어떻게 배워야 하는건지 가르쳐주세요: 학생의 자기주도학습기술 촉진하기(IJSDL, 2010)

어떻게 배워야 하는건지 가르쳐주세요: 학생의 자기주도학습기술 촉진하기(IJSDL, 2010)

TEACH ME HOW TO LEARN: PRINCIPLES FOR FOSTERING STUDENTS’ SELF-DIRECTED LEARNING SKILLS 

Gregory M. Francom

왜 공식 교육에서 자기주도성을 촉진시켜야 하는가?

WHY FOSTER SELF-DIRECTION IN FORMAL EDUCATION?

직업 이동 가능성

Career Mobility

학생들이 앞으로 하게 될 직업군의 가능성이 무한함.

Data on career mobility show that educational focuses that provide an increased level of specialized career preparation may be inadequate to prepare graduates for all careers that they will encounter in their life after school is over (U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2008). In a United States bureau of labor statistics study, men and women held an average of 10.8 different jobs from ages 18 to 42 and the number of job changes that individuals with a bachelor’s, master’s or PhD experienced was found to be slightly higher than those without a degree (U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2008).

이전에는 직업을 상대적으로 안정적이라 보았음.

Past career studies have viewed workers as relatively stable in their jobs and careers.

직장의 안정성이 개인의 회복탄력성이나 커리어 관리능력에 달려있음.

Job security has become closely associated with an individual’s resilience and career management skills in which continued learning plays an important role (Sterns & Dorsett, 1994).

교육 이후의 세팅에서 배우기

Learning in Post-Education Settings and Learning in Education

"실제 상황"에서의 학습경험에 대한 연구를 통해 Resnick은 학교 밖에서의 학습이 학교 안에서의 학습과 어떻게 다른지 비교하였다.

Based on studies of learning experiences in what she terms “practical settings,” Resnick (1987) suggests dimensions upon which learning out of school differs from learning in school:

1. 개개인별 인식 vs 공유하는 인식

2. 순수한 정신작용 vs 도구 조작

3. 기호 처리 vs 맥락적 추론

4. 일반화된 학습 vs 상황 특이적 역량

1. Individual cognition in school versus shared cognition outside (p. 13); 

2. Pure mentation in school versus tool manipulation outside (p. 13) (i.e., pure thought is valued in education but cognitive and physical tools are used outside of school); 

3. Symbol manipulation in school versus contextual reasoning (p. 14); and 

4. Generalized learning in school versus situation specific competencies (p. 15).

더 나아가서 교양과목이나 공학과목에서의 학부경험이 학생의 자기주도성 향상에는 별 도움이 안됨을 보여준다. 교육기관이 현재 하고있는 것을 넘어서는 것이 필요하다.

Moreover, preliminary studies have found that the undergraduate experience in general (Preczewski, 1997) and in engineering (Litzinger, Wise, Lee, & Bjorklund, 2003) did littleto improve students’ self-direction. Something more beyond what educational institutions are currently doing may be needed to give students opportunities to practice self-direction. 

공식 교육에서 자기주도학습 기술 기르기

FOSTERING SELF-DIRECTED LEARNING SKILLS IN FORMAL EDUCATION

SDL을 촉진하기 위한 대부분의 교수-학습 방법은 스스로의 학습과정을 주도하는 연습 시키는 것이다. 그러나 SDL기술을 기르는 것은 단순히 학생에게 제공되는 지지/지원과 가이드를 줄이는 것 이상이 필요하다. 

Most teaching and learning methods adopted in formal education for fostering SDL skills are focused on increasing the capacity of students to direct their own learning processes through practice doing so (Merriam et al., 2007). However, fostering SDL skills in education involves more than simply reducing the amount of support and guidance given to students, as such approaches may be detrimental to the acquisition of knowledge in long term memory (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006).

Principles for Fostering Students’ Self-Directed Learning Skills

Four main prescriptive principles for fostering self-directed learning skills from research, theory, teaching, and learning models were revealed (see figure 1):

1. 한 학습활동에서 요구되는 자기주도학습자로서의 수준과 실제로 학생들이 가진 수준을 맞춘다.

2. 주도권이 서서히 교수자에서 학생에게 넘어가게끔 한다.

3. 내용지식과 자기주도학습기술을 함께 익히게 한다.

4. 학습과제를 하는 와중에 자기주도학습을 수행하게 한다.

1. Match the level of self-directed learning required in learning activities to student readiness 

2. Progress from teacher to student direction of learning over time 

3. Support the acquisition of subject matter knowledge and self-directed learning skills together 

4. Have students practice self-directed learning in the context of learning tasks.

Principle One; Match the Level of Self-Directed Learning Required in Educational Activities to Student Readiness

To determine a student’s level of SDL skill or readiness, a variety of instruments have been proposed and implemented in the literature. Quantitative instruments include the Self- Directed Learning Readiness Scale (SDLRS)& ?Guglielmino, 1977), the Oddi Continuing Learning Inventory ?Oddi, 1986), the Learner Autonomy Profile (Confessore & Park, 2004), and PRO-SDLS (Stockdale, 2003).

Principle Two: Progress From Teacher to Student Direction of Learning Over Time

Principle Three: Support the Acquisition of Subject-Matter Knowledge and Self-Directed Learning Skills Together

Cognitive strategies (such as those required for SRL and SDL) require the use of intellectual skills (concepts, rules, etc. of a discipline) which require basic knowledge of subject matter (Gagné, 1985).

가지고 있는 지식이 많다면, 학습자는 자기조절과 자기주도 학습을 할 수 있는 작업메모리가 늘어난다. 전문과와 초심자의 차이에 대한 연구를 보면, 전문가는 정교한 mental knowledge structure를 가지고 있어서 진행과정을 모니터링 할 수 있고, 적절한 전략을 선택하고, 적절한 해결책을 결정할 수 있다. 초심자는 이러한 지식구조가 부재하다.

Extensive domain knowledge may enable learners to free up working memory for processes related to self-regulation and self-direction of learning (Sweller, Van Merrienboer, & Paas, 1998). Literature on the differences between experts and novices indicates that experts have elaborate mental knowledge structures that enable them to monitor progress, choose appropriate strategies, and decide on appropriate solutions to problems (Chi, 2006). Novices lack these knowledge structures and consequently are unable to conduct learning and performance activities with as much efficiency as experts.

Principle Four: Have Students Practice Self-Directed Learning in the Context of Learning Tasks

두 종류의 학습전이(learning transfer)가 있다. 한 가지는 동일한 요소를 교육상황 밖에서 적용하는 것이고(Associationist transfer), 다른 하나는 반복된 경험과 성찰의 결과로 일어나는 전이(Gestalt transfer)이다. 

The first benefit of centering learning on learning tasks is increased learning transfer. Learning transfer refers to the impact that learning in one context has on performance of skills in a different context (Perkins & Salomon, 1994). Two types of transfer are differentiated; 

• transfer based on identical elements of tasks performed in education and those performed outside of education (Associationist transfer), and 
• transfer that occurs as a result of repeated experience with tasks and student reflection about these tasks (Gestalt transfer) (Van Merriënboer & Kester, 2008).

SDL기술 연습에서 학습과제를 중심으로 하는 것의 두 번째 장점은, 중요한 SDL기술을 내용지식과 병합할 수 있다는 것이다. 학생들은 다음과 같은 SDL 활동을 해야 한다.

The second benefit of centering learning on learning tasks is student SDL skills practice. Students may be required to practice important SDL skills as they combine subject matter knowledge and its application to complete learning tasks. As students engage in learning tasks, they may be required to do such SDL activities as the following: 

• (a) choosing a learning path; 
• (b) finding, evaluating, and applying information to complete tasks and solve problems (Bolhuis, 2003; Candy, 1991); 
• (c) monitoring and adjusting personal learning as needed (Butler & Winne, 1995; Garrison, 1997); and 
• (d) determining ways in which personal performance should be improved (Bolhuis, 2003; Van Merriënboer & Sluijsmans, 2009).

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TEACH ME HOW TO LEARN: PRINCIPLES FOR FOSTERING STUDENTS’ SELF-DIRECTED LEARNING SKILLS 

Gregory M. Francom

In a world of rapidly changing careers and practices, adequate career and life preparation means more than the acquisition of a fixed body of knowledge. Teachers in formal education need to provide learning experiences that foster students’ self-directed learning skills. A review of the self-directed and selfregulated learning literature reveals four main prescriptive principles for fostering students self-directed learning skills in formal education: (a) Match the level of self-directed learning required in learning activities to student readiness; (b) progress from teacher to student direction of learning over time; (c) support the acquisition of subject matter knowledge and self-directed learning skills together; and (d) have students practice self-directed learning in the context of learning tasks. It is hoped that these principles can guide the design of teaching and learning activities in educational settings.