to assure success of educational courses, but feel that the extant negative evidence related to the impact of formal CME is narrow in scope and of inadequate strength to seriously damn formal approaches. Survey responses were received from 853 practicing physicians who say they still regularly attend formal CME courses. They are motivated to attend to satisfy specific professional needs and for personal reasons. Formal CME is still popular despite what its critics say. The authors are convinced that attention to physicians' perceived needs, effective use of social marketing strategies, and adherence to adult learning principles can assure successful delivery of CME and that formal CME is a useful complement to physician-driven informal CME.

PMID:
 
15203529
 
DOI:
 
10.1080/01421590310001643136
[PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]


교수들에게 공식적 멘토링이 중요한가? - 임상교수대상 설문 - (Med Educ, 2016)

Does formal mentoring for faculty members matter? A survey of clinical faculty members

Elza Mylona,1 Linda Brubaker,2 Valerie N Williams,3 Karen D Novielli,4 Jeffrey M Lyness,5 Susan M Pollart,6

Valerie Dandar7 & Sarah A Bunton7




INTRODUCTION



멘토링은 전통적으로 '근무환경에서 멘토(advanced career incumbent)와 멘티(beginner)사이에서 둘 모두의 커리어 개발을 위한 역동적인, 상호적reciprocal 관계'로 정의되어 왔다. 성공적인 멘토링은 진로 선택, 진로 개발, 발전advancement과 직무만족 등과 관련되어 있다. academic medicine에서 멘토링은 교수의 personal and professional development는 물론 성공을 촉진하는데 중요한 것으로 인식되고 있다. 더 나아가서 연구결과에 따르면 공식적인 멘토링 프로그램은 멘티 뿐 아니라 멘토에게도 도움이 된다.

Mentoring has traditionally been defined as ‘a dynamic, reciprocal relationship in a work environ- ment between an advanced career incumbent (men- tor) and a beginner (mentee) aimed at promoting the career development of both’.1 Successful men- toring may be associated with career choice, devel- opment, advancement and job satisfaction.1–7 In academic medicine, in particular, mentoring is per- ceived as important for facilitating the personal and professional development and success of faculty members.8–10 Further, research suggests that for- malised mentoring programmes not only benefit mentees, but also the mentors and the organisations in which mentoring occurs.11,12


다양한 보건의료세팅에서 멘토링 프로그램 개발에 대한 관심은 지난 20년간 뚜렷하게 증가해왔으며, 그 관점scope와 구조도 다양해졌다. 멘토링을 받은 교수들의 성과로는...

Certainly interest in developing mentoring pro- grammes in various health professional settings has grown over the last two decades, with considerable range in their scope and structure.2,14,15 Outcomes include that mentored faculty members frequently...

  • hold or assume leadership positions within the organisation,8
  • have an enhanced sense of organisa- tional ‘fit’ and empowerment,4,5,9,16
  • demonstrate greater productivity4 and self-efficacy,5
  • have higher retention rates6,7,17–19 and
  • experience improved job satisfaction.20

 

그러나 일부 연구자들은 멘토링의 가치를 지지할 대규모 근거가 강력하지 못하다고 지적하며, 이것이 각 기관이 공식적 멘토링 프로그램에 투자할 의지를 약화시킨다고 지적했다.

Some research, however, suggests that large-scale evidence to support the value of mentor- ing is not strong,4 which may negatively impact the resources institutions are willing to invest in formal mentoring programmes.


설문결과를 보면 61%가 멘토링이 중요하다고 믿었음에도 26%의 교수만이 공식적인 멘토가 있다고 대답했다. 

surveys have suggested that only 26% of fac- ulty members report having had a formal mentor in their own institution, even though 61% believed it to be important.22


비록 교수들에 대한 멘토링의 전 세계 의과대학에서 중요한 이슈이지만, 대부분의 연구는 미국과 캐나다 의과대학에서 진행되었다. 지난 수 년간 미국과 캐나다에서 멘토링에 관한 연구가 많이 있었는데 이는 북미 대학의학에서 accepted development tool이 되었기 때문이다. 명확한 예외도 존재하긴 하다.

Although mentoring of faculty members is an important issue in medical schools across the world, much of the extant literature reflects studies con- ducted with faculty members from USA and Cana- dian medical schools. Articles on mentoring of faculty members have appeared in the USA and Canadian literature for many years, as mentoring has become an accepted development tool in North American academic medicine. Obviously exceptions exist, including, for example, mentoring pro- grammes such as those described by Connor et al. in England during the late 1990’s.23


 

연구 가설.

We hypothesised that academic faculty members in clinical departments who are currently in mentoring relationships experience enhanced employee engagement and satisfaction with their department and medical school as a place to work.

 

'engagement'를 다음과 같이 정의

We define engagement as grounded in ‘the interplay between an employee’s cognitive commit- ment, emotional attachment, and the resulting behavioral outcomes’, such as institutional retention and increased effort.23



방법

METHOD


Twenty-six medical schools accredited by the Liaison Committee on Medical Education (the accrediting body for medical schools, leading to the MD degree in the USA and Canada) agreed to participate in the 2011–2014 administrations of the Faculty For- ward Engagement Survey.


The survey was first developed and tested in 2008 and fully administered within 23 medical schools in 2009.

 

설문개발

The development of the survey items was informed by:

  • 문헌 고찰 literature reviews;
  • 전문가 피드백 expert feedback from individuals involved in survey design, statistics, economics and psychology, and medical faculty members; and
  • 포커스그룹 focus groups with faculty members.


In the survey, mentoring relationships were assessed by an item about whether one had a formal agreement with a colleague to provide ongoing career guidance and advice (a yes or no question). The importance of mentoring was assessed by respondents’ level of agreement with the statement ‘Having a formal mentor at my insti- tution is important to me’ (five-point Likert-type item from ‘strongly disagree’ to ‘strongly agree’).


결과

RESULTS


멘토링 현황과 인지된 중요도

Presence and Perceived Importance of Mentoring


약 1/3정도가 공식적 관계로 멘토링을 하고 있다. 남성보다 여성이, 시니어보다 주니어가, 소수인종이 더 많이 하고 있었다.

We first established a baseline understanding of the presence and perceived importance of mentoring and found that approximately one-third of the clini- cal faculty respondents (30%; n = 3529/11 953) reported being mentored in a formal relationship. Significantly higher proportions of female than male faculty members (34.6% versus 28.3%; p =<0.001), junior than senior faculty members (42.6% versus19.8%, p =<0.001) and ethnic minority than ethnic majority faculty members (35.9% versus 30.2%, p =<0.001) reported being in a mentoring relationship.


4%정도의 임상교수들은 자신이 하는지 안하는지 몰라서 배제됨

Approximately 4% of clinical faculty members (n = 483) reported not knowing whether they had a formal mentoring rela- tionship and they were excluded from further analy- ses.


멘토링을 받는다고 응답한 교수 중 86%가 그들에게 멘토링이 중요하고, 받고있는 멘토링에 만족한다고 응답하였다. 공식적 멘토가 없는 교수들 중 약 절반은 멘토를 갖는게 중요하다고 했다.

Most faculty members (86%; n = 3027) who reported receiving mentoring also viewed the men- toring relationship as important to them and were satisfied with the mentoring they were receiving (77%; n = 2722/3475). Nearly half (51%; n = 4010/ 7878) of faculty members without formal mentors still noted the importance of having one.

 

 

 


멘토링과 Workplace Engagement

Mentoring and Workplace Engagement


We did find that the hypothesis was accurate: fac- ulty members with mentors responded significantly more favourably to questions related to workplace engagement, (Table 2).




Table 2 Comparison of survey respondents by mentoring status, Faculty Forward Engagement Surveys, 2011–2014

  • Opportunities for growth and development 
  • Collegiality and collaboration 
  • Overall satisfaction 
  • Role clarity 
  • Criteria for promotion

 


 

Table 3 Comparison of mentoring status across academic rank, Faculty Forward Engagement Surveys, 2011–14 

 

 



 

과별 멘토링 참여

Mentoring Participation by Department




 

 

고찰

DISCUSSION


현재 멘토링 관계에 있는 임상 교수들이 employee engagement, 과/기관에 대한 만족도가 높음을 확인하였다. 특히, 공식적 멘토링 관계의 이점을 보여주었다. 연구 결과는 교수의 순위faculty ranks에 따라서 높은 만족도, 기관의 미션에 대한 명확성, 미션과 일상활동의 합치성에 대한 명확한 패턴이 있음을 보여준다.

We confirmed our hypothesis that academic clinical faculty members currently in formal mentor- ing relationships experience enhanced employee engagement and satisfaction with their department and institution. Specifically, the findings highlight the benefits of formal mentoring relationships for clinical faculty members, such as greater satisfaction with one’s department and institution. The results also demonstrate a clear pattern of higher perceived satisfaction, greater clarity regarding the institu- tional mission, and perceived alignment of mission and day-to-day activities, across faculty ranks.


이 다기관 연구는 social theories of organisational support와 일관된다. 만약 피고용인employee가 자신의 조직이 자신에 대해서 헌신committed한다고 느낀다면, 조직의 목표에 더 기여하고자 느낄 것이며, 더 조직에 남고자 할 것이다. Academic medical center은 그 책무성과 재정적 안정성을 이루기 위해 'retention'이 중요하다. 비록 주니어 교수를 멘토링해줄 적절한 시니어 교수를 충분한 수로 확보하는 것이 어렵긴 하나, 시니어 교수들에게 주니어 교수를 멘토해줄 기회를 주고자 하는 노력은 양쪽 모두의 직무만족에 도움이 된다.

The results of this multi-institutional study are con- sistent with social theories of organisational support: that if employees perceive that the organisation is committed to them, they will feel more compelled to contribute to organisational goals and to remain with the organisation.26 Retention is important for an academic medical centre to meet its responsibili- ties and maintain financial stability.5 Although securing a sufficient number of available and appropriate senior faculty staff to mentor all junior and mid-career faculty members is challenging,3 efforts to afford senior faculty members opportuni- ties to mentor junior colleagues may improve over- all job satisfaction for both parties.


전문과목별로 살펴보았을 때 패턴은 없었다. 대신 멘토링의 중요도에 대한 인식이나 얼마나 많은 교수가 멘토링을 받고 있는지에 대해서는 차이가 컸다.

No patterns emerged from our analyses based on department. Rather, there is a great range in per- ceptions of the importance of mentoring and how many faculty members have a formal mentor by department.


멘토링은 복잡하고 맥락-의존적인 개념이며, 멘토링 이란 것을 묘사하는데 다양한 용어들이 명확한 구분 없이 사용되어왔다. 이번 설문에서는 멘토링을 정의함에 있어서 멘토링의 핵심 요소를 포함하고자 했으나 비공식적이고 개인적인 상호관계는 포함하지 못하였다.

First, mentoring is a complex and context- dependent concept, and different terms have been used to describe it without much clear demarca- tion among them.27,28 The survey’s definition of mentoring as a ‘formal agreement with a colleague to provide ongoing career guidance and advice’ acknowledges core elements of mentoring, but might not account for the impact of more infor- mal, personal interactions between faculty mem- bers.


이 연구는 미국 의과대학에 초점을 두고 있다. 미국 외 의과대학에서 연구가 필요하다.

Fourth, this study focuses only on faculty members in USA medical schools. Based on the precedent set by other studies on mentoring, we feel that the results are generalisable to all medical faculty members, but future research based in non-USA medical schools must be undertaken to be sure and to understand the differences that may emerge.


 


 


4 Sambunjak D, Straus SE, Marusic A. A systematic review of qualitative research on the meaning and characteristics of mentoring in academic medicine. J Gen Intern Med 2006;25:72–8.


8 Pololi L, Knight S. Mentoring faculty in academic medicine: a new paradigm? J Gen Intern Med 2005;20:866–70. 


9 Pololi LH, Knight SM, Dennis K, Frankel RM. Helping medical school faculty realize their dreams: an innovative, collaborative mentoring program. Acad Med 2002;77:377–84. 


10 Berk RA, Berg J, Mortimer R, Watson-Moss B, Yeo TP. Measuring the effectiveness of faculty mentoring relationships. Acad Med 2005;80:66–71.



 2016 Jun;50(6):670-81. doi: 10.1111/medu.12972.

Does formal mentoring for faculty members matter? A survey of clinical faculty members.

Author information

  • 1Eastern Virginia Medical School, Norfolk, VA, USA.
  • 2Loyola University Chicago Stritch School of Medicine, Maywood, IL, USA.
  • 3University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, USA.
  • 4Sidney Kimmel Medical College, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA, USA.
  • 5University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY, USA.
  • 6University of Virginia Health Systems, Charlottesville, VA, USA.
  • 7Association of American Medical Colleges, Washington, DC, USA.

Abstract

BACKGROUND:

Mentoring relationships, for all medical school faculty members, are an important component of lifelong development and education, yet an understanding of mentoring among medical school clinical faculty members is incomplete. This study examined associations between formal mentoring relationships and aspects of faculty members' engagement and satisfaction. It then explored the variability of these associations across subgroups of clinical faculty members to understand the status of mentoring and outcomes of mentoring relationships. The authors hypothesised that academic clinical faculty members currently in formal mentoringrelationships experience enhanced employee engagement and satisfaction with their department and institution.

METHODS:

Medical school faculty members at 26 self-selected USA institutions participated in the 2011-2014 Faculty Forward Engagement Survey. Responses from clinical faculty members were analysed for relationships between mentoring status and perceptions of engagement by faculty members.

RESULTS:

Of the 11 953 clinical faculty respondents, almost one-third reported having a formal mentoring relationship (30%; 3529). Most mentored faculty indicated the relationship was important (86%; n = 3027), and over three-fourths were satisfied with theirmentoring experience (77%; n = 2722). Mentored faculty members across ranks reported significantly higher levels of satisfaction and more positive perceptions of their roles in the organisation. Faculty members who were not receiving mentoring reported significantly less satisfaction with their workplace environment and lower overall satisfaction.

CONCLUSIONS:

Mentored clinical faculty members have significantly greater satisfaction with their department and institution. This multi-institutional study provides evidence that fostering mentoring opportunities may facilitate faculty members' satisfaction and engagement, which, in turn, may help medical schools retain high-quality faculty staff committed to the multidimensional academic mission.

PMID:
 
27170085
 
DOI:
 
10.1111/medu.12972
[PubMed - in process]


사회적 네트워크와 교수개발코스가 임상강사Supervisor의 의학교육혁신 도입에 어떠한 영향을 주는가? (Acad Med, 2013)

How Do Social Networks and Faculty Development Courses Affect Clinical Supervisors’ Adoption of a Medical Education Innovation? An Exploratory Study

Erik Jippes, PhD, Yvonne Steinert, PhD, Jan Pols, MD, PhD, Marjolein C. Achterkamp, PhD,

Jo M.L. van Engelen, PhD, and Paul L.P. Brand, MD, PhD





 

경험학습experiential learning 에 대한 이론적 프레임워크는 실제 데이터에 근거하여 널리 인정되고 지지를 받아왔으며, 이에 따라 대부분의 교수개발을 위한 노력은 워크숍/코드/세미나 등의 형태를 띄고 있다.

As the theoretical framework of experiential learning has been widely accepted and supported by empirical data,1 most faculty development efforts in medicine take the form of workshops, courses, and seminars.2


공식적인, 구조화된 교수개발 활동을 넘어선 추가적인 요인을 탐구해야 함을 제시하며, 이 요인들이 어떻게 clinical supervisors (이하 CS)가 지식과 skill을 교육에 적용하고, 혹은 정말 적용하는지 여부에 영향을 주는지를 탐구해야 한다.

These findings suggest that we should explore additional factors—beyond formal, structured faculty development activities—that can affect how and whether clinical supervisors transfer knowledge and skills into their teaching practices.


경영분야의 연구나 헬스케어 테크놀로지의 도입과정에 대한 연구를 보면, 사회적 네트워크가 그러한 요인 중 하나임을 보여준다. 사회적 네트워크는 '제한된 set of actors 사이의 관계'라고 정의될 수 있다. 사회적 네트워크는 혁신의 잠재적 adopter들이 혁신에 대해 의사소통하고, 건설하고, 협상하는 채널로서 기능하며, 그것의 생소함novelty를 줄여주고, 잠재적 성과에 대한 불확실성을 줄여준다.

Research on business/management4 and the implementation of health care technologies5 suggests that social networks may be one such additional factor—as well as a promising avenue of research in determining the degree to which individuals adopt innovations. A social network can be defined as the relationships between a finite set of actors.6 Social networks function as channels through which potential adopters of an innovation can communicate, construct, and negotiate that innovation, thereby reducing its novelty and their uncertainty regarding its potential outcomes.4,5


개개인(혹은 집단) 사이의 관계의 패턴에 대한 원칙이 개개인(혹은 집단) 자체의 특성보다 성과에 더 큰 영향을 미친다는 원칙에 근거하여, 사회적 네트워크 분석가들은 혁신의 수용adoption에 있어서 개인 간 connection의 영향을 연구한 바 있다.

On the basis of the principle that the pattern of relationships among individuals (or groups) has greater influence on outcomes than do the attributes of the individuals (or groups) themselves, social network analysts examine the effects of connections between individuals on the adoption of innovations.7


사회적 네트워크 분석의 핵심적 variable은 개개인이 다른 사람들과 그 네트워크 상에서 얼마나 연결되어있는지이며 이것을 actor centrality라고 한다. 기업체에서 centrality가 높은 사람은 승진의 가능성이 유의하게 더 높다. 또한 학생의 네트워크 내에서의 centrality는 학습을 얼마나 증기는지와 학업적 성공 모두에 관련되어 있다.

A key variable in social network analysis is the extent to which an individual is connected to other actors in the network, referred to as actor centrality.6 In business organizations, individuals with high centrality are significantly more likely than others to be promoted.8 Further, students’ centrality in their networks is associated with their enjoyment of learning and their academic success.7


네덜란드 PGME 프로그램에서 CS들에게 최근 교육적 혁신을 도입할 것이 권장되었고, 그 혁신은 S&C피드백이다. 네덜란드의 레지던트 프로그램은 2004년 전까지만 해도 CS의 피드백이 비구조화된, 종종 모욕적인 형태로 전달되었다.

Clinical supervisors in postgraduate medical education (PGME) programs in the Netherlands were recently encouraged to implement an educational innovation— structured and constructive (S&C) feedback—in their teaching of residents. In Dutch residency programs before 2004, feedback from clinical supervisors to residents, was given in an unstructured and sometimes derogatory manner.9,10


2004년 CCMS는 모든 네덜란드의 전문과목학회에 대해 PGME프로그램을 CanMEDS에 기반하여 revise할 것을 요구하는 legal directive를 발표하였다.  

In 2004, the Royal Dutch Medical Association–Central College for Medical Specialists (CCMS)11 issued a legal directive requiring all medical specialist societies in the Netherlands to revise their PGME programs on the basis of the Canadian Medical Education Directions for Specialists (CanMEDS) framework of core competencies,12


추가로 CCMS는 S&C피드백을 "펜들톤 법칙Pendleton's rule"에 따라 전달할 것을 권고하였다. 

In addition, CCMS11 recommended introducing S&C feedback that follows “Pendleton’s rules”13:

(1) Feedback should be structured,

(2) clinical supervisors should give residents opportunities to express their opinions,

(3) clinical supervisors should provide positive comments,

(4) clinical supervisors should provide specific comments regarding areas for improvement, and

(5) clinical supervisors should provide feedback in a “safe” way.


방법

Method


연구대상자

Study participants


두 가지 이유로 다양한 대학과 병원의 전공과목을 조사함 

We chose to incorporate a medical specialty of each discipline type and a mix of university and general hospitals for two reasons.

  • 첫째, 전공에 따라 사회적 네트워크가 다를 수 있다 (주로 혼자 일하는 마취과, 주로 함께 일하는 소아과)
    First, physicians’ social networks may differ according to the characteristics of their specialties (e.g., anesthesiologists primarily work independently, whereas pediatricians work more closely together).
  • 둘째, 병원의 환경(세팅)이 커뮤니케이션 구조에 영향을 줄 수 있다.
    Second, the hospital setting may influence physicians’ communication structures (e.g., faculty members working in smaller teams in general hospitals may have more frequent contact with one another than do their counterparts in university hospitals).

설문지와 혁신도입 점수

Study questionnaires and innovation adoption scores


We sent two e-mail reminders and stopped collecting data four weeks after the initial invitation was extended to the unit/team.


4년간 수집하였고, 과에 따라서 도입이 빠른 과와 늦은 과가 있었기 때문

We collected study data across a four- year period because we wanted to ensure that the clinical supervisors of the participating teams were at the same stage of implementing S&C feedback to residents. Some specialties—such as pediatrics14—were early adopters of this educational innovation and were therefore included early in the data collection period, whereas others—such as radiology17—began to implement the innovation later and therefore were included late in the data collection period.


'도입'에 대한 Rogers의 정의를 사용하였다. 따라서 S&C피드백 도입의 '여부'를 묻는 대신 도입의 '정도'를 물었다.

We adapted Rogers’4 definition of adoption—“the decision to make full use of an innovation as the best course of action available”—to the context of our study. The questionnaires therefore asked clinical supervisors and residents to assess the degree to which the supervisor had adopted S&C feedback rather than asking them to indicate whether the supervisor had or had not adopted the innovation.


레지던트 설문

Resident questionnaire.


The five-item resident questionnaire asked residents to assess the nature of the S&C feedback given by their clinical supervisors in the six months before the questionnaire was administered (see Supplemental Digital Appendix 1, http://links.lww. com/ACADMED/A116). Residents were provided with a list of the clinical supervisors in their unit and were asked to rate each supervisor on items worded according to the five components of Pendleton’s rules13 (e.g., “The clinical supervisor provides feedback in a structured way,” “The clinical supervisor gives residents the opportunity to express their opinion”).


Only clinical supervisors who were assessed by at least two residents were included in the data analysis; the supervisor’s mean resident-assessed innovation adoption score was used as the dependent variable in analyses.


CS 설문

Clinical supervisor questionnaire.


Clinical supervisors completed a similar, 10-item, Web-based questionnaire (see Supplemental Digital Appendix 2, http://links.lww.com/ACADMED/ A116). Supervisors rated their own adoption of the five components13 of the S&C feedback innovation (e.g., “I provide feedback in a structured way,” “I give residents the opportunity to express their opinion”) on a five- point Likert scale ranging from “totally disagree” (scored as 1) to “totally agree” (scored as 5).


Other items on the questionnaire measured the clinical supervisor’s communication structures to allow us to analyze the supervisor’s social network connections to determine his or her centrality and asked whether the supervisor had attended a Teach- the-Teacher course (both independent variables, described below).




교육자교육 과정 참석

Teach-the-Teacher course attendance (independent variable)


Teach-the-Teacher training took the form of a two-day course on how to apply adult learning principles in clinical teaching19; approximately 70% of the course time was devoted to providing S&C feedback. Teach-the-Teacher courses were designed by medical schools/universities according to national government guidelines20,21 and were conducted by certified trainers and accredited educational institutes in the Netherlands. For the purposes of this study, we considered these courses to be comparable. The courses employed various methods to provide instruction on S&C feedback, such as interactive discussions, role-play, and mini-lectures. During role-play activities, participants gave S&C feedback to colleagues who had completed five-minute teaching sessions; this was followed by debriefings with other participants on how well participants had applied Pendleton’s rules.13


In this study, we asked clinical supervisors to indicate on their questionnaire whether they had attended a Teach-the- Teacher course during the past three years so that we could examine whether course attendance had any impact on their adoption of the S&C feedback innovation.



사회적 네트워크 분석(Centrality 점수)

Social network analysis: Centrality score (independent variable)


We used a “full roster” design for social network analysis.6 Following standard practice, we provided each clinical supervisor with a list of their fellow, departmental clinical supervisors. In the Web-based questionnaire, we asked each supervisor to rate the intensity of his or her communication with each colleague “in the past half year about the introduction of innovations, new methods or procedures, or new developments related to the work situation” using a six-point scale of “never” (scored as 1), “less than once a month” (2), “more than once a month” (3), “weekly” (4), “daily” (5), or “more than once daily” (6).


To calculate supervisor centrality, we created an undirected dichotomous matrix by recoding responses as follows: 1 (never) and 2 (less than once per month) were recoded as “0,” indicating no communication between the individuals, whereas 3 (weekly) through 6 (more than once daily) were recoded as “1,” indicating a communication relationship between the individuals.



통계적 분석

Statistical analysis


First, we assessed the effects of Teach-the- Teacher course attendance and supervisor centrality on innovation adoption scores using t tests and correlation analyses. Subsequently, we analyzed the independent effects of Teach-the- Teacher course attendance and supervisor centrality on innovation adoption scores after adjusting for age, gender, and attitude toward the S&C feedback innovation. To account for the nested structure of the data (individuals within teams), we used two-level hierarchical linear modeling22 (statistical software program MLwiN version 2.17, University of Bristol).




결과

Results


응답자

Study respondents

 


 

단변수 분석

Univariate analyses


Teach-the-Teacher course attendance and centrality score.


Supplemental Digital Figure 1 (http://links.lww.com/ ACADMED/A116) presents a visual representation of a social network of clinical supervisors in a participating department, including the centrality of individual faculty members and their resident-assessed innovation adoption scores.


Control variables.

 

 


 

다변수 분석

Multivariate analyses


After we adjusted for these control variables, Teach-the- Teacher course attendance was weakly but significantly related to the supervisor’s self-assessed innovation adoption score (P = .001; explained variance = 11.49% on the individual level) but not to the resident-assessed innovation adoption score (P = .371). In contrast, clinical supervisor centrality was significantly related to innovation adoption, both as rated by residents (P = .023; explained variance = 4.15%) and by the supervisors themselves (P = .024; explained variance = 9.29%).

 



고찰

Discussion


비록 교육자교육 코스 참여여부가 혁신의 도입에 대한 자기평가점수에는 유의한 영향이 있었지만, 레지던트가 CS의 혁신도입에 대해서 평가할 때는 영향이 없었다. 반대로, CS의 Centrality는 유의하게 혁신 도입에 대한 자기평가과 레지던트평가에 영향을 주었다. 이 관계는 연령/성별/S&C피드백에 대한 태도를 통제하였을 때에도 마찬가지였다.

Although Teach-the-Teacher course participation was significantly related to self-assessed innovation adoption scores, it had no effect on residents’ ratings of their supervisors’ adoption of the innovation. In contrast, the clinical supervisor’s centrality within his or her department’s social network was significantly related to both self- assessed and resident-assessed innovation adoption scores. These associations remained significant after we adjusted for supervisor age, gender, and attitude toward the S&C feedback innovation, 


개개인이 사회적 네트워크에 얼마나 연결되어있느냐가 비지니스 혁신의 도입에 주된 영향을 준다는 것은 보여진 바 있다. 최근의 연구결과에 따르면 교수개발 프로그램에 대해서 네트워크 접근을 사용하는 것이 그러한 프로그램의 성공에 중요하다는 것을 보여준다.

The degree to which an individual in a social network is connected to other individuals in the network (actor centrality) has been shown to have a major influence on that individual’s adoption of business innovations.4,23 A recent publication suggested that taking a network approach toward faculty development programs in medicine might be important in determining the success of such programs.24


우리의 앞선 연구와 일관되게, 우리는 CS의 centrality가 레지던트가 CS에 대해서 혁신도입수준을 판단할 때 유의한 기여를 한다는 것을 찾아내었다. 이번 연구에서 우리는 CS의 centrality가 혁신도입에 대한 CS의 자기평가에도 비슷한 유의한 영향을 준다는 것을 알아내었다. 그러나 교육자교육 코스 참석은 supervisor의 자기평가에만 관련되어 있었다.

In concordance with our earlier work,16 we found that clinical supervisor centrality contributed significantly to the residents’ assessment of the supervisor’s innovation adoption. In the current study, we found that supervisor centrality was similarly significantly related to the supervisor’s self-assessment of innovation adoption; however, Teach-the-Teacher course attendance was related only to the supervisor’s self-assessment.


두 번째 결과는 이전 연구결과와 연결지을 수 있는데, 교수자의 행동에 교수개발 코스가 미치는 영향이 제한적이라는 사실이다. 그러나 이것이 그러한 워크숍이나 코스를 없애abandones야 한다는 것을 의미하진 않으며, 어떤 정보를 집단에 퍼트리는데 효과적인 방법이기 때문이다. 그러나 이번 연구 결과에 기반하여 우리는 교수개발 코스가 상호작용활동을 높은 비율로 포함할 것을 권고하고자 하는데, 그 이유는 (1)능동적 참여가 참여자의 지식과 스킬의 retention에 도움이 되기 때문이며, (2)이러한 상호작용이 참여자간 social network 구조를 활성화시킬 수 있기 때문이다. 이러한 사회적 네트워크에 참여engage하는 것은 장기간의, 포괄적comprehensive 교수개발프로그램이 더 효과적인지를 설명하는데 도움이 된다.

The latter finding is in line with previous studies2,3 showing that the effect of a faculty development course—in this case, Teach-the-Teacher training—on teaching behavior may be limited. This does not mean that such educational workshops and courses should be abandoned, especially as they are effective methods of disseminating information to groups. On the basis of the results of this study, however, we recommend that faculty development courses include a high proportion of interactive exercises (e.g., role-play, discussions) because (1) active participation is likely to improve participants’ retention of knowledge and skills25 and (2) these interactions may activate social network structures among participants. Such engagement of social network structures may also help explain why long-term, comprehensive faculty development programs appear to be more successful than isolated workshop- based interventions.3


최근의 연구는 교수개발에서 social practice의 역할을 강조하고 있으며, 교수개발이 실천공동체 형성에 중요하다는 것을 보여준다. 우리의 연구결과는 레지던트가 교육자교육 훈련 프로그램에 참석하지 않은 CS에 대한 평가에 유의한 차이가 없었음을 보여주며, 이것은 CS가 S&C피드백을 전달하는 방법을 다른 경로를 통해서도 배웠을 것임을 암시한다. 우리의 결과는 동료 CS와의 사회적 네트워크가 '다른 경로'일 것임을 제안한다. 그러나 explained variance가 상대적으로 낮기 때문에, 다른 사회적 네트워크 소스가 관련되었을 수 있다.

Recent articles have highlighted the role of social practices in faculty development and the importance of faculty development in building communities of practice.26,27 Our finding that there were no significant differences in residents’ assessments of clinical supervisors who had and who had not attended Teach-the-Teacher training suggests that clinical supervisors may have learned from other sources how to incorporate S&C feedback into their teaching practices. Our results suggest that social networks of peer clinical supervisors could have provided this input; however, considering that our explained variance is relatively low, other social network sources may be involved (e.g., network connections with medical educators).


교육자교육 참석여부가 혁신의 도입에 대한 CS의 자기평가만 영향을 주었다는 점도 흥미롭다. CS는 자기자신의 적응적행동adoptive behavior를 과대평가했을 수 있다. 이는 성인학습자가 스스로의 임상적, 교육적 역량을 잘 평가하지 못한다는 결과와도 일관된 것이다. 반대로 레지던트들은 CS의 적응적행동을 과소평가했을 수 있는데, 왜냐하면 피드백이 주어졌을 때 그것이 피드백이라고 인지하지 못했거나 '교육'과 '피드백'을 혼동했을 수 있기 때문이다.

It is also interesting to note that clinical supervisors were significantly more likely to consider themselves to be successful adopters of S&C feedback than were their residents, as the effects of Teach- the-Teacher course participation on the adoption of the educational innovation was demonstrated only in the supervisors’ self-assessments and not in the residents’ assessments of their supervisors. Supervisors may have overrated their own adoptive behavior; this is consistent with others’ findings that adult learners often perform poorly in assessing their own clinical or educational competence.28 Alternatively, residents may have underrated supervisors’ adoptive behavior as they may not have recognized feedback when it was given or may have confused feedback with teaching.29,30


우리는 세 가지 잠재적 confounding factor를 조사하였다.

We examined the influence of three potential confounding factors in this study: age, attitude toward the S&C feedback innovation, and gender.

  • CS는 연령이 증가할수록 적응적행동이 떨어졌다. 나이 든 교수가 새로운 스킬을 배우거나 적용하는 능력이 떨어졌기 때문이라는 주장도 가능하지만, 우리는 다른 해석도 고려되어야 한다고 생각한다. (1)레지던트들이 젊은 CS를 더 쉽게 identify했을 수 있다 (2)젊은 CS는 그들이 받은 수련을 고려했을 때 나이 든 CS보다 S&C피드백에 더 친숙할 수 있다.
    First, we found that clinical supervisors were less likely to show adoptive behavior (as measured by residents’ assessments) with increasing age. Although it could be argued that older faculty members are less able to learn or less willing to adopt new skills,31 we believe two other explanations should be considered: (1) Residents may have been more likely to identify with younger clinical supervisors and therefore rated them more highly, and (2) younger faculty may have been more familiar than older faculty with S&C feedback because younger faculty’s medical training may have been more oriented toward this innovation.
  • 둘째, S&C피드백에 긍정적인 태도를 가진 CS일수록 혁신을 더 잘 도입한다.
    Second, we were not surprised to find that clinical supervisors with more positive attitudes toward S&C feedback were more likely to adopt the innovation, according to their self-assessments. This finding is in agreement with previous research on attitude and innovation adoption in health care.18
  • 셋째, 성별에 대해서, 레지던트들은 남자 CS에게 더 높은 점수를 주었다. multivariate 분석에서 단지 borderline significance만을 보였다는 점에서 더 높은 점수는 남자가 사회적네트워크상 더 강력한 embeddedness를 보였기 때문일 수 있다. 남성의 centrality가 높은 것이 혁신에 친숙해지거나 혁신을 도입할 기회를 높여 주었을 것이다.
    Third, with regard to gender, residents gave higher innovation adoption scores to male supervisors than to female supervisors. Our finding that gender was only of borderline significance in the multivariate analysis (Table 2) suggests that the higher scores given to the men may be partly due to the stronger embeddedness of male than female clinical supervisors in their respective social networks. Men’s higher centrality may have given them more opportunities to become acquainted with, and adopt, the innovation.



우리의 결과는 개개인이 사회적 네트워크상에서 중심적 지위를 지닐수록 사회적 자본을 획득에 유리할 것임을 보여준다. 메타분석에서 높은 centrality인 경우...

Our results on centrality confirm research showing that individuals may gain social capital benefits from holding central positions in their social networks. A meta-analysis32 of eight business studies found that individuals with high centrality were likely...

  • 리더가 되거나 to emerge as leaders,
  • 팀 퍼포먼스에 더 만족하거나 to be more satisfied with team performance, and
  • 과제해결을 도입 또는 개발하는데 더 참여하거나 to participate more in developing and implementing task solutions.

 

다른 연구에서는 centrality가 workplace performance를 예측하였고, 높은 centrality는 피고용인이 그 자리를 유지할 가능성을 높여주었다. 광고와 공공관계기관에서 centrality는 혁신의 도입에 가장 유의한 예측인자였다. 더 나아가 centrality가 높을수록 새로운 아이디어를 도입할 기회가 더 많을 것이고 이 새로운 아이디어를 도입하는데 필요한 자원을 끌어오는데avail 기회가 많을 것이다.

Other studies showed that centrality independently predicted individuals’ workplace performance33 and that high centrality increased the likelihood of employees remaining in their positions.34 In a study of an advertising and public relations agency, centrality was found to be the most significant predictor for involvement in innovation.23 Furthermore, individuals who are more central have more opportunities to be introduced to new ideas, to avail themselves of the necessary resources for implementing these new ideas, and to adopt innovations.5



Strengths and limitations


Conclusion


 

 




16 Jippes E, Achterkamp MC, Brand PL, Kiewiet DJ, Pols J, van Engelen JM. Disseminating educational innovations in health care practice: Training versus social networks. Soc Sci Med. 2010;70:1509–1517.


18 García-Goñi M, Maroto A, Rubalcaba L. Innovation and motivation in public health professionals. Health Policy. 2007;84:344– 358. 


19 Mann KV. Theoretical perspectives in medical education: Past experience and future possibilities. Med Educ. 2011;45:60– 68.


4 Rogers EM. Diffusion of preventive innovations. Addict Behav. 2002;27:989–993.


5 Greenhalgh T, Robert G, Macfarlane F, Bate P, Kyriakidou O. Diffusion of innovations in service organizations: Systematic review and recommendations. Milbank Q. 2004;82:581– 629.


7 Baldwin T, Bedell M, Johnson J. The social fabric of a team-based MBA program: Network effects on student satisfaction and performance. Acad Man J. 1997;40:1369.


24 Baker L, Reeves S, Egan-Lee E, Leslie K, Silver I. The ties that bind: A network approach to creating a programme in faculty development. Med Educ. 2010;44:132–139.


26 Steinert Y. Faculty development: From workshops to communities of practice. Med Teach. 2010;32:425–428.


27 Steinert Y, Macdonald ME, Boillat M, et al. Faculty development: If you build it, they will come. Med Educ. 2010;44:900–907.


29 Shute VJ. Focus on formative feedback. Rev Educ Res. 2008;78:153–189.




 2013 Mar;88(3):398-404. doi: 10.1097/ACM.0b013e318280d9db.

How do social networks and faculty development courses affect clinical supervisors' adoption of amedical education innovation? An exploratory study.

Author information

  • 1Center for Medical Imaging-North East Netherlands, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands. e.jippes@umcg.nl

Abstract

PURPOSE:

To examine the impact of social networks and a two-day faculty development course on clinical supervisors' adoption of an educational innovation.

METHOD:

During 2007-2010, 571 residents and 613 clinical supervisors in four specialties in the Netherlands were invited to complete a Web-based questionnaire. Residents rated their clinical supervisors' adoption of an educational innovation, the use of structured and constructive (S&C) feedback. Clinical supervisors self-assessed their adoption of this innovation and rated their communication intensity with other clinical supervisors in their department. For each supervisor, a centrality score was calculated, representing the extent to which the supervisor was connected to departmental colleagues. The authors analyzed the effects of supervisor centrality and participation in a two-day Teach-the-Teacher course on the degree of innovation adoption using hierarchical linear modeling, adjusting for age, gender, and attitude toward the S&C feedback innovation.

RESULTS:

Respondents included 370 (60%) supervisors and 357 (63%) residents. Although Teach-the-Teacher course participation (n=172; 46.5%) was significantly related to supervisors' self-assessments of adoption (P=.001), it had no effect on residents' assessments of supervisors' adoption (P=.371). Supervisor centrality was significantly related to innovation adoption in both residents' assessments (P=.023) and supervisors' self-assessments (P=.024).

CONCLUSIONS:

clinical supervisor's social network may be as important as faculty development course participation in determining whether the supervisor adopts an educational innovationFaculty development initiatives should use faculty members' social networksto improve the adoption of educational innovations and help build and maintain communities of practice.

PMID:
 
23348089
 
DOI:
 
10.1097/ACM.0b013e318280d9db
[PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]


초심자부터 교육전문가까지: 교육자를 위한 TSP (Acad Med, 2006)

From Novice to Informed Educator: The Teaching Scholars Program for Educators in the Health Sciences

Yvonne Steinert, PhD, and Peter J. McLeod, MD






TSP는 흥미롭고 가치로운 여정의 시작일 뿐이다.

The Teaching Scholars Program is but a start on an interesting and worthwhile voyage—from novice to informed educator.


TSP는 Faculty of Medicine at McGill University, in Montreal, Quebec의 프로그램. 교육프로그램의 개발 및 도입과 관련된 교수들의 전문성을 향상시키고, 교육 리더십을 맡을 수 있도록

The Teaching Scholars Program for Educators in the Health Sciences was designed to promote the professional development of health science educators in the Faculty of Medicine at McGill University, in Montreal, Quebec, by increasing faculty members’ expertise in developing and implementing educational programs and taking on leadership roles in education.


1년 프로그램. 주요 주제는 아래 다섯 가지.

The Teaching Scholars Program(TSP), which has been previously described,1 is a year-long program that focuses on five major themes:

  • curriculum design and innovation,

  • effective teaching methods and evaluation strategies,

  • educational program evaluation,

  • research in medical/ health sciences education, and

  • educational leadership.

 

University of North Carolina2의 TSP에 inspired되어 시작하였으며, Faculty of Medicine(의학, 간호학, 물리-직업치료, 커뮤니케이션과학 등)의 교수들이 교육 관련 지식과 스킬을 강화할 수 있도록 만든 프로그램. 교육적 원칙과 교육방법에 대해서 배우고, 의학교육의 scholarship울 추구하고, 교육리더로서의 역할에 준비되게 도와줌.

This program was inspired by the Teaching Scholars Program at the University of North Carolina2 and was designed to enable faculty members in the Faculty of Medicine (which includes the schools of medicine, nursing, physical and occupational therapy, and communication sciences and disorders) to enhance their educational knowledge and skills while maintaining their clinical, teaching, and research responsibilities. More specifically, the TSP aims to respond to faculty members’ needs by helping them to learn more about educational principles and methods, pursue scholarship in medical education (through curriculum development, program evaluation, and educational research), and prepare for educational leadership roles.



TSP 개요

The Teaching Scholars Program


 

매년 3~6명의 펠로우. 1997년부터 총 34명 마침. 대부분은 주로 clinician이다.

The TSP accepts three to six faculty members annually. Since 1997, 34 faculty members from the following disciplines have graduated from this program:

  • The majority of teaching scholars have been clinicians, involved in teaching undergraduate, graduate, and postgraduate students.

  • Two have been basic scientists.

  • At the time of entry, eight of the scholars held an administrative position in medical education (eg, undergraduate or postgraduate program director).


펠로우 모집

  • 대상자: 대학 및 협력 교육병원의 모든 보건전문직을 대상으로 함.
    Recruitment for the TSP targets individuals from all health professions in the university and affiliated teaching hospital.

  • 대상자: 소속 및 전공 
    Educators from all of the medical specialties, basic science departments, and schools of nursing, physical and occupational therapy, and communication sciences and disorders can apply.

  • 프로그램 홍보
    We circulate program descriptions to departmental chairs and divisional directors, undergraduate and postgraduate program directors, and faculty members involved in medical education.

  • 제출서류: 자기소개서
    We ask potential applicants to provide a letter outlining their anticipated goals for the program, a description of their proposed educational project, and an explanation of how their involvement in the program will benefit their division or department.

  • 제출서류: 추천서 (주임교수의 letter of support 포함)
    We also require two letters of reference, including a letter of support from the applicant’s departmental chair.

  • 선발위원회 구성
    The TSP selection committee includes the authors, members of the Faculty Development Office, and a representative from a basic science department, nominated by the dean.

  • 모든 지원자를 면접함. 면접 내용
    We interview all applicants and choose the teaching scholars based on

    • their stated interest in medical education,

    • their previous educational experience,

    • the potential value of their educational project to both their department and the Faculty of Medicine, and

    • the feasibility of the applicant acquiring “protected time” for the program.

  • 프로그램을 이수하기까지 필요한 서포트에 대한 과장 혹은 분과장의 written support 요구함.
    We also require written support from the departmental chair or divisional chief in order to ensure successful completion of the program.


펠로우들이 해야 하는 것: 최소 주당 하루, 1년간. 대부분은 1년 이상 소요됨. "보장된 시간"을 확보하는 것이 늘 문제인데, 그래서 18개월이 넘어가면 graduation을 hold함.

The teaching scholars are expected to devote a minimum of one day a week, for the duration of one year, to complete the program. Although all of the scholars have completed the program requirements, most of them require more than a year to achieve the program objectives; “protecting” time for their course work and independent study is an ongoing challenge. As a result, we hold the TSP “graduation,” which consists of individual presentations and a celebration of excellence, 18 months after the start of the program.


프로그램 참여를 위해서 돈을 내지 않으며, 임상 수입에 대한 손실을 보전받지도 않음. course work와 교육관련 미팅 참석은 지원받음. Annual cost는 약 25000달러.

The teaching scholars do not pay to participate in the program, nor do they receive a stipend for lost clinical income. However, their course work and travel to an educational meeting (or educational site of interest) are paid for by a private donation made to the Faculty of Medicine. The annual cost of this program, which includes course work, travel, and program administration by the Faculty Development Office, is approximately $25,000.





TSP 교육과정과 프로그램 특성

The TSP Curriculum and Program Specifics


모든 펠로우들은 다음의 요소들을 1년간 이수함

all scholars participate in the following four components over the course of a year:


  • 대학원 과목 두 개 ▪ two university courses, primarily in the Faculty of Education;

  • 월간 세미나  ▪ a monthly seminar, specifically designed for the teaching scholars;

  • 교육 프로젝트  ▪ an educational project, which typically consists of curriculum design and evaluation or a research study; and

  • 전체교수대상 FD활동 ▪ faculty-wide faculty development activities, which include workshops, seminars, and medical education rounds.



대학원 과목 두 개

University courses


Each scholar participates in two graduate courses in the Faculty of Education or another department at McGill University. Students in these three-credit courses typically meet once a week for three hours over the course of a semester. To date, the majority of scholars have taken courses in the Faculty of Education. These courses have included:

  • Teaching and Learning in Higher Education;

  • Instructional Design;

  • Cognition and Instruction;

  • Theories of Teaching and Learning;

  • Educational Evaluation;

  • Educational Research Methods;

  • Qualitative Research; and

  • Learning and Technology.

이론적 과목도 있고, 실용적 과목도 있음

A number of these courses address the theoretical underpinnings of teaching and learning and introduce the scholars to the foundations of pedagogy. Other courses are more practical in nature and help the scholars to develop a new course or educational program. For example, the course entitled Teaching and Learning in Higher Education systematically guides the scholars through the steps of course design, from the articulation of goals and objectives to the choice of content and teaching methods and the development of appropriate evaluation tools.1


 

자신만의 니즈와 교육 프로젝트에 관련된 것을 듣기를 권장함

At the same time, we encourage the scholars to choose courses that address their own educational needs and pertain to their educational project. Thus, they have also taken courses in the departments of

  • English (eg, The Meaning of Literacy),

  • philosophy (eg, Epistemology; Phenomenology),

  • music (eg, The History of Jazz),

  • epidemiology (eg, Randomized Clinical Trials), and

  • management (eg, Cross Cultural Management; The Art of Leadership).

The scholars appreciate the diversity of courses available to themas well as the flexibility in course selection.


(대학원 과목 이수에 대한) 피드백은 지속적으로 긍정적이다. 새로운 용어 익히고, 배운 내용을 적용시킴

Feedback on the university courses has been consistently positive. When scholars first return from their educational courses, they often report that they are overwhelmed by the “jargon” of pedagogy. However, in no time they are using a different “language” themselves and quickly impress their departmental colleagues with their new vocabulary (eg, concept maps; formative and summative evaluation). They also report that the pedagogical content applies directly to their own courses and projects and provides them with the foundation to pursue new educational initiatives from an informed perspective.



월간 세미나

Monthly seminar


We meet on a monthly basis with the teaching scholars as a group, to review their educational projects, to discuss issues of common interest (eg, methods of student evaluation; qualitative research methods), and to examine topics that arise from the university courses (eg, theories of teaching and learning). These two-hour meetings also facilitate the development of a “community of practice” among the scholars3 and help to promote reflection on educational issues and problems.

  • Once a year, we hold a teaching scholars “alumni meeting” and current scholars have an opportunity to hear what previous scholars have achieved. They also learn how the graduates’ educational projects and responsibilities have evolved over time.

  • In addition, we have incorporated educational journal clubs (where scholars review an educational article of interest to the group) and discussions with visiting speakers into the monthly seminars. Most meetings also provide opportunities for individual mentorship and peer support.


 

Feedback from the scholars has indicated that they appreciate the opportunity to sit behind closed doors with one another and reflect on teaching and learning, their educational projects, and their ongoing teaching encounters.


 

이러한 미팅의 장점

The scholars seem to particularly welcome

  • the mutually respectful nature of the meetings,

  • the time away from other professional responsibilities, and

  • the support they receive from their peers.



교육 프로젝트

Educational projects


처음에는 전체 펠로우에게 프로젝트를 요구하였으나, 현실적으로 가능하지 않아서, (1)교육 연구 프로젝트 (2)교육과정 개발과 평가 중 하나를 선택하는 것으로 바꿈.

Independent study is a key component of the TSP. Originally, we expected all scholars to design and conduct a research study in medical education. However, we quickly realized that many of the scholars wanted to design a new course or curriculum for their students, residents, or peers, and that a completed research project was not feasible within the constraints of a one-year program. Thus, we modified the parameters of independent study to include an educational research project or the development and evaluation of a curricular initiative To date, 22 (62%) of the scholars have focused on curriculum design and evaluation during the TSP.


 

프로젝트의 목적

The overriding goals of the educational projects are

  • to encourage the scholars to focus on a departmental need,

  • to buttress the principles discussed in the university courses, and

  • to promote scholarly activity in education.

 

개념과 경험의 통합 기회

they all value the opportunity to focus on a subject that is relevant to them and their department, that enables the integration of course concepts and educational experiences, and that promotes “learning by doing.” For many, their educational project is also a critical factor in their understanding of the value of research in medical education.



교수개발 프로그램

Faculty development activities


The Faculty Development Office in the Faculty of Medicine at McGill University sponsors a variety of activities designed to assist faculty members in their multiple roles (eg, educators, researchers, administrators) and to promote excellence in teaching and learning. Faculty-wide workshops and seminars form an important component of the TSP year, and teaching scholars are encouraged to participate as facilitators or participants.


3~4개 워크숍에 참여. 처음에는 소그룹의 구성원으로 참여. 나중에는 코-퍼실리테이터로 참여

All of the scholars participate in these activities, with each scholar averaging attendance at three or four workshops during the TSP year.

  • At the beginning of the program, the scholars generally participate as small-group members;

  • by the end of the year, the majority function as co-facilitators and participate in the design and delivery of the educational session.

 

펠로우의 피드백. 좋았던 점은...

Feedback on this activity has demonstrated the value of

  • 무대 뒤에서 일어나는 일을 보게 됨 witnessing what goes on behind the scenes,

  • 실제로 활동in action하는 전문가를 보게 됨 observing experts in action,

  • 새로운 스킬 습득 acquiring new skills, and

  • FD워크숍 설계 프로세스에 대한 이해 better understanding the process of designing a faculty development workshop.


의학교육라운드. 의학교육 연구와 혁신에 관심있는 교수들의 모임

The scholars also participate in medical education rounds, which are offered four to six times a year. These two-hour rounds, which bring together faculty members interested in innovations and research in medical education, have been particularly beneficial in introducing the scholars to a community of medical educators.





성과 평가

Outcome Evaluation


To assess the benefits and outcomes of the TSP, all scholars complete an end-of- year questionnaire. We also survey them one year after program completion and the program advisors maintain field notes. In addition to this ongoing assessment, we conducted a follow-up survey and curriculum vitae (CV) analysis of 26 scholars in 2003, with a focus on new educational initiatives, roles and responsibilities, and scholarly activities in medical education.


Evaluation data from the first three cohorts of scholars, which have been published previously,1 were organized in response to two guiding questions:

  • (1) what were the scholars’ and advisors’ perceptions of the program’s strengths and limitations (ie, process evaluation); and

  • (2) were the scholars able to accomplish what they had set out to do (ie, outcome evaluation)?


새로운 교육적, 학자적 실천

New educational and scholarly practices


The CV analysis of 26 scholars who participated in the program between 1997 and 2003 showed that 15 of the teaching scholars (60%) have taken on new roles and responsibilities in medical education since completing the TSP. Two former scholars (8%) became associate deans in the Faculty of Medicine, seven (27%) became program directors at the undergraduate or postgraduate level, six (23%) were named directors of major curricular initiatives, and one (4%) took on a major leadership role in a national organization.


Nine of the scholars (35%) became members of our renewed Centre for Medical Education, with two involved as Core Faculty (devoting one day a week to medical education activities at the Centre) and seven as Centre Members (devoting at least one day a month to Centre activities).


In addition to these new roles and responsibilities, 24 of the scholars (92%) who participated in the program between 1997 and 2003 became involved in new educational committees at multiple levels,



새로운 교육적 역할과 책임

New educational roles and responsibilities



Follow-up data indicated that the majority of teaching scholars continued their involvement in teaching


All of the scholars who had developed a course or program during the TSP continued to deliver their curricular initiative, with ongoing refinements and modifications. In addition, 20 scholars (80%) developed new courses, and 13 (50%) designed faculty development activities for their own departments. The majority also continued to participate in faculty-wide faculty development activities, as participants or facilitators. Sixteen scholars (62%) reported that they had become an important resource for their colleagues and were viewed as educational leaders in their own departments,


Twenty-three scholars (90%) have presented aspects of their TSP educational project at a national or international educational meeting. In addition, many became regular attendees of such meetings (eg, the annual meeting of the Canadian Association for Medical Education) and continued to present their scholarly work in these settings.


Eight of the scholars (31%) applied successfully for educationally related grants during the TSP. Six (23%) received additional grants after the completion of the program, and 13 (50%) continued their involvement in educational research. Nine individuals (35%) have published their teaching scholars’ projects in peer-reviewed journals, for a total of 18 publications. Five of the scholars (19%) have pursued advanced studies following their year as a teaching scholar. One completed a masters in education, one received a masters in business administration, and another concluded a masters in public administration. One scholar registered for our newly formed masters in educational and counselling psychology, with a focus on health professions education, and one is a PhDstudent in philosophy. In many ways, the TSP laid the foundation for further learning and professional growth for these scholars.


 

이득 혹은 성과라고 느낀 것들

Perceived benefits and outcomes


In reviewing the scholars’ year-end and follow-up questionnaires, we noted three major areas of perceived impact:

  • 지식과 스킬 향상 increased knowledge and skills,

  • 실천공동체에 들어옴 introduction to a “community of practice,” and

  • 새로운 커리어 기회 new career paths and opportunities.


Many also commented on the fact that the TSP “allowed” them to focus on developing these skills and characterized the TSP as a “transformational opportunity.”


Most of the scholars remarked upon the benefit of meeting “like-minded colleagues” and being introduced to a network of medical educators.


A growing awareness of a community of educators, and an increasing sense of belonging to this community, was noted by most of our teaching scholars.


Eighteen of the scholars (70%) observed that the TSP helped them to embark upon a new career path and develop new domains of academic activity.


 

기대하지 않았던 성과

Unanticipated consequences


The TSP has also had several unanticipated consequences at an organizational level. For example, interest in the TSP among residents and fellows has led to the development of a Postgraduate Fellowship in Health Sciences Education.


The TSP scholars’ participation in university courses, given by members of the Faculty of Education, has also opened channels of communication that have led to the development of a masters in educational and counselling psychology, with a focus on health professions education.




결론

Conclusion


프로그램의 주된 제약사항은 '시간'이었고, 프로그램의 시간(기간)과 펠로우들의 시간 모두를 포함함. "이제 막 본격적으로 해보려고 할 때쯤 프로램이 끝났다"

The program’s major limitation is time, both in terms of the scholars’ time and the length of the program. As one scholar commented, “The program was over just as we were getting into our stride.”



Sir William Osler 는 "가르치는 시점에 학생의 입장에 있지 않은 자는 제대로 가르칠 수 없다"라고 하였다.

Sir William Osler once observed, “It goes without saying that no man can teach successfully who is not at the same time a student.” In many ways, this is the strength of our program.







 2006 Nov;81(11):969-74.

From novice to informed educator: the teaching scholars program for educators in the health sciences.

Author information

  • 1Centre for Medical Education, Faculty of Medicine, McGill University, Montreal, Canada. yvonne.steinert@mcgill.edu

Abstract

The Teaching Scholars Program for Educators in the Health Sciences at McGill University, in Montreal, Quebec, was designed to promote the professional development of health science educators by increasing their expertise in developing and implementing educational programs and taking on leadership roles in education. This program, which was initiated in 1997 and is tailored to the individual needs of the participants, consists of participation in: two university courses; a monthly seminar; a research study or an educational project, consisting of curriculum design and evaluation; and faculty-wide faculty development activities. As of 2006, 34 scholars have completed this program. Outcome data indicate that the majority of teaching scholars have taken on new roles and responsibilities in medical education; maintained the changes implemented in theirteaching practices; continued to participate in faculty development activities; and presented their work at educational meetings. A number ofscholars have also applied successfully for educationally related grants and have published their educational projects. Five of the scholars have pursued advanced studies. This program, which aims to move beyond the improvement of teaching skills by providing a foundation for educational leadership and scholarship, resembles many others in its emphasis on independent study, peer support, and the maintenance of ongoing responsibilities. It is innovative in that scholars participate in university courses and are encouraged to attend an "outside" conference or course. The overall benefits of this program, as noted by the scholars, include increased knowledge and skills, introduction to a "community of practice," and new career paths and opportunities.

PMID:
 
17065858
 
[PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]


교수개발을 위한 온라인교육: 문헌 리뷰(Med Teach, 2013)

Online learning for faculty development: A review of the literature

DAVID A. COOK1 & YVONNE STEINERT2

1Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, USA, 2McGill University, Canada




도입

Introduction


교수들이 그들의 다양한 역할을 잘 수행하게끔 준비시켜주고 renew시켜주는 FD이니셔티브는 여러가지 형태가 있을 수 있다. 그러나 다양한 방법들은 로지스틱한 문제, 사회적으로 고립social disconectedness된 느낌, 바쁜 임상 및 연구업무 등으로 제한이 되기도 한다

Designed to prepare – and renew – faculty members for their multiple roles (Bland et al. 1990), faculty development initiatives can take many forms. However, such approaches have been limited by logistical issues (scheduling and physical location), perceptions of social disconnectedness, and the workload of a busy clinical or academic practice (Steinert et al. 2009).


온라인 학습은 하나의 혁신이다.

Online learning may constitute one such innovation. (Sherer et al. 2003).


우리의 personal and professional lives에 컴퓨터와 인터넷 기술이 발달하면서 온라인학습이 지난 10년간 드라마틱한 성장을 한 것은 놀랄 일이 아니다. 한 연구결과를 보면 온라인 CME가 모든 CME활동의 절반을 차지할 것을 예상했다.

With the growing presence of computers and Internet technologies in our personal and professional lives, it is no surprise that online learning has shown dramatic growth over the past decade (Cook et al. 2010a). One study suggests that online continuing medical education (CME) may dominate over half of all CME activities by 2017 (Harris et al. 2010).



온라인 학습의 개요

A brief review of online learning


온라인학습은 일부 혹은 전체 학습자료와 활동을 인터넷이나 로컬인트라넷 형태로 전달하는 것이다. 교사들은 온라인 학습활동을 학습자가 정해진 목표를 달성하는데 도움이 되게끔 구조화하고 배열한다. 이 활동들은 다음의 것을 포함할 수 있다. 

Online learning is the process of learning with some or all instructional materials and activities delivered over the Internet or a local intranet. Teachers facilitate online learning by structuring and sequencing online activities to help learners achieve defined objectives. These activities might include

  • 교육 자료의 제시 the presentation of instructional materials (e.g. online tutorials) (Cook & Dupras 2004),

  • 학습자간 토론 communication among learners (computer-supported collaborative learning) (Sandars et al. 2012), and

  • 실제 상황을 컴퓨터로 시뮬레이션 computer simulations of real-life situations (Richman et al. 2001).

 

온라인 기술은 여러가지 장애물을 극복하는데 도움을 주었다.

Online technologies can help to overcome several barriers that confront traditional learning activities (Cook 2007).

  • 물리적 거리는 이제 아무런 문제가 되지 않는다.(한 주state 또는 국가 내 등)
    Physical distances become irrelevant with online learning. For example, faculty development courses have enrolled participants at multiple sites across a state (Langlois & Thach 2003), a country (Anshu et al. 2008; Wearne et al. 2011), and the world (McKimm & Swanwick 2010; Ladhani et al. 2011).

  • 규모의 경제를 실현해준다.
    Many online course designs permit economies of scale, with expanding enrollment requiring little or no additional instruc- tor time or institutional cost.

  • 시간에 따른 참여의 제약이 없다.
    Online learning also allows for flexibility in the timing of participation, as highlighted in the use of online technologies to teach busy surgical faculty (Pernar et al. 2012).

  • 교육을 받은 후 교육사이트를 레퍼런스로 활용가능하다.
    In addition, learners can use the site as a reference after the course has ended.

  • 필요에 따라 학습속도를 빠르거나 느리게 할 수 있다. 그리고 컴퓨터가 학습자에 대한 정보를 활용하여 학습경험을 최적화할 수 있다.
    Instruction can be individualized as learners control the pace of instruction by slowing down or speeding up as needed, or as the computer uses information about the learner (baseline knowledge, learning style, or motivation to learn) to alter and thus optimize the learning experience (computer-adaptive instruc- tion).

  • 맞춤형 피드백
    Online learning facilitates learner assessment and tools tailored feedback.

  • 게임/상호작용모델/컴퓨터시뮬레이션/에니메이션/오디오클립, 비디오클립 활용 등 다양한 창의적 교수법 활용가능
    Finally, online can be used to implement creative instructional methods such as games, interactive models, computer simulations, computer anima- tions, and incorporation of audio and video clips.



그러나 이러한 장점에도 불구하고 해결해야 할 문제들도 있다.

However, with these advantages come many challenges.

  • 개발하는데 시간과 돈의 투자가 많이 필요하다. 작은 수의 학습자들을 대상으로는 비효율적.
    Online tutorials and simulations typically require a large investment of time and money for development, making them relatively inefficient for small groups of learners (Cook 2007).

  • 온라인 토론은 교수자의 시간이 학습자가 늘어날수록 더 많이 필요해지므로 규모의 경제에 해당되지 않는다.
    Economies of scale are also less apparent in online discus- sions, in which demands on instructor time usually increase with each added learner.

  • 한 번 만들어진 것은, 기술적인 문제나 교수설계와 같은 것을 온라인에서는 쉽게 바꿀수가 없다irreversibly derail.
    Technical problems or deficient instructional designs can irreversibly derail an online activity, by contrast with a face-to-face course in which a talented instructor can, if needed, improvise and recover.

  • 학습자가 자신의 속도에 맞춰서 볼 수 있다고는 하나, 학습의 개별화는 이 정도를 넘지 못한다. Computer-adaptive instruction은 사실상 실현되지 않았으며, 근거도 부족하다.
    While learners can often govern the pace of progress through the course, individualization in an online course rarely goes beyond this; computer-adaptive instruction thus remains at present a largely unrealized possibility, with only sparse evidence evaluating its benefits (Cook et al. 2008a; Landsberg et al. 2012).

  • 면대면 접촉이 적어서 고립된 느낌이 있을 수 있다. '온라인 협력'을 포함하다고 해도, 면대면 접촉보다 더 만족socially fulfilling하지는 않을 것이며, 결국 이때문에 engagement와 satisfaction이 낮아진다.
    Finally, the lack of face-to-face interaction can create a sense of isolation, particularly for courses comprised of independent-learning tutorials and simulations. Even in courses involving online collaboration, some learners may find this less socially fulfilling than face-to-face interactions, and this in turn can impair engagement and satisfaction. Several authors have noted this to be an issue with faculty members as learners (Steinert et al. 2002; Dyrbye et al. 2009; Wearne et al. 2011).



이러한 잠재적 장점과 한계에도 불구하고 여러 연구자들은 온라인 학습이 전통적 방법에 비해서 어떤지를 연구해왔다. 이번 연구로부터 얻은 결과는, 평균적으로 보자면, 유의한 차이는 없다는 것이다. 일부 연구는 온라인이 더 낫다고 하고, 어떤 연구는 전통적 방법이 더 낫다고 하나, 평균적으로 보면 기본적으로 형식 간 거의 차이가 없다. 현재까지의 근거를 보면 온라인과 면대면 방식 중에서의 선택은 하나가 다른 하나보다 inherently 우월하기 때문이 아니라, 상대적인 장점 때문이다. 이것은 교육자들에게는 좋은 소식인데, 왜냐하면 우리가 각각의 접근법을 자신감있게 사용할 수 있음을 뜻하기 때문이다.

Given these potential advantages and challenges, numer- ous educators and researchers have attempted to determine whether online learning is better or worse than traditional approaches. The bottom line from this research is that there is, on average, no significant difference. Some studies favored online, others favored traditional, but on average outcomes were essentially the same between formats. Current evidence suggests that the choice between online and face-to-face approaches depends primarily on the relative advantages and disadvantages of each approach rather than an inherent superiority of one over the other (Cook & McDonald 2008). This is good news for educators, because it means that we can confidently use either approach (or both together in a blended learning course), depending on the needs of the situation.



교수개발의 온라인학습

Online learning for faculty development


온라인학습은 교수개발에 특히 잘 맞는다.

Online learning may be particularly well-suited for faculty development.

  • 교수들은 시간과 장소의 제약을 많이 받음
    Faculty members are affected by issues of time and location (Steinert et al. 2009).

  • 인터넷에 기반한 수단을 활용해 물리적, 시간적 거리separation를 초월한 실천공동체를 형성할 수 있다.
    Moreover, by bridging physical and temporal separations Internet-based tools can facilitate online communities of practice that would otherwise be impossible (Sherer et al. 2003).

  • 필요한 때에just-in-time제공, 규모의 경제 실현, 이수증 서류 등
    Other features such as just-in-time availability of resources, economies of scale, and documentation of completion are also helpful for faculty members (just as they are for other learners).


문헌 고찰

Literature review



온라인FD는 어떤 형태로 도입되어있는가?

How has faculty development been implemented online?


 

다음과 같은 형태

We identified 20 reports of online learning for faculty development These studies employed a wide variety of online modalities and instructional designs (Table 1), including

  • 튜토리얼 tutorials;

  • 온라인 토론 online discussion via discussion board, chat, and e-mail listserv;

  • 컴퓨터 시뮬레이션 computer simulations;

  • 비디오 클립 video clips; and

  • 원거리에서의 실시간 평가 live assessment of a training subject at a distance.

 

일부 연구는 single location의 참여자를 대상으로 했지만, 대부분은 멀리 떨어진(도시, 주, 국가) 학습자들을 대상으로 했음.

A few studies included partici- pants at a single location, but most enrolled learners separated by large distances – different cities, different provinces, and even different countries.



온라인FD 연구에서 배운 점은?

What do we learn from studies of online faculty development?


 

종합적으로, 온라인FD에 대한 근거는 흩어져있고 insubstantial하다. 그럼에도 불구하고 몇 가지 눈에 띄는 주제들이 있다.

In sum, the evidence base for online faculty development is sparse and insubstantial. Nonetheless, several salient themes emerge from this literature.


 

첫째, 온라인FD는 적어도 전통적인 방식과 비견될 만은 하다. 두 가지 연구가 있었는데, 하나는 작지만 유의하지 않은 차이를, 다른 하나는 유의한 지식의 향상을 보고함.

First, online faculty development appears to be at least comparable to traditional training.

  • Two studies made com- parison with traditional classroom training. One found small and non-significant differences (Coma del Corral et al. 2006); the other found significantly improved knowledge and skills for those trained online, perhaps due to increased intensity of the online training (Kobak et al. 2006).


둘째, 온라인FD는 아무런 intervention을 하지 않은 것보다 (늘 그런 것은 아니지만) 더 낫기도 하다. 한 연구에서는 no intervention보다 유의하게 나았다, 또 다른 연구는 전통적 방식에 virtual classroom을 더한 것이 유의한 향상을 가져왔다. 두 개에서는 차이가 없었다.

Second, online faculty development can be, but is not always, effective in comparison with no intervention. One study found that an online journal club was significantly more effective than no intervention (Macrae et al. 2004) while another found that adding a virtual classroom with online assignments to existing face-to-face lectures was associated with significantly improved scores (Dean et al. 2001). However, two studies evaluating the impact of a series of very brief e-mail messages (on topics of institutional review board guidelines [Kotzer & Milton 2007] and teaching effect- iveness [Pernar et al. 2012]) found only negligible differences.



셋째, 이들 비교연구로부터 떠오르는 질문이 있다. 온라인FD가 성공하기 위해서 중요한 특징은 무엇인가? 가장 눈에 띄는 것은 교수참여faculty engagement가 인터벤션간 차이가 크다는 것이다. 비록 일부 연구에서는 매우 효과적 방방법으로 참여를 장려했음에도, 많은 경우에 참여도가 매우 낮았다.

Third, the variability in these comparative studies raises the question: what features of the intervention, topic, and learners are critical to the success (or failure) of online faculty development? Most notably, faculty engagement varied widely for different interventions. Many courses were plagued by low participation, although some managed to effectively encourage faculty involvement.

  • 어떤 연구자들은 교수들이 스스로 인지한 니즈need perceived by faculty가 온라인학습과 맞을 때에야만이 시간과 에너지를 온라인코스에 쏟을 것이라고 제안했다.
    Some authors suggested that only when courses successfully meet a need perceived by faculty members will they invest the necessary time and energy to participate in an online course (Steinert et al. 2002).

  • 다른 연구자들은 기술적 문제를 잘 organization하고 assistant하는 것이 성공의 길이라고도 했다.
    Others felt that better organization and assistance with technical problems were keys to success (Langlois & Thach 2003; Dyrbye et al. 2009; Ladhani et al. 2011; Wearne et al. 2011).

  • 코스를 마치는데 필요한 시간, 명확한 요구(기대), 가까운 미래의 (교육)활동에의 관련성 등이 중요하다
    Yet, others identified that time to complete course activities, clear expectations, and relevance to near-future academic activities (e.g. teaching) were essential (Steinert et al. 2002; Lewis & Baker 2005; Paulus et al. 2010; Wearne et al. 2011).

  • FD일반에 대한 연구는 물론  온라인 CPD연구에서 보면, perceived professional need, immediate rele- vance, and institutional expectation and support 등이 중요하다.
    Research from the field of faculty development in general (i.e. not online-specific) confirms that meeting a perceived professional need, immediate rele- vance, and institutional expectation and support all encourage participation (Steinert et al. 2009, 2010) as does evidence from online clinical continuing professional development (Carroll et al. 2009).



커뮤니케이션과 사회적 상호작용social interactions 이 온라인FD의 장기적 성공에 중요하다. 여러 연구에서 사회적 사회작용을 핵심 주제로 도출했다. 온라인 커뮤니티는 (온라인 커뮤니티가 아니었으면 불가능했을) 상호작용을 강화하는 역할을 할 수 있으나, 만약에 온라인 상호작용이 면대면 상호작용을 대체해버리거나, 그 설계가 poorly structured 되어있다면, 오히려 역효과를 낳을 수도 있어서, 흥미나 참여가 떨어질 수도 있다.

Communication and social interactions also appear to be critical to the long-term success of online faculty development activities. Several studies identified social interaction and bonding as key themes: online communities can enhance such interactions if faculty members would not otherwise be able to meet, but if online interaction replaces face-to-face interaction or is poorly structured, it may meet with oppos- ition, disinterest, and lack of engagement (Steinert et al. 2002; Langlois & Thach 2003; Bramson et al. 2007; Anshu et al. 2008; Dyrbye et al. 2009; Anshu et al. 2010; Paulus et al. 2010).

 

토론그룹 사이에서 중재역할을 적극적으로 하는 Active moderation of discussion groups 이 특히 중요하다. 한 연구에서 참여자들은 온라인토론이 포함된 집단에서 (비록 그것이 면대면 접촉을 대체하기에 매우 적합한 것은 아니었으나not adequately substitute) self-reported understanding이 더 향상되었음을 보고함.

Active moderation of discussion groups may be particularly important (Fox et al. 2001; Anshu et al. 2008; Wearne et al. 2011).

  • One randomized trial evaluated an online tutorial with and without enhancement through an online discussion forum and found greater self-reported understanding (albeit statistic- ally non-significant) among the group with online discussion, although participants indicated this ‘‘did not adequately substitute for face-to-face contact.’’ (Fox et al. 2001).

 

커뮤니케이션과 관련된 문제를 지적한 연구가 있었는데, 목소리의 굴절이나 바디랭귀지가 없는 것 때문에 오해가 생기기도 한다. 비-온라인FD에서 연구들은 social connection과 실천공동체의 필요성을 지지한다.

Several studies noted problems with communication, such as the absence of voice inflection or body language, which leads to increased chance of misunderstanding. Again, research from non-online faculty development supports the need for social connections and communities of practice (Steinert et al. 2009, 2010).


마지막으로 (짧은 이메일 메시지, optional한 토론포럼 등과 같이) 매우 짧거나 단차원적인 인터벤션brief or uni-dimensional interventions 은 덜 효과적이다.

Finally, brief or uni-dimensional interventions, such as short e-mail messages (Kotzer & Milton 2007; Pernar et al. 2012) and optional discussion forums (Steinert et al. 2002) seem to be less effective.



Table 2. Lessons learned from 20 studies of online faculty development.



1. Online learning for faculty development has the potential to meet educational objectives, but participation rates are often low. 


2. Perceived advantages

  •    Convenience

  •    Flexibility

  •    Reduced isolation (if faculty cannot otherwise meet)

  •    Collaboration across disciplines and distance

  •    Experience of being an online student (can enrich subsequent teaching) 


3. Perceived disadvantages

  •    Increased isolation (if faculty are accustomed to meeting face-to-face)

  •    Communication problems

  •    Technical problems; lack of comfort with the technology

  •    Costly software development

  •    Trade-off between enhanced flexibility and strong sense of community 


4. Features of less effective courses

  •    Intervention too brief (e.g. weekly e-mail)

  •    Topic not perceived as important

  •    Faculty members not engaged

  •    Insufficient time to complete activities

  •    Lack of interaction

  •    Lack of instructors’ expertise in teaching online 


5. Perceived solutions and favorable features

  •    Optimize communication, including use of conversational discussion

  •    Address a need (i.e. learning deficit); relevance

  •    Ensure that course materials are well organized and easy to access

  •    Enhance social bonding; work in teams; invite quiet members to participate

  •    Optimize time management

  •    Set clear expectations, including time commitment

 




미래 연구에 대한 함의

Implications for current practice and future research


온라인학습은 다른 방법보다 우월하지도 열등하지도 않고, 그저 어떤 challenges를 극복하기 위한 방법이다. 온라인과 면대면 학습의 구분은 점차 모호해지고 있다. 이미 교사들은 blended experience를 루틴하게 활용중이다.

Online learning in general is neither superior to nor inferior to other approaches, but simply a method that overcomes some challenges while creating others. We expect that the distinction between online and face-to-face learning will increasingly blur, as educators take advantage of the strengths of both approaches to create blended learning experiences. Teachers already routinely create blended experiences – for example, using lecture, PowerPoint, video, small groups, and self-study to optimize learning according to specific objectives. Online learning adds one more tool (or, more accurately, a collection of tools) to the educator’s toolbox.


온라인 실천공동체의 발달을 장려할 수 있을 것이다. 그러나 단순히 FD프로그램을 온라인으로 만드는 것 만으로 성공을 담보하지는 못한다. 고의 계획과 가장 효과적인 프로그램조차 교수들이 능동적으로 학습프로세스에 참여하지 않는다면 실패로 끝날 것이다.

Online learning may be particularly effective in overcoming these barriers and encouraging the development of online communities of practice (Sherer et al. 2003). However, simply building a faculty development program or activity – online or otherwise – will not guarantee success. Even the best-laid plans and most highly-effective programs will come to naught if faculty members do not actively engage in the learning process. While online learning has the potential to overcome barriers results thus far are decidedly mixed.






 




 2013 Nov;35(11):930-7. doi: 10.3109/0142159X.2013.827328. Epub 2013 Sep 5.

Online learning for faculty development: a review of the literature.

Author information

  • 1Mayo Clinic College of Medicine , USA.

Abstract

BACKGROUND:

With the growing presence of computers and Internet technologies in personal and professional lives, it seems prudent to consider how online learning has been and could be harnessed to promote faculty development.

AIMS:

Discuss advantages and disadvantages of online faculty development, synthesize what is known from studies involving health professionsfaculty members, and identify next steps for practice and future research.

METHOD:

We searched MEDLINE for studies describing online instruction for developing teaching, leadership, and research skills among health professions faculty, and synthesized these in a narrative review.

RESULTS:

We found 20 articles describing online faculty development initiatives for health professionals, including seven quantitative comparative studies, four studies utilizing defined qualitative methods, and nine descriptive studies reporting anecdotal lessons learned. These programs addressed diverse topics including clinical teaching, educational assessment, business administration, financial planning, and research skills. Most studies enrolled geographically-distant learners located in different cities, provinces, or countries. Evidence suggests that online faculty developmentis at least comparable to traditional training, but learner engagement and participation is highly variable. It appears that success is more likely when the course addresses a relevant need, facilitates communication and social interaction, and provides time to complete course activities.

CONCLUSIONS:

Although we identified several practical recommendations for success, the evidence base for online faculty development is sparse and insubstantial. Future research should include rigorous, programmatic, qualitative and quantitative investigations to understand the principles that govern faculty member engagement and success.

PMID:
 
24006931
 
[PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]


교육펠로우십 프로그램: 공통의 주제와 이슈(Acad Med, 2006)

Educational Fellowship Programs: Common Themes and Overarching Issues

Larry D. Gruppen, PhD, Deborah Simpson, PhD, Nancy S. Searle, EdD,

Lynne Robins, PhD, David M. Irby, PhD, and Patricia B. Mullan, PhD





Searle 이 언급한 바와 같이, 교육스킬을 강화하고 교육자 공통체를 만들고, 교육 리더를 양성하기 위한 펠로우십 프로그램이 여러개 늘어나고 있다.

As Searle et al.1 note in the opening article, there is a growing number of fellowship programs designed to augment teaching skills, create communities of educators, and develop educational leaders.


이러한 트렌드를 촉진하는 요인으로는 교육에 있어서 scholarship의 정의가 확장되었다는 것을 인지한 것, 개별 기관과 인증기구 수준에서의 (교육과정, 교육teacching, 평가와 관련된 의사결정은 교육원칙과 근거에 기반해야 한다는) 요구사항이 늘어나는 것progressive expectation 등이 있다. ACGME는 “careful study of existing research on general competencies for physicians” 가 필요하며, 이것을 위해서는 “increasingly more useful, valid and reliable methods of assessing resident’s attainment” 가 필요하다고 하였다 .이들 요인은 교수들에게 (교육)원칙과 교육에서의 최선의 실천을 잘 수행할 것을 요구하기에 이르렀다.

Factors fostering this trend include the growing awareness of education within a broadened definition of scholarship2–4 and the progressive expectation, at both institutional and accreditation levels,5,6 that curricular, teaching, and learner assessment decisions should be informed by educational principles and evidence. The Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education derived its general competencies through a “careful study of existing research on general competencies for physicians” and requires “increasingly more useful, valid and reliable methods of assessing resident’s attainment” of these competencies.6 These factors have created a demand for faculty who are well versed in the principles and best practices in education.




교육과정 설계와 Educational Scholarship을 위한 포괄적 접근

A Systematic Approach to Curriculum Design and Educational Scholarship


 

이번 호에 실린 educational fellowship 프로그램을 본 독자들은 프로그램간 유사성에 매우 놀랄 것이다. 이와 관련된 요소들로는 다음이 있다.

A reader of the educational fellowship program descriptions in this issue will be struck by the similarities among the programs, which are derived from related elements:

  • 기관 차원에서 극복해야 하는 (도전)과제들 a pervasive set of institutional challenges,

  • 교육과정 설계를 위한 포괄적 접근 a systematic approach to curriculum design, and

  • (도전)과제들을 해결하기 위한 교육전략 educational strategies to meet these challenges.




교육 혁신 평가를 위한 준거

Criteria for Evaluating Educational Innovation


우리는 Glassick의 준거를 사용하고자 함

We used Glassick’s criteria8 for evaluating educational innovations


These include

  • 명확한 목표 clear goals;

  • 적절한 준비 adequate preparation (ie, providing access to existing scholarship in the field);

  • 적절한 방법 appropriate methods, including modifying methods when appropriate;

  • 유의한 결과 significant results;

  • 효과적 의사소통 effective communication (ie, effectively sharing ideas and findings); and

  • 성찰적 비평 reflective critique.




명확한 목표, 적절한 준비, 적절한 방법

Clear goals, adequate preparation, and appropriate methods


펠로우십 프로그램과 교육자들을 진척advancing시키기 위한 유사한 문제들로부터 시작했기에, 각 프로그램은 명확한 목적과 목표를 설정하였다. 각 프로그램의 교육과정 내용을 살펴보면, 모든 프로그램이 단순히 "교육스킬의 향상"만을 위한 것은 아님을 알 수 있다.

Stemming from the common problem of advancing educational programs and educators, each of the programs developed a clear set of goals and objectives for its curriculum. A review of each program’s curricular content reveals that all programs emphasize more than “just” teaching skills,


각 프로그램에서 참여자들의 선발은 프로그램의 목적과 목표에 따라 이루어졌고, 이것에 잘 부합하는 교수를 선발하는 준비과정이었다. 

For each program, participant selection is matched to program goals and objectives in order to prepare faculty who matched the targeted programmatic emphases in education.


프로그램의 기간과 빈도는 대체로 매주 혹은 매달 3시간 정도의 세션이 있었다. 1년 이상 2년 정도 진행되었고, 총 60~160시간 정도의 contact time이 있었다. 이들 프로그램의 집중적intensive 성격은 (한시간 짜리 워크숍과 같은 짧은 세션의 시리즈에서 달성될 수 있는 것보다) 교육원칙과 교육행위에 대한 더욱 심화된 이해와 통합적 이해를 달성하려는 것을 보여준다. 프로그램의 상대적 길이는 주제와 영역간 cross-polination과, 교육자 공동체의 발달을 고취시키고자 하였다.

Our examination of the duration and frequency of sessions across programs showed that sessions typically meet for three hours, either weekly or monthly. Programs usually extend over one to two years, providing between 60 and 160 total hours of contact time. The intensive nature of these programs illustrates the need for a more in-depth and integrated understanding of educational principles and practices than can be achieved in a brief series of one-hour workshops.10 The relative length of the programs promotes greater cross-pollination across topics and domains and also fosters the development of a community of educators within cohorts.11


모든 프로그램은 학습자-중심의 능동적 학습, 펠로우들의 참여를 강조하였다. 또한 모든 프로그램은 프로그램에서 배운 원칙을 자신과 관련된 real-world problem의 해결에 적용할 수 있는 프로젝트의 개발을 요구하였다. 대부분의 프로그램은 일정 수준의 멘토링을 제공하였으며, 이는 멘토를 공식적으로 지정해주는 것부터 프로그램의 스텝들이 펠로우들과 상호작용하는 과정에서 비공식적으로 이뤄지는 지도까지 다양했다.

All of the programs emphasize learner- centered, active learning practices in the conduct of sessions and the participation of the fellows. And all of the programs require that fellows develop a project that would enable them to apply the principles learned in the program to a real-world problem relevant to the fellow and to the school. Most of the programs also provide some degree of mentoring for the fellows, ranging from the formal assignment of a mentor to the more informal guidance provided through program staff interactions with the fellows.


프로그램 사이에 유사성이 매우 많았지만, 기관의 우선순위, 니즈, 리소스에 따라 나름의 독특한 특징이 있었다

In the midst of the numerous similarities among programs, the presence of unique features reflects particular institutional priorities, needs, and resources.


참여자 모집도 각 기관의 우선순위나 외부의 펀딩을 반영하기도 했다. 예를 들어 Universities of Washington and Michigan 는 명시적으로 국외 펠로우를 선발하였다.University of Iowa 는 교수개발의 전문성과 리소스를 전파하기 위한 “training-the-trainers” 를 강조하였다. Medical College of Wisconsin은 외부의 펀딩의 우선순위에 따라서 일차의료 전공(가정의학, 의학, 소아과학)을 선발하였다.

Recruitment of participants also reflects institutional priorities and/or extramural funding targets. For example, the Universities of Washington and Michigan have explicitly identified foreign fellows as a population from which to draw participants. The University of Iowa has a unique emphasis on “training-the-trainers” for disseminating faculty development expertise and resources. The Medical College of Wisconsin’s program, due to its external funding priorities, enrolls faculty from the primary care specialties of family medicine, medicine, and pediatrics.


 

유의한 결과와 효과적 의사소통

Significant results and effective communication


각 프로그램은 (효과를 보여주기 위해서) 각 목표와 관련된 증거를 제시하였다.

Each program report presents evidence associated with its specific objectives, including

  • 지원 현황 enrollment data,

  • 펠로우가 주도한 교육과정 이니셔티브 fellow- authored curriculum initiatives,

  • 리더십 보직 leadership positions, and

  • 학문 활동 scholarly activities (eg, numbers of peer-reviewed publications, presentations, acceptances of educational materials to peer-reviewed educational repositories).

대부분의 프로그램은 프로그램-특이적인 교육과정 구조와 교육자료와 교육성과를 disseminate하여 프로그램의 졸업생들에게 요구되는 scholarly approach를 modeling하고자 했다.

The majority of programs have also disseminated their program-specific curriculum structure, materials, and outcomes in professional presentations and publications thus modeling the scholarly approach expected of their graduates.


교육자 공동체 형성은 공통의 성과 중 하나였다. 초기의 공동체는 같이 트레이닝을 받는 집단으로만 구성되었으나 시간이 지남에 따라서 institution-wide한 효과가 나타났다.

A common outcome reported across all programs is the creation of a community of educators. Initially, this growth has occurred within training cohorts, but over time has evolved into an institution- wide effect.


정도의 차이는 있지만, 모든 프로그램은 interdisciplinary fellow cohorts가 있었다.

To varying degrees, all the programs have interdisciplinary fellow cohorts.


펠로우들의 status도 프로그램간 다양했다.

Variation in fellow status is also present across programs,


 

프로그램 차원의 interdisciplinary goals 은 교육 공동체 내에서의 connection 조성, 공동의 이니셔티브 촉진, 공동의 문제에 대한 해결책 제시 등이 있다. 실제로 이들 프로그램의 interdisciplinary한 특징은 참여 펠로우들로부터 가장 흔하게 언급되는 펠로우십 프로그램의 강점 중 하나이다. 이러한 결과는 Lenning and Ebbers12가 한 다음의 말과도 잘 부합한다. 프로그램 졸업생이 늘어남에 따라서 기관들은 교육자의 critical mass를 보유했음을 깨닫게 된다

The interdisciplinary goals of the programs represent an explicit effort to foster connections among members of the educational community and to stimulate shared initiatives and solutions to common problems. Indeed, the interdisciplinary nature of these programs is one of the strengths most frequently cited by participating fellows. This echoes the observation of Lenning and Ebbers12 that

 

 

“교수자들이 얻는 것은 faculty benefits (related to learning communities) include

    • 고립에서의 탈피 diminished isolation,

    • 교수 동료간 공동의 목표와 협력 a shared purpose and cooperation among faculty colleagues,

    • 교육과정 통합이 늘어남 increased curricular integration,

    • 개인의 전공학문에 대한 참신한 접근법 a fresh approach to one’s discipline, and

    • 학생의 학습에 대한 만족도 향상 increased satisfaction with their students’ learning.”

 

As the number of program graduates increases, institutions recognize that they have a critical mass of educators



성찰적 비평

Reflective Critique to Improve Educational Fellowship Programs



목표의 명확성에 대하여..

Clear goals


The nine programs, by virtue of their longevity, have each developed clear goals and objectives in response to their institutional, departmental, and faculty needs assessments. As programs mature, it is clear that these goals and objectives must be responsive to changing institutional priorities and needs. This evolutionary process is most apparent in the older programs (eg, the Medical College of Wisconsin), which have transformed considerably in response to changes in faculty workload and roles, but all programs have modified their curricula and structure on the basis of summative feedback from their fellows, faculty, and directors. This continuous improvement effort to identify goals in keeping with emerging institutional priorities ensures that each program has the opportunity to respond to changes in the environment and the fellows’ needs, with program redesign centered on clear goals aligned with institutional priorities.



적절한 준비와 적절한 방법에 대하여..

Adequate preparation and appropriate methods



이 이슈에서 말한 각 프로그램은 (주로) 각 의과대학의 교육전문가들이 기획/개발/시행한 것이다. 이 프로그램들에서는 외부 전문가들도 활용했다. 

Each of the programs described in this issue drew on educational experts within the medical school to plan, develop, and implement the program. The programs also make use of outside experts in providing expertise for individual sessions.


프로그램의 구조/형식/교육방법 등에 대한 선택도 면대면, 이러닝, 프로젝트 수행 등을 혼합한 형태로 점차 진화하고 있다. 새로운 교육 형태가 등장함에 따라서 펠로우십을 설계하고 수행하기 위해 필요한 전문성도 함께 진화해야 하며 이 부분을 과소평가해서는 안 된다.

Selection of the structure, format, and instructional delivery methods has continued to evolve, with programs used a blended format of face-to-face, e-learning, and project requirements. As new formats for delivering instruction emerge, the expertise needed to design and deliver fellowship programs must evolve. Institutions program should not underestimate the importance of such expertise

 


 

유의한 결과와 효과적 의사소통에 대하여..

Significant results and effective communication


따라서 프로그램의 성과가 명확히 드러나야 하며, 핵심 이해관계자들 사이에서 공유되어야 한다. 이 성과를 보여주어야 하는 이유는 자명한데, 왜냐하면 대부분의 프로그램에서 프로그램이 펠로우와 기관에 주는 impact를 심층적으로 평가하는데 몰두engaged in하고 있기 때문이다. 이 프로그램 평가는 "참가자 만족"이라는 단기 성과를 넘어서서 행동적 성과behavioral outcome 및 졸업생의 생산성과 같은 다른 근거들까지도 포괄한다. 구체적으로는, 각 프로그램이 참가자들의 CV를 분석하여 학문적 성취와 리더십의 변화를 분석하고 있으며, 펠로우의 네러티브, 인터뷰, 자기평가를 통한 질적 분석도 수행하고 있다.

Therefore the program outcomes must be clearly demonstrated and shared with key stakeholders. The need to demonstrate these outcomes is clear, as almost all of the programs have engaged in an in- depth assessment of their program’s impact on the fellows and the institution. These program evaluations have gone beyond the short-term levels of “participant satisfaction” and have included examination of behavioral outcomes and other evidence of graduates’ productivity.14 Specifically, the majority of programs have conducted analyses of participants’ curriculum vitae to measure academic productivity and leadership, and have carried out qualitative analyses of fellows’ narratives, interviews, and self-evaluations.


평가 자료를 집합적으로 분석함으로써 프로그램이 성공적이었는지를 알 수 있을 것이다.

Aggregated analysis of the evaluation data across programs reveals that the programs are successful in promoting and advancing graduates as individuals.


대부분의 프로그램은 이제 막 기관 차원의 효과(학습 환경, 넓은 맥락에서의 교육 변화)를 살펴보기 시작하였다. 개별 학자scholar 수준에서 몇몇 프로그램은 졸업생이 교육 행정 관련한 참여presence가 늘어났음을 보여주었다.

Most of the evaluations have only begun to look at institutional impact, in terms of learning environment and the larger context of educational change. At the individual scholar level, several programs note an increased presence of program graduates in the school’s educational administration:


모든 프로그램이 공통적으로 당면한 평가 관련한 네 가지 문제가 있다.

Four common evaluation challenges remain to be addressed by all programs independent of their focus on individual or institutional outcomes.

 

  • 첫째, 대조군의 부재
    First, the lack of a control or comparison group limits the scope of the conclusions.

  • 둘째, 각 프로그램은 프로그램의 결과로 어느 정도의 변화가 일어났는가를 조사해야 한다. 비록 그 과정에 온갖 복잡성과 교란요인이 있지만 관심을 둘 만한 분야이다.
    Second, programs must examine the extent to which student learning has changed as a result of these programs. Although this particular outcome measure is fraught with all of the complexities and confounding factors that plague patient- outcomes research, it is an area that warrants attention.

  • 셋째, 개인수준/기관수준/피훈련자수준에서 명확한 ROI를 보여주어야 한다. 교육평가에서 그러한 분석은 매우 드문데, 적어도 한프로그램에서는 노력은 하였다. 프로그램의 "비용"을 정량화하는 것은 복잡하며, 교수와 스텝의 시간, 공간활용, 리소스 분배에 대한 집중화와 공유, 임상 생산성의 저하 등등을 포함한다. 그럼에도 불구하고 교육 프로그램들은 여러 임상 프로그램과 연구 프로그램에서 시도하는 바와 유사하게 교육 프로그램에 대한 투자를 정당화할 수 있어야 한다.
    Third, programs need to demonstrate a clear return on the investment in the educational fellowship programs at the individual, institutional, and ultimately trainee levels. Such analyses are very rare in educational evaluation, but at least one program has made such an effort.15 As the program descriptions demonstrate, quantifying the “cost” of these programs is complex and raises questions of faculty and staff time, space utilization, centralized or shared resource allocation, lost fellow clinical productivity, and the like. Similarly, the outcomes can be defined in various ways and quantification of these outcomes is challenging. Nonetheless, educational programs should be prepared to justify the investments made in them in ways that many clinical and research programs are beginning to address.

 

  • 넷째, 프로그램 운영 기관들이 서로 고립isolation되어 있다. 프로그램 디렉터는 지역 또는 국가 수준의 교육미팅에서 비공식적으로 아이디어를 얻을지 모르겠지만, 이 프로그램의 효과성과 퀄리티를 향상시킬 수 있는 기회는 그것 말고도 많다. 예를 들면...
    The fourth evaluation challenge is associated with the isolation that exists between programs’ sponsoring institutions. Although program directors may share ideas informally at regional and national educational meetings, there are many opportunities for augmenting the effectiveness and quality of these programs. Possible strategies include

    • 교육과정 혁신에 관한 협력 collaboration on curricular innovations,

    • 내용 전문성과 세션 퍼실리테이터를 공유함 sharing content expertise and session facilitators, and

    • 특정 청중 혹은 요구에 대해 특화된 프로그램 개발exploring specialized programs for particular audiences or needs.

  • 추가적으로, 이들 프로그램은 다-기관 차원의 평가 연구 기회를 제공하며, 이를 통해서 효과적인 프로그램의 특성을 알게 될 수도 있다. 교육과정의 기간 또는 강도와 그 성취 사이에 dose-response relationship 가 있는가? 유의미한 성과를 얻기 위한 최소 수준의 교육instruction이 있는가? 등이 있다. 이 질문은 세심하게 다기관 연구를 설계하면 답을 얻을 수 있을지도 모른다. 아홉개 프로그램은 공통의 핵심 주제를 가지고 있었으며, 이는 리소스와 노력의 중복 투자를 의미하며, (공식적 경로이든 비공식적 경로이든) 실제 프로그램간 교육 내용의 공유는 별로 없을 것임을 시사한다. 대신, 각 프로그램이 "reinvents the wheel" 했을 것이다.
    In addition, these programs provide an opportunity for conducting multi-institutional evaluation studies, which might provide insights into program characteristics that are effective in attaining the desired outcomes. For example, is there a dose-response relationship between the duration or intensity of the curriculum and the program outcomes? Is there a minimal level of instruction that is necessary to obtain useful outcomes? These questions might be answered by carefully designed, multi- institutional studies of the programs. All of the nine programs we have analyzed have a common core of critical topics. This represents a duplication of resources and effort, but there is limited sharing of actual curricular content among the programs, either through formal or informal mechanisms. Instead, each program “reinvents the wheel” for numerous topics.


이후 발전을 위한 성찰적 비평

Reflective critique for future development


교육자 공동체를 형성하는 것은 일부 프로그램에서만 명시적으로 드러난 목표였지만, 결과적으로는 모든 프로그램에서 중요한 가치를 지니는 성과가 되었다. 그러한 공동체가 형성된 것은 기관의 전반적 환경에도 도움이 된다.

The development of a community of educators is an explicit goal for only some programs, but a clearly valued outcome for all. The development of such a community benefits the overall environment of the institution


여기서 중요한 질문이 남는다.

There remain important questions about sustaining and nurturing such a community:

  • 공동체가 생산력을 가지기 위해 필요한 critical mass가 있는가?
    is there is a critical mass necessary for such a community to be productive?

  • 어떤 이벤트나 이니셔티브가 공동체의 유지에 도움이 되는가?
    What events or initiatives help maintain the community?

  • 효과적인 공동체와 관련된 인프라, 리더십, 리소스는?
    What are the infrastructure, leadership, and resource requirements associated with effective communities?

  • 진료를 하는데 필요한 시간과 경쟁하는 가운데 어떻게 공동체가 유지될 수 있을 것인가?
    How can the community be sustained in the face of competing demands on faculty time from clinical responsibilities?


3 Fincher RE, Simpson DE, Mennin SP, et al. Scholarship in teaching: an imperative for the 21st century. Acad Med. 2000;75:887–894.





 2006 Nov;81(11):990-4.

Educational fellowship programscommon themes and overarching issues.

Author information

  • 1Department of Medical Education, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109-0201, USA. lgruppen@umich.edu

Abstract

The trend toward intensive faculty development programs has been driven by a variety of factors, including institutional needs for educationalexpertise and leadership, as well as individual faculty members' motivation to augment their educational expertise, teaching skills, and leadership skills. The nine programs described in this issue possess several common features that can be ascribed to shared perceptions of pervasive needs coupled with feasible educational resources and strategies to meet these needs. All programs identify a clear set of goals and objectives for their respective curricula. Curriculum domains include not only teaching skills but also educational research, curriculum development, and educationalleadership. In spite of many similarities, each program reflects the unique character of its home institution, the faculty, educational resources, and the specific goals of the program. Each program has documented gains in such key outcomes as participant promotions, new leadership positions both locally and nationally, and scholarly productivity in the form of peer-reviewed papers and presentations. Evidence of institutional benefits includes the production of innovative curricula and a pool of educational leaders. The programs have also developed a community of knowledgeable scholars who interact with each other and serve as a catalyst for continuing change and educational improvement. Although each program was developed largely independently of the others, the common elements in their design provide opportunities to evaluate collaboratively the successful aspects of such programs and to share ideas and resources for program curricula between existing programs and with institutions considering implementing new programs.

PMID:
 
17065863
 
[PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]


성년이 된 AHC: 교수들이 더 나은 선생, 변화에이전트가 되게 돕기(Acad Med, 2006)

The Academic Health Center Coming of Age: Helping Faculty Become Better Teachers and Agents of Educational Change

Charles J. Hatem, MD, Beth A. Lown, MD, and Lori R. Newman, MA





의학교육을 위한 기관들은 전통적으로 교수들이 교사로서의 책임을 다할 수 있게 준비시키는 것에는 매우 적은 시간만을 할애해왔다.

Institutions committed to medical education have historically spent an inordinately small amount of time preparing their faculty members for their responsibilities as teachers.


선구자적인 예외는 the Shapiro Institute for Education and Research at Harvard Medical School (HMS) and Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center (BIDMC)이다.

A pioneering exception to the historic indifference to medical teaching was the prescient formation of the Shapiro Institute for Education and Research at Harvard Medical School (HMS) and Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center (BIDMC). As described by the founders:


HMS와 BIH는 교육병원과 의과대학이 clinical business과 더불어 공통의 academic mission에서도 최고 선두이자 중심적 위치를 더 효과적으로 유지하기 위하여 1996년에 joint venture를 설립하였다.

In an effort to organize a teaching hospital and a medical school in a manner that would position them to maintain more effectively their common academic mission front and center with the clinical business, HMS and the Beth Israel Hospital (BIH) created a joint venture in 1996.

 

교육과 연구를 위한 이 새로운 비영리기관은 교육과 연구가 최우선의 (그리고 유일한) 미션이다. 이 기관은 추가적인additional 그리고 구체적인 academic leadership을 제공하기 위해, 그리고 academic mission을 위한 전략기획을 수행하기 위한 joint venture를 실현enable시키려는 목적으로 설계되었다.

The new nonprofit Institute for Education and Research has education and research as its top (and only) mission. It is designed to provide additional and specific academic leadership and to enable the joint venture to undertake strategic planning for the academic mission.1


1996년 BIH는 BIDMC가 되었다. 그리고 CareGroup이라는 새로운 헬스케어 독립체entity 아래에 join하였다.

In 1996, the BIHmerged with New England Deaconess Hospital to form BIDMC. Mount Auburn Hospital (MAH), another HMS teaching hospital, joined BIDMC under the umbrella of a new health care entity, CareGroup.



이 기관의 핵심적으로 집중하는 것 중 하나는 교수개발이다.

One of the Institute’s central commitments is faculty development.



Harvard Medical System 내에서의 의학교육 펠로우십

The Fellowships in Medical Education within the Harvard Medical System


1998년의 The Rabkin Fellowship in Medical Education

The Rabkin Fellowship in Medical Education was established in 1998 in honor of Mitchell T. Rabkin, MD, CEO emeritus of the BIH.


The Rabkin Fellowship은 하버드-협력 기관의 교수들에게 열려있음

The Rabkin Fellowship is open to faculty based at all Harvard-affiliated institutions and is designed to prepare future leaders in medical education.


1999년의 The Mount Auburn Fellowship in Medical Education. Rabkin 펠로우십과 교육과정은 같으며, 2004년에 modified version이 시작되었음.

The Mount Auburn Fellowship in Medical Education was established in 1999 and follows the same curricular structure as the Rabkin Fellowship. In 2004, a modified version of the Mount Auburn Fellowship was initiated for fellows of the Academy at HMS. 


펠로우십 프로그램의 목적은... 

The goals of the fellowship programs are to


  • ▪ help faculty develop and enhance their skills as educators;

  • ▪ provide faculty an opportunity to conduct scholarly research or an educational project in an area of interest and importance in medical education;

  • ▪ support the fellows as educational leaders and change agents within the AHC; and

  • create a community of educators who continuously strive to improve the field of medical education.


최초 펀딩 소스 

The initial funding of the fellowship came from philanthropic support and from the founding institutions (BIDMC and HMS), with subsequent underwriting from MAH.




펠로우들

Fellows


2006년까지 63명의 졸업생 숫자. 다양한 과에 소속되어 있음. 초기에는 clinical faculty에 주로 집중하였으나 점차 확대됨.

As of June 2006, the three fellowships in medical education have graduated 63 physicians. The fellows represent a variety of clinical disciplines . At their inception in 1998 the fellowships focused on the clinical faculty, however, have always been open to all faculty who teach in both the preclinical and clinical years, as well as in graduate and continuing medical education.


다양한 경력(신임교수, 10년 이상 유경험자 등.)

Class size (2~8명). 이상적으로는 6명

Some fellows have participated in the program during the early stages of their careers, whereas others have had over 10 years of teaching experience. Class sizes have ranged from two to eight. It is our view that the ideal number for interactive seminars and effective group development is six.


선발절차와 제출서류 

The fellows are chosen through a competitive process, which begins with a request for applications. Candidates are required to submit

  • ▪ a personal statement outlining the applicant’s interest in teaching and/or academic leadership, and defining personal and/or professional goals in pursuing this year-long course of study;

  • ▪ a question or project to be undertaken during the fellowship;

  • ▪ a letter of support from the department or division chief;

  • ▪ a current curriculum vitae (CV); and

  • letters of reference.


펠로우들이 해야 하는 것들과 제공되는 것들

  • The medical education fellows are required to undertake an analytic study, an educational project, or research focusing on an important issue in medical education.

  • Fellows each select a mentor in addition to the fellowship faculty to help guide their project’s development.

  • The fellows also provide additional support and peer review for each others’ projects over the course of the year.

  • Finally, the fellows summarize their projects in written reports and formal presentations at a concluding symposium.

 

약 20%의 시간을 할애하게 됨

The fellowship is structured to occupy and compensate 20% of a fellow’s time.



교육과정 구조

Curriculum Structure


펠로우십 세미나는 세 장소에서 열림. (외부) 초청 전문가, 지원 인력

The fellowship seminars are conducted at three sites: the Center for Education at BIDMC, the MAH, and HMS. 

Invited experts ...

Staff support ...


 

진행 기간 및 주요 활동 내용

  • The fellows at the BIDMC and MAH meet weekly for 10 months (September through June) at separate sites for two- hour seminars during the academic year.

  • The program at HMS meets monthly for two-hour seminars also for 10 months of the academic year. The medical education curriculum was added to the existing Academy fellowships at HMS in 2004–05.

  • Previously the Academy fellowships were designed to support junior faculty projects, but did not have a component dedicated to ongoing seminars in medical education.

  • In 2004– 05 the fellowship directors began to meet monthly with the HMS Academy fellows using core elements of the Rabkin and Mount Auburn Fellowship curricula.


여러 개의 (의학교육 연구 관련) 세미나에 참석함

Fellows from all three programs come together for a number of seminars. A majority of these are dedicated to medical education research principles taught by local and national experts.

 

이전 펠로우와 현재 펠로우와의 만남

In addition, past and present fellows convene twice a year to reflect and discuss challenging issues in medical education. The past fellows also serve as project consultants for the current fellows.



교육과정 내용

Curriculum Content


  •  ▪ the historic evolution and financing of medical education;

  •  ▪ the skills needed for curriculum development, design, and evaluation;

  •  ▪ the application of adult learning theories to the clinical setting;

  •  ▪ the enhancement of teaching skills needed at the bedside, ambulatory, operating room, and classroom arenas, including exercises in peer review, lecturing, and small-group and case- based discussion;

  •  ▪ mentoring;

  •  ▪ the skills needed for educational administration and leadership;

  •  ▪ the relevance of the humanities to medical education;

  •  ▪ research in medical education;

  •  ▪ writing for publication;

  •  ▪ sources of educational funding;

  •  ▪ the role of technology/simulation in medical education; and

  •  ▪ the skills of self-reflection and self- renewal.


경험학습이 핵심 요소

Experiential learning is a key component of the fellowship. Fellows ....

  • conduct and report on master clinician–teacher observations,

  • are videotaped and given feedback on lecturing techniques,

  • engage in role plays providing difficult feedback to learners,

  • lead case-based discussions,

  • conduct peer reviews, and

  • submit written reports of memorable teaching and learning experiences.



서로 존중하는 분위기의 교수-학습 공동체를 만들기 위해서 노력함. 서로 피드백을 주고 받는 안전한 환경을 만들어줌.

We strive to create a respectful “learning and teaching community” committed to the goals of better teaching. The fellowship provides a safe environment in which the fellows give and receive feedback


 

HMS와 협력병원의 다른 교수개발 프로그램도 있지만, 주로 개별 강의, 워크숍, 3주과정, 멘토링 등으로 구성되어 있다. The Rabkin, Mount Auburn, and Academy fellowships은 HMS교수만을 위하여 설계된, 1년에 걸쳐 정기적으로 진행되며, 방대한 읽기reading과 계획된 교육활동, 교육 프로젝트 수행 등으로 구성된 독립적 프로그램

Other educational faculty development opportunities within HMS and its affiliated hospitals exist, but are predominately individual lectures, workshops, three-week courses, and mentoring. The Rabkin, Mount Auburn, and Academy fellowships, however, are the only stand-alone offerings designed solely for HMS faculty that meet regularly for the entire academic year and involve extensive readings, planned curricular activities, and completion of a required educational project.



교육과정 평가

Curricular Evaluation


 

  • 펠로우십 디렉터들은 매 세션 이후 만나서 debrief하고 이후 진행될 세미나에 대해서 계획을 세우며, 세션간 연관성을 가지게 하는 개념을 찾고, 펠로우의 니즈에 따라 교수계획을 설계함
    The fellowship directors meet after each session to debrief and plan upcoming seminars with particular attention to identifying connecting concepts between the sessions and designing teaching plans that meet the needs of the fellows.

  • 펠로우들에게 커리큘럼에 대한 피드백을 계속 요청하기도 하지만, 일년에 두 세션은 프로그램에 대한 심층적 성찰과 펠로우의 personal and professional development에 대한 영향을 논의함.
    In addition to soliciting ongoing feedback from the fellows about the curriculum, two sessions during the year are devoted to eliciting in-depth reflections about the program and its impact on the fellows’ personal and professional development.

  • 각 펠로우와 정기적으로 미팅을 잡아서 펠로우십 경험에 대한 피드백을 받고, 추가적 성찰을 위한 시간을 가짐. 프로젝트에 대한 심층적 토론
    Regularly scheduled meetings with each fellow throughout the year afford additional opportunities to garner feedback on the fellowship experience, provide time for further reflection, and allow for in-depth discussion of the fellow’s project.

  • 이 미팅들은 펠로우가 change agent가 되는 과정에서 겪는 어려움을 상담해주고 서포트해주는 기회이기도 함.
    These meetings are also natural opportunities to provide support and counsel to the fellow regarding the challenges of being a change agent in an academic environment.



프로그램 평가

Programmatic Evaluation


2004년부터 ongoing evaluation study를 수행

In 2004, the program directors began an ongoing evaluative study of the fellowship in medical education. The goal of the study is to examine the outcomes of the fellowship, including its personal and professional impact, using both qualitative and quantitative methods.



펠로우십 이후

After the Fellowship


기관 차원에서 교육과 관련된 중요한 역할을 맡게 되었으며, 트레이닝의 효과도 있을 것.

The fellows have assumed significant institutional educational roles after the completion of fellowship training, which we feel is due in part to that training.



Challenges







 2006 Nov;81(11):941-4.

The academic health center coming of agehelping faculty become better teachers and agents of educationalchange.

Author information

  • 1The Academy Center for Teaching and Learning, Harvard Medical School, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Boston, Massachusetts, USA. chatem@mah.harvard.edu

Abstract

There is a growing appreciation of the need for educational faculty development within medical education. The authors describe the establishment and subsequent expansion of one such fellowship in medical education that arose from the cooperative efforts of Harvard Medical School, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, and Mount Auburn Hospital. Three resultant fellowships are outlined that share the common goals of enhancing the skills of the faculty as educators, providing an opportunity to conduct scholarly educational research, supporting the fellows as change agents, and fostering the creation of a supportive community dedicated to enhancing the field of medical education. Curricular structure and content are outlined as well as current approaches to curricular and programmatic evaluation. The fellowships have been well received and are widely perceived as transformative for the faculty, many of whom have assumed increased roles of organizational and educational leadership. Lastly, future directions for these fellowships are presented.

PMID:
 
17065851
 
[PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]


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