세상을 바꾼 자기주도적 학습자들 (IJSDL, 2009)

세상을 바꾼 자기주도적 학습자들 (IJSDL, 2009)

SELF-DIRECTED LEARNERS CHANGE OUR WORLD: SDL AS A FORCE FOR INNOVATION, DISCOVERY, AND SOCIAL CHANGE

Lucy Guglielmino, Elizabeth Gray, Kim_Le Arvary, Joe Asen, Donna Goldstein, Fran Kamin, Monica Nicoll, Nancy Patrick, Krista Shellabarger, Deborah Snowberger

Committed, innovative, persistent self-directed learners, in their searches for meaning, justice, or better ways to do things in their own lives, sometimes pursue paths that contribute to advances in knowledge or technology or a more equitable, charitable, or just society....Our societies move forward through the efforts of dedicated self-directed learners. (Guglielmino, 2008, pp. 9-10).

Relationships of SDL with Performance, Leadership Level, and Entrepreneurship

• Performance
• Leadership Level
• Entrepreneurship
• Other Notable Correlations with Readiness for Self-Directed Learning

Many other characteristics associated with innovation have been found to correlate strongly with SDLRS scores; for example: 

• independent mastery (r = .56; p < .001), 
• independent judgment (r = .54; p < .001), 
• intrinsic orientation (r = .64; p < .001), and 
• curiosity for learning (r = .79; p <. 001) (Posner, 1991); 
• conscientiousness (r = .61; p < .001) (Oliviera and Simões, 2006); 
• emotional intelligence (r = .59, p <.01) (Muller, 2007); 
• strategic thinking (r = .58, p <.001) (Zsiga, 2007); 
• cross-cultural adaptabilty (r = .69, p <.001) (Chuprina & Durr, 2006); and 
• resilience (r = .61; p < .001) (Robinson, 2003), to name a few. 

Moderate correlations have been reported with 

• creativity and 
• flexibility (Cox, 2002; Torrance & Mourad, 1978).

THE INNOVATORS

Susan B. Anthony (1820-1906). 

A prominent abolitionist, educational reformer, labor activist, temperance worker, and a campaigner for women rights, she organized the International Council of Women in 1888 and the International Woman Suffrage Alliance in 1904. Although she did not live to see the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment in 1920, her 45 years of crossing the U.S. giving speeches in support of women's rights are credited with paving the way for its passage (Lutz, 1959; Susan B. Anthony House, 2009).

George Washington Carver (1864-1943). 

Born a slave, he was taught to read by his former owners. His insatiable curiosity, determination to continue his education, and self-taught knowledge of plants ultimately led to a position as the first Black student and first Black faculty member at Iowa State University, and two honorary doctorates. Although gifted in music, he chose to pursue a career in which he could assist poor farmers. He made many contributions to agricultural improvement and rural economic development, and was hailed as the man who saved the South from poverty. He was one of 100 nominees for ―The Greatest American‖ in 2005 (Fishbein, 2007; Jackson, D., & Jackson, N., 2008).

Marie Curie (1867-1934). 

Curie determinedly pursued her education and her research throughout her life despite facing double prejudice, as a woman and a Polish national when Russia controlled Poland. With other Polish youth, she formed a secret school in which the students studied on their own and then met to teach each other what they had learned. After much hardship, Curie discovered radium and polonium, changing the way we think about matter and leading to many medical advances. She was the first woman to earn a doctorate in France, the first female professor at the Sorbonne, the first person to win more than one Nobel Prize (American Institute of Physics, 2000; Quinn, 1995).

Vicktor Frankl (1905-1997). 

As a young man, Frankl initiated correspondence with Freud and Adler to share and refine ideas. After years of thought and experimentation, he created a new form of psychotherapy, logotherapy and existential analysis, described in one of his 32 books, Man's Search for Meaning. Imprisoned in the German concentration camps in World War II, he counseled and assisted others in the midst of his own abuse and near- starvation, helping them find comfort in their mental and spiritual lives. An avid learner in many aspects of his life, he learned to fly at 67 and was an active mountain climber until he died at 92 (Frankl, 1963; Frankl, 2000).

Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790). 

Almost an icon of self-directed learning, Franklin was born poor, one of 17 children. Dropping out of school at age 10 to assist in his father's soap- boiling business, he was soon apprenticed to his brother James, a printer, because he loved to read. He became one of the most learned men of his time, speaking six languages, writing many essays and his well-known Poor Richard's Almanack, co-owning and publishing The Pennsylvania Gazette, and founding the University of Pennsylvania. He also co-founded the nation's first subscription library and the American Philosophical Society, the first learned society in the U. S. He was instrumental in the formation of the United States, participating in Continental Congress, working as one of the committee of five who wrote the Declaration of Independence, and participating in the Constitutional Convention. Throughout his life he strove for self-improvement and the improvement of society. His last public act was the publication of an anti-slavery treatise (Franklin, 1793; Independence Hall Association, 2009).

Bill Gates (1955- ). 

Chairman and co-founder of Microsoft, Gates was the world’s wealthiest person in 2009. One of the best-known entrepreneurs in the technology industry, Gates wrote his first computer program when he was 13. In middle school, he was called into the principal's office for using up all of the school's computer time in just a few weeks. Although he began working toward a law degree at Harvard, he often slept through classes because he had been working on the computer all night. He left before finishing his degree to found Microsoft Corporation with Paul Allen in 1975. A billionaire by age 31, Gates has created the largest transparently owned charitable foundation in the world, the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, which funds research in health and learning and works to bring innovations in these fields to the global community (Lowe, 1998; Wallace, 1992).

Sarah Grimke (1792-1873) and Angelina Grimke (1805-1879). 

Sarah and Angelina Grimke were the first women to speak publicly against slavery in the United States. Unable to bear the injustice they witnessed as young children, they developed an early hatred of a system that allowed the mistreatment of slaves. They left a wealthy and indulgent lifestyle as daughters of a South Carolina Supreme Court judge to join the Society of Friends and fight for abolition. Though it was considered inappropriate for women to speak or write publicly, and they faced violent public criticism and accusations that they were defaming the female character by defying that convention, they persisted. Realizing that the attempts to bar them from speaking and writing for a cause they believed in because of their gender also demanded action, they began to argue for women's rights as well. Angelina was the first woman to address a state legislature (Massachusetts, 1838), and both women wrote eloquently against slavery. Sarah wrote the first published document of the women's rights movement, Letters on the Equality of the Sexes, a carefully reasoned 132-page Biblical argument for the equality of women, ten years before the Seneca Falls Convention that most mark as the beginning of the women's rights movement in the United States. Through

Dean Kamen (1951- ). 

As a youth, Dean Kamen did not consider himself smart; but, inspired by the story of David and Goliath, he began to realize that difficult problems could often be solved with a simple solution. He began work on his initial inventions in high school, developing a medication delivery system in his parents' garage. Although he enrolled in a technical college, he did not attend class, but made extensive use of the laboratories and equipment. The individual who was described by his teachers as stubborn and relentless now holds over 400 patents, including the Segway Human Transporter, the portable kidney dialysis machine, a wheelchair that climbs stairs, and a mind-controlled robotic arm used by veterans who have lost limbs. Most of his inventions are inspired by his desire to better conditions for those in need. He founded FIRST (For Inspiration and Recognition in Science and Technology), which motivates thousands of students annually to pursue worthy projects in science and technology (Kamen & Walsh, 2007; Kemper, 2003).

Konosuke Matsushita (1894-1989). 

Founder of Panasonic Corporation, Matsushita was born into a Japanese farming family that became suddenly impoverished. Their extreme poverty and malnutrition led to sickness, and his parents and five siblings were all dead by the time he was 30. Apprenticed at 9 to a seller of charcoal hibachis, he learned some fundamentals of business. Humble, frugal, and hard-working, he found himself another job at 10 and gradually accumulated some resources. In the early 1900's he founded Matsushita Electric with the corporate mission of relieving people in poverty by producing appliances that would improve their lives (heaters and rice cookers to replace open fires, electric lights to replace candles). He became one of the world’s most wealthy entrepreneurs through his vision to create a society that is both spiritually rich and materially affluent. He founded two learning institutions: the Peace and Happiness Through Prosperity Institute, designed to prevent Japan from ever engaging in another World War, and the Matsushita Institute of Government and Management. Active in his own learning as well as in educational and philanthropic efforts until his death at 94, he is regarded as one of Japan's national heroes (Kotter, 1997; Matsushita, 1994).

Rigoberta Menchú Tum (1959- ). 

Born in Guatemala as a member of the oppressed indigenous Quiche-Mayan ethnic group, she experienced the brutal attacks on her people during Guatemalan Civil War (1960-1996). At an early age, she became a social activist against the abuses and learned other Guatemalan dialects and Spanish in order to be a better spokesperson. In defense of their people, the Menchú-Tum family experienced great loss: Rigoberta's mother, father, and brothers were tortured and killed by Guatemalan government forces. Escaping to Mexico, she dedicated her life to bringing attention and justice to the brutality occurring in her country. In 1983 she told her story to Elisabeth Burgos Debray, who assisted with her autobiography, “I, Rigoberta Menchú.” It was translated into 12 languages and gained international attention for her cause. Through her complaints filed in the Spanish courts, she had several members of the Guatemalan government removed and prosecuted. Winner of the Nobel Peace Prize in 1992 and co- founder of the Nobel Women's Initiative in 2006, she continues her advocacy for the rights of women and indigenous people (Burgos-Debray, 1984: Nobelprize.org, 2009a).

Georges Seurat (1859-1891). 

After studying at the Ecole des Beaux Arts for two years, Seurat left without graduating. At 21, he returned to Paris to pursue his painting. In his short (11-year) career, he studied color theory, the effects of different linear structures, and the use of color to create harmony and emotion; developing the style of painting called pointillism, in which small dots or points of primary colors create a picture. Because of this innovation, he has been called the father of neoimpressionism. In less than eleven years, Seurat created over 500 works of art, including 7 major paintings, 40 smaller paintings, and over 500 drawings. (Schapiro & Sahlman, 2007; Olga’s Gallery, 2002). Wangari’s Maathai (1940- ). Born in a rural village in Kenya in 1940, from her childhood she witnessed destruction of the land, wildlife, and the human spirit in her country. She pursued education and knowledge as a means out of poverty, to serve her community, to re- establish a balance in nature and to restore pride in her country. Overcoming intense adversity – wars, political imprisonment, and persecution – she became an environmental and political activist, pursuing women’s rights, environmental and wildlife conservation, and sustainable living. After founding the Green Belt Movement, which, through networks of rural women, has planted over thirty million trees across Kenya since 1977, she was elected to Kenya’s Parliament in 2002. In 2003 she was appointed assistant minister for the environment, and in 2004 she became the first African woman to receive the Nobel Peace Prize for ―her contribution to sustainable development, democracy and peace‖ (Nobelprize.org, 2009b; Maathai, 2006).

FINDINGS

혁신가들의 학습과정

Learning Processes of Innovators

The systematic needs analysis and planning for self-directed learning described generically by Knowles (1975) and Tough (1971, 1979) and specifically by Long (1989) and Cavaliere (1990) were evident in each of the innovators studied. The work of Kamen, Curie, Gates, and Carver as they systematically pursued experimentation and discovery over many years are among the best examples of needs analysis, planning, reflecting, and reframing. 

Each of these innovators followed a process similar to the steps derived by Cavaliere (1990) from her study of the Wright brothers' learning endeavor that led to the invention of the airplane: inquiring, modeling, experimenting and practicing, theorizing and perfecting, and actualizing. Others followed a differently focused, but consistent, learning process in order to reach their goals. Examples include Rigoberta Menchu Tum's efforts to learn several other Mayan dialects besides her own as well as Spanish in order to be more effective in organizing her people against the violence they were experiencing; Frankl's dedicated study of psychotherapy, experimentation, and regular correspondence with Freud and Adler as he searched for a more effective approach to counseling; and the concentrated efforts of Angelina Grimke after she decided to prepare herself to be a teacher:

혁신가의 특성

Characteristics of Innovators

The six central commonalities identified from the researchers' independent listing of predominant characteristics of the innovators studied were 

• knowledge-seeking; 
• strong purpose, goal, vision, or passion; 
• independence and self-reliance; 
• ability to overcome obstacles; 
• ambition and self-motivation; and 
• social responsibility and altruism.

지식의 탐구

Seeking Knowledge

Descriptors included phrases such as early interest in learning, curiosity, love of learning, lifelong learning, took responsibility for own learning, self- taught, sought freedom to learn and/or freedom in learning, and sought continuous growth and improvement.

• Gates: ― I’m not an educator but I am a learner. And one of the things that I like best about my job is that I’m surrounded by other people that love to learn‖ (Lowe, 1998, p. 43). 
• Sarah Grimke: Her bright, active mind eagerly reach[ed] after the kind of knowledge which in those days was considered food too strong for the intellect of a girl.... She begged hard to be permitted to study Latin, [law, and philosophy] and began to do so in private, but her parents and brother opposed it. (Birney, 1885, p. 4.)

강력한 목적, 비전, 열정

Focused on a Strong Purpose, Goal, Vision, or Passion

Many also expressed discontentment with the current state of affairs and a desire to change things for the better;

• Angelina Grimke: ―If only I could be the means of exposing the injustice that was practised in the institution of oppression [slavery], . . .this idea . . . reconcile[s] me to suffer

독립성, 자립성, 위험감수

Displaying Independence/Self-Reliance/Risk-Taking 

Descriptors for this category included independent in thinking and learning, abstract thinking outside the norm, self-reliant, risk taker, and unconventional.

• Anthony: In 1872, Susan demanded that women be given the same civil and political rights that had been extended to black males under the 14th and 15th amendments. Thus, she led a group of women to the polls in Rochester to test the right of women to vote. She was arrested two weeks later…. (Litt, n.d., p. 1) 
• Kamen: Taking risks is essential....I quit school...and started a company in a basement with no money. I discovered that I'm a risk taker. I get up in the morning knowing that I'm either going to have a spectacular win or loss that is going to be exciting...either is more appealing than the warm death of mediocrity. (Kamen & Walsh, 2007, p. 68)

고난의 극복

Overcoming Obstacles or Hardships

There was ample evidence that the innovators studied perceived obstacles as merely challenges. Not to be deterred by difficult or seemingly impossible obstacles, they displayed perseverance, persistence, and resilience in the pursuit of the learning needed to achieve their goals,

• Tum: Refusing to acknowledge the accepted power distance that allowed the subjugation of women and her ethnic group in Guatemala, Rigoberta Menchu Tum rose from a poorly educated member of a persecuted minority group to an international figure who achieved some measure of justice for her people through the courts of Spain (Burgos-Debray, 1984). 
• Carver: Born a slave and orphaned as an infant, Carver was very frail throughout his youth due to whooping cough; wandering in the fields because he was too weak to work, he began to teach himself about plants. Taught to read by his owner's wife, he persistently sought further education, leaving his safe existence to find a school that would admit him and doing whatever work he could find to support himself while he studied (Fishbein, 2007). 
• Frankl: He survived the concentration camps in 1942, helped countless others to endure the torture, and found new meaning in suffering. Reflecting his own means of survival in the camps, he wrote, if

야망/주도성/자기동기부여

Demonstrating Ambition/Drive/Self-Motivation

The innovators all displayed ambition, drive, and self-motivation, but not necessarily focused on their own gain. In fact, several placed themselves in great personal danger to pursue the objectives they hoped to achieve.

• Matsushita: From a penniless boy working in a bicycle shop, he went on to start his own company at 23. In 1964 was hailed internationally as one of the greatest industrialists of the century and one of the richest men in the world-- and used his money to further his goals of peace and prosperity for his people (Kotter, 1997). 
• Sarah Grimke: As a child of four, she witnessed the beating of a neighbor's slave and ran away from home; she was later found at the port asking a ship captain to take her to some (Lerner, 1971, p. 19). Her strong commitment to end slavery began in childhood incidents such as these and continued as she defied her father and persisted in treating the slave assigned to her as a companion and teaching her to read illegally. When she could no longer live in a household that held slaves, she abandoned home and family and began her influential work for abolition in earnest. For her inheritance, she asked only for the family slaves, whom she immediately released (Lerner, 1971).

사회적 책무감/이타성

Demonstrating Social Responsibility/Altruistic

Many of the innovators displayed a strong sense of social responsibility and a deep commitment to the betterment of society.

• Curie: You cannot hope to build a better world without improving the individuals. To that end each of us must work for his own improvement, and at the same time, share a general responsibility for all humanity" (American Institute of Physics, 2000, p. 187).
• Franklin: His ―Junto‖ discussed the needs of the community and how to meet them. Franklin initiated the public library, American Philosophical Society, University of Pennsylvania, and a charity hospital. He strove for self-improvement and the improvement of his society (Independence Hall Association, 2009).
• Carver: "He could have added fortune to fame, but caring for neither, he found happiness and honor in being helpful to the world." - Epitaph on the grave of George Washington Carver (Bellis, n.d, p. 3).

CONCLUSIONS

• 방대한 자기주도적학습이 혁신가들의 성취와 사회적 기여에 핵심적이었다.
  The extensive self-directed learning of the innovators studied was integral to the achievement of their contributions to society.

• 이 혁신가들은, 거의 예외 없이, 자신의 발전을 위해서만이 아니라, 사회적 발전을 위한 학습을 했다.
  The innovators, almost without exception, pursued their learning not simply for personal advancement, but also, and often primarily, for the betterment of society.

The examination of the role of self-directed learning in the accomplishments of the innovators supports Brookfield's (1993) defense of SDL as a tool that can lead to emancipatory change. A few additional quotes are offered to support this important conclusion:

• Success, like happiness, cannot be pursued; it must ensue, and it only does so as the unintended side-effect of one's personal dedication to a cause greater than oneself. . . . (Frankl, 1963, p. 16) 
• We can work together for a better world. . . .The world needs a global ethic. . . [to] give meaning to life experiences and . . .sustain the non-material dimension of humanity. . . .Those of us who have been privileged to receive education, skills, and experiences and even power must be role models for the next generation of leadership. (Nobelprize.org, 2009b, p. 1)

• 고립된, 비사교적, 자기주도학습에 대한 신화는 틀렸다.
  The myth of the single, non-social, self-directed learner is not supported by this research, verifying Brockett and Hiemstra's (1991) comments.

• 다양한 연령/경제/교육/사회/인종/민족 배경
  The findings of this study affirm the presence of self-direction in learning among persons representing a wide range of age groups and economic, educational, social, racial, and ethnic backgrounds.

연구의 함의

IMPLICATIONS

공식 교육기관의 학생들에게 학습이란 지루한 재미없는 단순 지식의 암기와 다른 사람이 설정한 목표 달성에 요구되는 과제를 하는 것이다. 이러한 신드롬은 학교에서 책임만을 강조하고 표준화된 시험을 사용하면서 더 그렇게 되고 있다.
The broader view of self-direction in learning gained from examination of the innovators in this study provides an even stronger rationale for the nurturance of self-direction in learning--not only in our educational institutions, but also in our organizations and our homes. For too many students in formal educational institutions, learning is equated with routine, unexciting memorization of facts and completion of imposed tasks designed to move them toward goals set by others. This syndrome is becoming ever more evident as many of our schools are increasingly focused on accountability, with achievement measured by standardized tests (Soublis-Smyth, 2008). It is an approach to education that develops conformity, passivity, and boredom. 

학교가 시험에 집중할수록 교육과정은 더 협소해진다. 미술, 음악, 봉사활동과 같은 내용은 없어진다. 개개인이 선택한 것을 추구할 기회도 사라진다. 수많은 혁신가들이 공식 교육과정에서 탈락하고 마치 문제아처럼 평가받은 것은 어쩌면 당연한 것인지도 모른다.

As the schools become more test-focused, the curriculum narrows; and activities such as art, music, and community service projects that contribute to wholeness, social awareness and responsibility are eliminated. The exercise of individual choice and the opportunity to pursue projects of personal choice are lessened. It is notable that a number of the innovators studied dropped out of formal educational programs or were viewed as troublesome students, congruent with the findings of the study of self-taught experts conducted by Gibbons and others (Gibbons, Bailey, Comeau, Schmuck, Seymour, & Wallace, 1980).

중요한 것은 균형이다.

What is needed is a balance. Encouraging self-direction does not mean ignoring accountability. Just as self-direction in learning exists along a continuum in each individual, each learning experience offers different levels of opportunity for self-direction (Guglielmino, L., 1978, Brockett & Hiemstra, 1991). Learners benefit greatly from a content base on which to build, but if we allow the learning of content to crowd out time for reflection on learning and exploration of individually-selected topics that create excitement about learning and build skills and attitudes that will support lifelong learning, we will do a disservice to our learners and our cultures.

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INFLUENCES ON TEACHER PROFESSIONAL GROWTH: SELF-DIRECTED LEARNING AND TEACHER EFFICACY

Barry Rowe

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SELF-DIRECTED LEARNERS CHANGE OUR WORLD: SDL AS A FORCE FOR INNOVATION, DISCOVERY, AND SOCIAL CHANGE

Lucy Guglielmino, Elizabeth Gray, Kim_Le Arvary, Joe Asen, Donna Goldstein, Fran Kamin, Monica Nicoll, Nancy Patrick, Krista Shellabarger, Deborah Snowberger

Committed, innovative, persistent self-directed learners, in their searches for meaning, justice, or better ways to do things in their own lives, sometimes pursue paths that contribute to advances in knowledge or technology or a more equitable, charitable, or just society....Our societies move forward through the efforts of dedicated self-directed learners. (Guglielmino, 2008, pp. 9-10).

This paper further explores the thesis that society advances through the efforts of self-directed learners. The thesis is investigated through examination of biographies and other written documentation of innovators--explorers, scientists, inventors, and social activists who changed our world, often pursuing their goals despite adverse circumstances. The authors reviewed the gathered data for evidence of self-direction in learning (SDL), extracted commonalities, and compared the characteristics and actions of the innovators with those commonly attributed to self-directed learners. The research documented extensive evidence of SDL among the innovators and revealed that their SDL was integral to their achievements. Evidence contrary to many of the myths surrounding SDL was reflected in these innovators, the most important being a strong sense of social responsibility and desire to contribute to the well-being of others that drove many of their self-directed learning efforts.