PBL에서의 SDL, 그리고 SRL과의 관계(Educ Psychol Rev, 2008)

PBL에서의 SDL, 그리고 SRL과의 관계(Educ Psychol Rev, 2008)

Self-Directed Learning in Problem-Based Learning and its Relationships with Self-Regulated Learning

Sofie M. M. Loyens & Joshua Magda & Remy M. J. P. Rikers

SRL은 목표설정, 메타인지, 자기평가와 같이 학습에 다양한 방식으로 영향을 미치는 모든 것들을 포함하는 용어이다.

Self-regulated learning (SRL) is ubiquitous in research on education nowadays and it is an umbrella term for various processes such as goal setting, metacognition, and self-assessment, all of which influence learning in various ways (e.g., Boekaerts 1999; Paris and Paris 2001; Zimmerman 1989).

어떤 방식으로 가르치든, 모든 학습자는 어떤 형태로든 자기조절을 하고 있는 것으로 주장되긴 하나(계획, 모니터, 평가 등) 어떤 학습환경에서는 학생의 자기조절전략을 보다 명시적으로 목표로 설정한다.

Although it has been argued that, regardless of the instructional format, all learners are inevitably engaged in some form of self-regulation (i.e., they all plan, monitor, and evaluate their behavior to some degree, Winne 1995); some learning environments frame the development of students’ self- regulatory strategies as an explicit learning outcome.

PBL

Problem-Based Learning

기원

Origin

 

1960년대 중반에 전통적인 교수법의 유용한 대안으로서 개발됨

PBL was developed in the mid-1960s as a useful instructional alternative to conventional teaching.

캐나다의 McMaster대학은 처음으로 이러한 문제를 해결하기 위하여 의사들이 실제로 겪는 의료적 문제를 반영하는 "문제problems"을 활용한 교수법을 설계하였다. 그러나 교육에서 '문제'를 사용하는 것은 새로운 것은 아니었는데, 법학 혹은 경영학에서는 이미 오래 전부터 실제문제real-life problems를 사용해왔기 때문이다. PBL이 창의적이었던 점은 학생이 그러한 문제를 접하는 시점이 언제인가 하는 것이었다. McMaster에서 학생은 해당 주제에 대한 중요한 지식을 습득하기 전에 '문제'를 가지고 작업work하기 시작한다. 이는 법학이나 경영학에서 일정 수준의 역량을 갖춘 이후에 문제를 접하고 해결하는 식으로 사용했던 것과는 다른 것이다. McMaster의 Donald Woods는 "Problem-based learning"이라는 용어를 처음으로 사용한 사람이다. PBL의 초기부터 법/경제/경영/사회과학, 심지어 중등교육까지 여러 프로그램에 사용되었다.

The medical school of McMaster University in Hamilton, Canada was the first to tackle these issues and they designed an instructional format that made use of “problems” that reflected realistic medical problems that physicians encounter. However, the use of problems in education was not new since some Law and Business schools had long been using real-life problems (Barrows 1996). PBL’s “creative” element was the moment at which students encountered such problems. At McMaster, students started to work with problems before they had acquired any significant knowledge of the topic at hand, which differed from the situation in Law and Business schools where problems were encountered and solved after some competence was achieved. In other words, PBL distinguished itself by making problems a starting point of the learning process. It is assumed that Donald Woods of McMaster University Medical School was the first to use the term “problem-based learning” (for a detailed discussion: Savin-Baden and Major 2004). Since its origin, PBL has been implemented in numerous programs across many domains such as Law, Economics, Business Administration, social sciences, and even secondary education (Barrows 1996).

절차

The process

 

목표

Goals

대부분의 교육적 혁신이 그러했듯, PBL도 높은 수준의 검증을 거쳐야 했다. PBL을 주장하는 사람은 그것의 목표가 무엇인지 명확히 설명해야 했다. 다섯 가지가 있다.

Like most educational innovations, PBL faced heightened scrutiny when it was introduced into educational practice. Since that time, proponents of PBL have been challenged to clearly articulate its goals. PBL aims to help students to

• (a) 포괄적이고 유연한 지식 토대 구축 construct an extensive and flexible knowledge base,
• (b) 효과적인 협동자 become effective collaborators,
• (c) 효과적인 문제해결능력 develop effective problem-solving skills,
• (d) 내적으로 학습 동기부여 become intrinsically motivated to learn, and
• (e) SDL스킬 개발 develop SDL skills (Barrows 1984, 1985, 1986; Barrows and Tamblyn 1980; Norman and Schmidt 1992).

사전 지식의 활성화가 앞으로 학습할 정보의 stage를 설정하며, 지식의 정교화와 유지retention을 돕는다.

The activation of prior knowledge during the problem discussion in the tutorial group sets the stage for the to-be-learned information, which facilitates elaboration and increases retention.

개방적이고 명확한 방식으로 그룹 토의를 하여 learning issue, 이 learning issue 에 대한 답, 그리고 그들이 찾은 것들의 불일치에 대한 합의에 이른다.

They learn to contribute to the group discussion in an open and clear way, to come to an agreement about the learning issues and the answers to these issues, and to resolve possible inconsistencies in their findings (Hmelo-Silver 2004).

놓여진 문제를 어떻게 분석할지, 다양한 정보의 조각의 중요도를 어떻게 평가할지, 무슨 정보를 활용하여 문제를 이해/설명/해결해야 하는지, 어떻게 계획을 세울지 등을 배운다.

students learn how to analyze the problem at hand, assess the importance of various pieces of information, and decide which information will be used to understand, explain, or solve the problem and plan subsequent (study) actions.

문제를 가지고 작업하는 것은 학생들이 (미래에 마주칠) 실제 상황을 가지고 하기 때문에 참여를 촉진하고engaging 더 흥미로워하게 된다

Working on problems is believed to be engaging and interesting for students since they encounter realistic situations, sometimes (e.g., in medical education) related to their future professional practice.

SDL

Self-Directed Learning

SDL의 개념은 실존주의적 관점으로 거슬러올라가는데, 여기서는 개인의 자유/책임/방식을 상정한다. 학습적 맥락에서 이는 "학습은 학생이 자유롭고, 성숙하고, 진실한authentic 자신이 되게 힘을 주는 것empower이어야 한다"이다.

It has been argued that the notion of SDL goes back to the existentialist perspective, which postulates individual freedom, responsibility, and personal views (Savin-Baden and Major 2004). In the context of learning, this implied that “learning should empower a student to become a free, mature, and authentic self” (Savin-Baden and Major 2004,p.14).

SDL은 성인교육에서 널리 보고(연구)되었다.

Also, SDL has been widely reported in adult education.

Knowles에 따르면, 학습은 고립되어 일어나지 않으며, 다른 사람(선생님, 튜터, 동료)과의 관계속에서 일어난다. 따라서 학습은  teacher or other oriented 를 한 끝으로, 반대 끝은 self-directed로 하는 연속체이다. 한 끝에서 다른 방향으로 움직일 때 학습에 대한 통제의 양이 변화한다.

According to Knowles (1975, 1990), learning does not take place in isolation but in association with others such as teachers, tutors, and peers. Therefore, learning can be placed on a continuum, ranging from teacher or other oriented at one end to self-directed at the other end. When shifting from one end the other, the amount of control over learning changes

 

PBL에서의 SDL

SDL in PBL

PBL논문에서 보면 SDL은 "학생이 선생님이 아닌 그 자신이 정의한 학습활동에 참여하기 위한 준비"이다. 이 정의는 학습활동을 할 수 있는 능력 뿐 아니라, 학습활동에 참여하려는 의지에 대한 동기부여적, 의지적 요소motivational, volitional 를 모두 말하는 것이다.

In the PBL literature, SDL refers to “the preparedness of a student to engage in learning activities defined by him- or herself, rather than by a teacher” (Schmidt 2000, p. 243). This definition refers both to a motivational, volitional component of having the willingness to engage in those learning activities, as well as the ability to do so.

Candy는 SDL을 목표이자 프로세스라고 보았으며, SDL의 네 가지 차원을 정의했다.

Candy (1991) considers SDL as a goal as well as a process and he defines four dimensions of SDL:

• 자율성 personal autonomy,
• 학습의 자기관리 self-management in learning,
• 학습의 독립적 추구 the independent pursuit of learning, and
• 지시사항에 대한 학습자의 통제 the learner control of instruction.

자율성: 독립independence, 선택의 자유freedom of choice, and 이성적 성찰rational reflection

Personal autonomy refers to a personal characteristic or attribute of students and implies independence, freedom of choice, and rational reflection. According to Candy (1991), personal autonomy represents one of the principal goals of education in all settings and all ages.

 

자기관리: 스스로의 학습을 관리하는 의지와 능력. '자율성personal autonomy'가 전반적 성향disposition이라면, 자기관리는 학습에서 자율성을 실행exercise하는 것이다.

Self- management is the willingness as well as the ability of the learner to manage his or her own learning. Although personal autonomy can be considered to be an overall disposition, self- management refers to the exercise of autonomy in learning.

Candy는 학습자 통제와 학습의 독립적 추구를 구분하였다.

Candy further distinguishes learner control from the independent pursuit of learning.

 

학습자 통제learner control : 학습 상황(instructional situation)의 여러 측면에 대한 통제

The first deals with control over aspects of the instructional situation, while

 

학습의 독립적 추구independent pursuit of learning: 공식적 교육환경 바깥에서의 독립적 학습

the latter implies autodidaxy and concerns learning outside formal educational settings (Candy 1991;Kreber1998).

 

 

SDL의 여러 차원이 이렇다면, PBL에 어떻게 적용되는가?

Having outlined the dimensions of SDL, how does this apply to the PBL context?

PBL의 학습 프로세스를 보면, 학생은 소그룹 내에서 문제에 대해서 토론한 것을 분석하여 스스로 learning issue를 평가해야 한다.

With respect to the learning process in PBL, students need to assess their learning issues based on the analysis of the problem discussed in the tutorial group.

SDL은 다음을 포함한다.

In sum, SDL entails the

• 학습요구를 평가할 능력 ability to assess learning needs,
• 효과적 계획 effective planning, and
• 시간 관리 time management,
• 문헌 자료의 비판적 평가 a critical evaluation of the literature resources, as well as a
• 스스로의 SDL 스킬에 대한 비판적 평가 critical evaluation of their own SDL skills.

 

따라서 자율성/자기관리/학습자 통제는 PBL프로세스에서 분명한 역할이 있다.

Personal autonomy, self-management, and learner control hence clearly play a role in the PBL learning process.

 

Candy의 SDL모델은 학습 전략에도 적용될 수 있다. 학습전략은 학생이 학습내용을 처리process하는 방식을 의미하며, 이것은 deep level과 surface level로 나눠진다.

Candy’s(1991) SDL model can also be applied to learning strategies. Learning strategies refer to the way students process the subject matter. A distinction is made between deep and surface level of processing.

 

PBL과 같이 SDL을 촉진하는 학습환경은 deep-level의 처리를 촉진한다고 여겨져왔는데, 왜냐하면 학습자가 무엇을 배우고 어떻게 배울지를 선택하기 때문이다. 따라서 효과적 학습 전략의 측면에서 학습자 통제는 매우 중요하다.

Learning environments that foster SDL such as PBL are believed to promote deep-level processing because learners have the freedom to choose what they learn and how they learn it (Candy 1991). Learner control is therefore crucial in terms of effective learning strategies.

마지막으로 Candy는 단기적/장기적 수행성과 측면에서 SDL의 중요성을 강조했다.

Finally, Candy (1991) highlights the importance of SDL for performance outcomes, both in the short and the long term. This will be discussed in greater detail in the section on SDL and SRL research in PBL.

Hmelo와 Lin은 SDL발달을 지지하는 구체적인 PBL의 특징을 말하였다. 다음의 것들이 중요하다.

Hmelo and Lin (2000) also argued that specific PBL features support the development of SDL.

• PBL의 학생-중심적 특성 The student-centered nature of PBL,
• 내용을 학습하기 전에 문제를 가지고 작업함 the fact that students start working on a problem before they have received other curriculum inputs,
• 스스로의 지식이 어디가 부족한지 찾아냄 the identification of their knowledge deficits,
• 스스로 학습 이슈를 생성함 the generation of their own learning issues,
• 개별 활동 students’ individual study,
• 문헌 자료의 비판적 평가 the critical evaluation of the literature resources,
• 새로운 지식을 문제에 적용하기 the application of the new knowledge to the problem, and
• SDL스킬에 대해서 비판적/협력적 성찰 the critical and collaborative reflection on their SDL skills

 

...are all crucial features that foster SDL.

 

 

독립적 문헌 탐색independent literature search에 대해서 학생은 스스로의 정보-탐색 기술을 발달시킬 기회이며, 유연하고 적응력을 갖춘 학습자가 되게끔 준비하는 과정이다. 또한 성찰적 요소reflection element를 강조했는데, 만약 학생이 자신이 찾은 문헌 자료를 가지고 문제를 이해하거나 해결할 수 없으면, 추가적 학습이슈를 만들고, 문헌 자료 탐색과 비판적 평가 과정을 다시 반복해야 한다.

Especially with respect to the independent literature search, students have the opportunity to develop their information-seeking skills, which prepares them to become flexible and adaptive learners. Further, Hmelo and Lin (2000) emphasize the reflection ele- ment in PBL. If a student cannot understand or solve a problem with the literature resources he or she found, additional learning issues need to be formulated and the process of literature search and critical evaluation is reiterated.

두 가지: 평생학습과 개별적 비유도 학습individual unguided learning

Two notes: lifelong learning and individual unguided learning

SDL은 종종 평생학습과 같이 묶인다. 비록 두 가지 개념이 모두 학생의 내재적 학습 동기부여로 시작하기는 하나, 동일한 것은 아니다. Greveson and Spencer는 SDL이 평생학습의 전제조건prerequisite이라고 하였으며, Candy는 SDL과 평생학습을 호혜적reciprocal 관계에 있다고 보았다. Candy는 평생학습은 SDL의 네 가지 차원 중 하나에 포함된다고 보았다. 구체적으로는, SDL은 independent pursuit of learning 차원에서 주요한 활동이며, 평생학습의 목표는 "학교에서의 공식적 교육이 종료된 이후 자기 자신만의 자기-교육self-education을 지속할 수 있도록 사람들이 기술과 역량을 갖추게끔 하는 것"이라고 보았다.

SDL is often bracketed together with lifelong learning (e.g., Miflin et al. 2000). Although both concepts start with the student’s intrinsic motivation to learn, they are not the same (Schmidt 2000). Greveson and Spencer (2005) consider SDL to be a prerequisite for lifelong learning, while Candy (1991) describes SDL and lifelong learning as having a reciprocal relationship. Candy subsumes lifelong learning under one of four dimensions of SDL. Specifically, SDL is the principal activity in the independent pursuit of learning,while the goal of lifelong learning is “equipping people with skills and competencies to continue their own ‘self-education’ beyond the end of formal schooling” (Candy 1991,p.15). Therefore, SDL can be considered both a means and end to lifelong learning.

PBL에서 SDL을 논의할 때 중요한 것은, 이것이 개인적, 비유도적 학습과 유사한 것이 아니라는 점이다. Candy는 자기-주도 라는 용어가 잘못 사용될 수 있다고 지적했다. 그의 관점에서 학습은 개인의 일individual affair가 아니며, 다른 사람과의 관계를 함축하는 것이다.

Another note that should be made while discussing SDL in a PBL context is that this concept is not similar to individual, unguided learning. Candy (1991) argued that the term self-direction can be misleading because the individual should not be evaluated above the collective. In his view, learning is not an individual affair, but it implies relationships with others.

따라서 PBL에서 SDL은 학생이 무엇을 배우고 그것을 어떻게 배울지에 대해서 어떤 (타인의) 영향이나 상호작용이 없다는 "급진적" 자기주도를 말하는 것이 아니다.

Thus, SDL in the PBL context does not imply “radical” self-direction in the sense that there is no influence on or interference whatsoever with what students learn and how they do this. PBL supports students to some extent in finding their way (Schmidt 2000).

 

SDL과 SRL연결시키기

Linking Self-directed and Self-Regulated Learning

 

SRL

SRL

가장 단순한 방식으로 SRL이란 외부적으로 조절되는 학습과 구분되는 형태의 학습이다.

In its most concrete sense, SRLis a specific form of learning that can be distinguished from learning that is externally regulated (Boekaerts and Cascallar 2006).

SRL이론이나 모델에서 네 가지 핵심 요소(가정)이 있다.

four key elements or assumptions can be distinguished in theories or models of SRL.

• 첫째, SRL은 자신의 학습 프로세스에 능동적으로 관여하는 것을 말한다. 이 프로세스에서 학습자는 목표를 설정하고, 자신의 생각, 감정, 행동을 모니터링하고, 필요스 그것을 조정adjust한다.
  First, SRL implies active engagement in one’s learning process. During this process, learners set goals, monitor their thoughts, feel- ings, and actions, and adjust them if needed.
• 둘째, SRL모델은 학생이 학습의 방향을 정하고 목표를 설정하기 위하여 기준standards를 사용할 수 있다는 생각으로부터 출발한다. SRL은 학습자의 생물학적/발달적/맥락적/개인적 한계boundaries 내에서 자공하나, 학생은 자신의 메타인지적 지식 토대를 확장할 수 있게 훈련될 수 있고, 따라서 더 효과적인 자기조절적 학습자가 될 수 있다.
  Second, SRL models start from the idea that students are able to make use of standards to direct their learning and to set their own goals (i.e., they have control). SRL operates within the biological, developmental, contextual, and individual “boundaries” of the learner, but students can be trained to extend their metacognitive knowledge base and hence to become more effective self-regulated learners.
• 셋째, 학습행동은 무작위적이지 않고 목표-지향적이다 Third, learning behavior is goal-directed rather than random.
• 마지막으로 SRL은 개인적, 상황적 수준에서의 변인과 성취에 대한 변인을 mediate하는 것이다.
  Finally, SRL is viewed as a mediating variable between variables on the personal or situational level and achievement (Ainley and Patrick 2006; Boekaerts and Corno 2005; Pintrich 2004).

이 네 가지 가정은 SRL프로세스를 분석할 때 명확하게 드러난다. 자기조절적 학습자는 구체적인 과제를 시작하기 전에 면밀하게 학습활동에 대한 계획을 세운다. 그것의 시작은 주어진 과제를 분석하는 것이고(what is the task about?), 과제와 자신의 특성을 결정하는 것이다.(what knowledge can I apply? Do I find the task interesting?)

These four assumptions clearly come to the fore when analyzing the SRL process: Self- regulated learners will carefully plan their learning activities before they initiate a specific task. The starting point is to analyze the task at hand and to determine the task (e.g., what is the task about?) and personal features (e.g., what knowledge can I apply? Do I find the task interesting?).

 

여기에 이어서 목표를 설정하고, 전술과 전략을 시행할 수 있게 계획을 짠다. 이 단계에서 자기조절적 학습자는 자신이 밟든 단계를 성찰하고, 발전과정을 모니터하며, 그에 맞춰서 계획을 바꾼다.

Subsequently, goals are set and plans are devised in order to enact tactics and strategies. During those steps, self-regulated learners reflect on the steps that were taken, monitor their progress, and change their plans accordingly (Winne and Hadwin 1998).

 

SRL 프로세스는 구체적인 맥락 안에서 발생하는 메타인지, 내적 동기부여, 감정affective한 요인, 전략적 행동 등을 포함한다. 이 요소들은 Zimmerman의 SRL에 대한 정의와도 잘 맞는다 "학생은 메타인지적, 동기부여적, 행동적으로 스스로의 학습 프로세스에 능동적 참여자가 되는 수준에 따라 자기조절 이라고 묘사describe될 수 있다"

SRL processes involve metacognition, intrinsic motivation, affective factors, and strategic action (Pintrich 2004;WinneandPerry2000), which happen within a specific context (e.g., classroom). Those elements nicely concur with Zimmerman’s(1989) definition of SRL: “Students can be described as self-regulated to the degree that they are metacog- nitively, motivationally, and behaviorally active participants in their own learning process” (p. 329).

학습자와 학습환경의 특징이 모두 SRL프로세스에 영향을 줄 수 있다. 학습자가 어떤 목표를 선택했느냐가 SRL의 중요한 결정인자이며, 목표들은 서로 상충할 수 있다. SRL의 또 다른 핵심 요소는 학생의 흥미이다. 학습 환경과 관련해서는 다음이 중요하다.

Both learner and learning environment characteristics can influence the SRL process. The learner’s choice of goals is an important determiner of SRL (Zimmerman 2000) and goals can compete with one another. Another key element in SRL is students’ interest. With respect to the learning environment,

• 교육의 명확성과 속도 the clarity and pace of instruction,
• 제공되는 구조화 정도 the amount of structure provided, and
• 학습과 관련한 학생의 통제 수준 the degree of control students experience with respect to their learning

...are important for students’ SRL activities.

 

교사의 특징(enthusiasm, humor, and fairness, 학생에 대한 기대)도 영향을 준다.

Further, certain teacher characteristics such as enthusiasm, humor, and fairness, as well as teacher expectations about students’ capacities were significantly related to SRL (Boekaerts and Cascallar 2006).

 

SRL과 SDL의 유사성

Similarities between SRL and SDL

SDL과 SRL을 구분하는 문헌은 매우 적다.

Very few literature sources describe SDL and SRL as distinct concepts.

전체적으로 SDL과 SRL모두 능동적 참여와 목표-지향적 행동을 포함한다. 둘 다 목표를 설정하고, 과제를 분석하고, 계획을 세워서 수행하고, 학습프로세스에 대해서 자기평가를 하는 과정을 포함한다.

Overall, both SDL and SRL involve active engagement and goal-directed behavior. Both entail goal setting and task analysis, implementation of the plan that was constructed, and self-evaluation of the learning process.

둘 다 메타인지 기술을 활성화시킨다는 점에서 비슷하다.

Similarly, SRL and SDL are similar in that they both activate metacognitive skills.

SDL과 SRL 모두 내적 동기부여를 중요한 요소로 본다.

Further, definitions of SDL and SRL both emphasize intrinsic motivation as a crucial component.

마지막으로 SDL과 SRL의 전통과 용어가 다르지만, 분명히 겹치는 부분이 많다.

Finally, despite the different traditions and terminology within SDL and SRL, both concepts clearly share significant overlap. In fact, both terms have been used synonymously in previous research because of their similarities (Evensen et al. 2001).

 

SDL과 SRL의 차이

Differences between SDL and SRL

SDL과 SRL의 차이를 이해하려면, 학습환경learning environment versus 학습자특성learner char- acteristics 에 대한 구분이 이뤄져야 한다. SDL은 학습환경과 학습자특성 둘 다에 적용되는 반면, SRL은 주로 학습자특성에 관한 것이다. 이는 SDL과 SRL연구의 배경이 다르다는 것으로부터 설명 가능하다. SDL은 성인교육에 근간을 두고 있고, 이는 학교환경 바깥에서의 학습에 대해 다뤄왔다. Candy의 모델에서 'independent pursuit of learning' 차원이 이를 잘 보여준다. SRL은 반대로 학교 내에서의 학습에 대해 연구해왔다. 따라서 SDL은 학습의 프로세스일 뿐 아니라 학습환경을 디자인하는 특성으로 개념화되어왔다(심지어 SDL은 종종 method of instruction으로 불리기도 했다). 자연스럽게, SDL 환경은 자기주도성을 촉진하는 방향으로 설계되며, 뒤이어 이 환경에서 학습 상황이 벌어진다.

In order to understand the differences between SDL and SRL, a distinction needs to be made between both concepts as design features of the learning environment versus learner char- acteristics (i.e., activities or processes that the learner substantiates). SDL pertains to both, whereas SRL is usually described as a favorable learner characteristic. This can be explained in terms of the different backgrounds of SDLand SRLresearch. The adult education roots of SDL give this concept a history in learning outside school environments. The independent pursuit of learning dimension in Candy’s(1991) model clearly exemplifies this. SRL, on the other hand, has been studied within school learning. Therefore, SDL has a tradition of being conceptualized as a design feature of the learning environment (sometimes SDL is even called a method of instruction in adult education literature, e.g., Fisher et al. 2001)as well as a process of learning. Naturally, SDL environments are designed to foster self-direction that students will carry into subsequent learning situations.

요약하면, SDL의 개념이 SRL보다 넓다. 학습환경의 디자인이라는 측면에서 SDL은 스스로의 학습을 추구하는 데 있어서 학생의 자유를 강조한다.

In sum, the concept of SDL is broader than SRL. SDL as a design feature of the learning environment stresses students’ freedom in the pursuit of their learning.

이러한 관점에서 SDL은 학생에게 무엇을 학습할 것인지를 선택하게 하고, 선택한 학습 자료에 대해서 비판적으로 평가하게 한다는 추가적 전제가 들어간다.

In this sense, SDL includes an additional premise of giving students a broader role in the selection of what will be learned and critical evaluation of the learning materials that were selected.

이러한 식으로 SDL과 SRL을 면밀히 살펴보면 '학습 과제에 대한 학생의 통제'라는 이슈가 드러난다. 명확히, SDL과 SRL은 학생의 통제라는 요소를 포함한다. 그러나 학습자가 가진 통제의 수준이, 특히 학습 과제가 정의되는 때와 같이 학습 프로세스의 시작시점에서, SDL과 SRL이 다르다. SDL에서 학습 과제는 언제나 학습자가 설정한다. 자기주도적학습자는 무엇을 학습할지 정의내릴 수 있어야 한다.

As such, a closer examination of both SRL and SDL as learning processes brings the issue of student control over the learning task to the fore. Clearly, both SDL and SRL carry an element of student control. However, the degree of control the learner has, specifically at the beginning of the learning process when the learning task is defined, differs in SDL and SRL. In SDL, the learning task is always defined by the learner. A self-directed learner should be able to define what needs to be learned (Candy 1991).

SRL에서 학습과제는 선생님이 정해줄 수도 있다. 학생은 개인적 학습 전략을 선택하고 선생님이 내 준 과제에 대해서 SRL 활동에 참여한다. 이러한 관점에서 SDL은 SRL을 포함하며, 그 반대는 아니다. SRL은 학습 프로세스의 후속 부분(learning goals, strategies)에 보다 집중하며, 반면 SDL은 학습자에게 학습 과제learning task에 착수부터 중요한 역할을 부여한다.

In SRL, the learning task can be generated by the teacher. Students can to varying degrees freely select their personal learning strategies and engage in SRL activities on an assignment that is given by the teacher. In this sense, SDL can encompass SRL, but the opposite does not hold. SRL seems more concerned with the subsequent steps in the learning process such as learning goals and strategies, while SDL clearly provides a crucial role for the learner at the outset of the learning task.

PBL에서 SDL과 SRL

Review of Studies Investigating SDL and SRL in PBL

학습 이슈

Learning issues

PBL학생이 더 자기주도적 학습자가 됨

It is concluded that PBL students become better self-directed learners throughout their program (van den Hurk et al. 1999).

긍정적 영향

Self-generation of the learning issues had a positive effect on the number of studied learning materials, self-studytime, and time allocated to report the studied literature. These findings confirmed the assumption that the self-generation of learning issues is crucial and beneficial for students’learning process (Verkoeijen et al. 2006). 

시간 계획, 자기 모니터링

Time planning and self-monitoring

자율학습 시간을 효율적으로 사용하게끔 기여함

Thus, although students do not frequently engage in time planning and self-monitoring, these SDL components contributed to efficient use of self- study time.

정보 탐색 행동

Information-seeking behavior

고학년 학생의 SDL스킬이 더 나음

Different outcomes were found for different curriculum years. Again, senior students gave evidence of better SDL skills.

PBL졸업생의 SDL

SDL of PBL graduates

졸업 이후에도 최신 지식을 유지하게 함

A study of Shinet al. (1993) examined SDL as “keeping up-to-date after graduation.”

PBL졸업생의 SDL이 더 나음

Results showed that graduates of PBL rated themselves as having much better SDL skills compared to the control group.

 

PBL이 SDL을 촉진하는가?

Does PBL foster SDL?

학생들은 무엇을 학습해야 할지에 대해서 불확실해하며, 자료를 독립적으로 선택하기보다는 동료나 교수가 준 자료에 의존함. 학습자는 자기-주도적으로 학습하지 않음.

Results of the first case study indicated that students experienced uncertainty with respect to what to learn and that they relied on their peers and given faculty resources instead of selecting resources independently. Results for the second case study were similar, indicating that the learning of the students under study was not self-directed.

학생들은 여전히 자신이 옳은 길을 가고 있는지에 대해 확신을 가지고 싶어하기에 교사의 승인을 원하며, 새로운 학습 환경에 대한 불확실성을 극복하고 싶어함.

results also indicated that students still sought the teacher’s approval to be sure they were on the right track and to overcome their uncertainty in their new learning environment.

PBL에서 SDL에 대한 학생의 인식

Students’ perceptions of SDL in PBL

학생들은 의료에서 SDL이 중요한 것을 인정함.

Students acknowledged the importance of SDL in clinical practice.

SDL이 무엇인지 명확한 관점이 있음

Further, students had a clear view on what SDL entails, as the following student’s comment demonstrates:

“I think as long as you’ve got a set of learning objectives, along with some sort of agenda, then you can be self-directed” (p. 364).

 

 

학생들은 자기-주도적이 되기 위해서는 교사의 서포트가 필요하다고 했다. 가이드나 서포트가 주어져야만 학생은 학습 욕를 달성하기 위한 계획을 세울 동기부여가 되었다.

Further, students indicated that they needed support by teachers to become self-directed. But when guidance and support were given, students were motivated to make a plan to achieve their learning needs.

PBL에서 CBL로 바꾼 교육과정에서, CBL은 guided inquiry method를 사용한다. 반면 PBL은 튜터가 토론을 안내하지 않는 discovery process로 정의되었는데, 대다수의 학생은 CBL을 선호했다.

A study by Srinivasan et al. (2007) asked students by means of a questionnaire about their perceptions of PBL and case-based learning (CBL) and the advantages of each instructional format. The medical curriculum in this study had shifted from PBL to CBL, which uses a guided inquiry method. It should be noted in this respect that, in this article, PBL was defined as a discovery process in which the tutor does not guide the discussion at all. The majority of students preferred CBL.

그룹 크기

Group size

3명-6명-9명으로 구분한 연구에서, SDLRS로 평가했을 때, 3명, 6명에서 더 SDL을 향상시키는 것으로 나왔으며 9명에서는 SDL이 하락했음.

For example, Lohman and Finkelstein (2000) investigated the effects of group size on SDL. Small tutorial groups of three students, medium groups of six students, and large groups of nine students were compared. SDL was measured by Guglielmino’s(1995) Self-Directed Learning Readiness Scale. Analysis of the SDL pretests and posttests demonstrated that the PBL course led to higher SDL in small and medium groups but lower SDL in large groups. In addition, medium and large groups differed significantly in SDL.

 

SRL과 PBL

SRL and PBL

학습환경에 따라 학습전략은 바뀐다. 또한 학생이 적용하는 SR의 형태도 시간에 따라 달라지며 다섯가지 형태가 있다.

Learning strategies were found to change by becoming attuned to the learning en- vironment. This enabled students to make progress in achieving their learning objectives. Further, the forms of SR(i.e., stances) that students adopted evolved over time. Five possible forms of SR were identified:

• proactive,
• reactive,
• retroactive,
• interactive, and
• transactive.

SRL에서 자기평가. PBL교육과정에서 3학년 학생이 formative assessment를 했는데, 성취도가 낮은 학생이 스스로와 동료를 더 관대하게 평가했으며, 성취도가 높은 학생은 교수보다도 스스로를 더 가혹하게 평가했다.

The role of self-assessment in SRL was investigated by Langendyk (2006). Third-year students in a medical PBL curriculum took a formative assessment. Low-achieving students graded themselves and their peers generously, while high-achieving students scored themselves more harshly than faculty. Peer grading of high-achieving students was, however, accurate.

결론

Conclusion

SDL과 SRL은 발달 프로세스이다.

SDL and SRL are developmental processes

고학년 학생이 더 SD, SR을 잘 함. 즉 SDL과 SRL은 학습할 수 있는 것이다. 그러나 이것이 쉬운 과정은 아니었고, '불확실함'이라는 감정을 극복해야 하는 어린 학생들에게 더욱 그러했다.

First, the studies showed that SDL and SRL are developmental processes since college seniors were found to be more self-directed and self-regulated in several studies. The developmental nature implies that SDL and SRL can be learned by students. However, the studies indicate that this is not an easy process (Evensen et al. 2001), especially not for younger students since they need to overcome their feelings of uncertainty.

"자기"라는 측면이 중요하다.

The “self” aspect is crucial

학습이슈의 자기-생성 self-generation of learning issues (Verkoeijen et al. 2006)

학습성취의 자기-모니터링 self-monitoring is beneficial for academic achievement (van den Hurk 2006).

자기조절의 중요한 형태로서의 자기-성찰 Self-reflection was crucial for forms of self-regulation (Evensen et al. 2001)

고성취 학생은 자기-평가라 정확함 self-assessment was performed accurately by high-achieving students (Langendyk 2006).

PBL이 SDL이나 SRL을 촉진하는가? 결과는 뚜렷하지 않다.

Does PBL foster SDL or SRL? Mixed results

With respect to the question whether PBL fosters SDL and SRL, mixed results were found.

Evensen, D. H., Salisbury-Glennon, J. D., & Glenn, J. (2001). A qualitative study of six medical students in a problem-based curriculum: Toward a situated model of self-regulation. Journal of Educational Psychology, 93, 659–676. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.93.4.659.

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Abstract

This study investigated the role of self-directed learning (SDL) in problem-based learning (PBL) and examined how SDL relates to self-regulated learning (SRL). First, it is explained how SDL is implemented in PBL environments. Similarities between SDL and SRL are highlighted. However, both concepts differ on important aspects. SDL includes an additional premise of giving students a broader role in the selection and evaluation of learning materials. SDL can encompass SRL, but the opposite does not hold. Further, a review of empirical studies on SDL and SRL in PBL was conducted. Results suggested that SDL and SRL are developmental processes, that the “self” aspect is crucial, and that PBL can foster SDL. It is concluded that conceptual clarity of what SDL entails and guidance for both teachers and students can help PBL to bring forth self-directed learners.

Keywords

Problem-based learning Self-directed learning Self-regulated learning