대학원생의 학습 프로젝트: Tough의 연구 업데이트 (IJSDL, 2010)

대학원생의 학습 프로젝트: Tough의 연구 업데이트 (IJSDL, 2010)

LEARNING PROJECTS OF GRADUATE STUDENTS: AN UPDATE OF TOUGH’S STUDY

C. Amelia Davis, Carrie Bailey, Mary Nypaver, Tracy Rees, and Ralph G. Brockett

Allen Tough의 기념비적 출판물인 The Adult’s Learning Projects study (1971)가 나온지 40년이 지났다. 오늘날, 많은 성인들이 그들이 일년에 수행하는 학습프로젝트의 수가 몇 개나 되는지 모르고 있다. 다양한 프로젝트에 관여하고 있다는 것을 인식하는 것은 자기성찰을 통해서만 가능하다. Tough의 연구는 성인들은 매년 엄청난 시간을 주요 학습 노력에 기울이고 있음을 보여주었다. Tough는 일반적인 learning effort에는 100시간이 필요하며, 매년 다섯 개를 수행한다고 했다. 약 70%정도의 프로젝트는 학습자가 기획한다. 이 연구는 여러 번 반복되었고 대체로 Tough의 결과를 지지한다.

It has been four decades since the publication of Allen Tough’s seminal The Adult’s Learning Projects study (1971). Today, many adults continue to not realize the number of learning projects they undertake in a typical year. It is only through a process of prompting reflection that they become aware of their involvement in a multitude of projects. Tough’s study showed that adults spend a remarkable amount of time each year on major learning efforts. Tough (1978) realized that a typical learning effort requires 100 hours with the typical adult conducting five of them each year. Nearly 70% of these projects are planned by the learners, themselves. Numerous replications of this research with diverse samples since the original study have largely supported Tough’s findings.

자기주도학습과 학습프로젝트

SELF-DIRECTED LEARNING AND LEARNING PROJECTS

SDL의 정의. 

Self-directed learning (SDL) refers to an educational process in which learners have the primary responsibility for their own educational experiences (Knowles, 1975). It is considered a learning practice in which an individual takes the initiative in identifying learning needs, preparing goals, determining resources, and evaluating outcomes (Ellinger, 2004). SDL has been identified as an approach to knowledge that relies on a person being both responsible for and able to be self-directed in their own learning.

Knowles의 정의. Knowles에 따르면 SDL은 학습자가 가장 관심을 가지는 부분은 교육방법을 활용하여 정보를 효과적으로 찾고 처리하여 학습을 촉진하는 것이라는 개념에 기초하고 있다. 그는 성인학습자는 자기주도성을 충분히 가지며, SDL은 성인학습의 주된 요소라고 하였다. Knowles는 Andragogy의 개념을 도입하였고, 이것을 "성인의 학습을 돕는 과학과 기술"이라고 정의하엿다. Knowles의 주요 가정 중 하나는 개인은 성장해감에 따라 빠르게 자기주도적이 된다는 것이다.

Knowles (1975) described SDL as a process initiated by the individual with or without the help of others to diagnose learning needs, formulate goals, identify resources, select and implement strategies, and evaluate outcomes. According to Knowles, SDL is based on the concept that it is in a learner’s best interest to utilize educational methods that encourage the ability to seek and process information effectively in promoting learning. He believed adults have a strong sense of self-direction and that SDL was a major component of adult learning. Knowles introduced the concept of andragogy, which he defined as “the art and science of helping adults learn” (Knowles, 1980, p. 43). One of Knowles’ major assumptions was that as individuals mature they become increasingly self-directed.

성인의 SDL을 더 잘 이해하기 위한 시도로서 Tough는 학습을 '학습을 위한 의도적, 비공식적 노력으로서, 학습자가 계획하고 통제하는 것' 이라고 했다. 어떤 학습프로젝트는 새로운 지식, 통찰, 이해를 얻기 위한 것이고, 다른 것은 개인의 기술을 향상시키기 위한 것이다. Tough는 성인의 학습을 시간간격을 둔 일련의 교육경험이라고 묘사하기도 했는데, '지속적 학습 노력(프로젝트)'라고 할 수 있는 것으로 최소 '7시간'을 언급했다. 서로 연관된 학습경험들이 모여서 학습 프로젝트를 이룰 수도 있다. 1971년 연구에서 Tough는 공식 교육은 성인들의 학습노력에 매우 작은 부분만을 차지한다고 말하며, 대부분의 학습은 성인의 독립적 노력에 의한 것이라고 했다.

As noted earlier, one of the first attempts to better understand SDL in adults was made by Tough (1971) as he described learning as an intentional, non-formal effort to learn that is planned and controlled by the learner. Some learning projects are efforts to gain new knowledge, insight, or understanding, while others are deliberate attempts to improve one’s skill performance. Tough continues to describe learning by adults as a series of educational experiences of varying time intervals. He established a time minimum of seven hours to help define what he referred to as a sustained learning project or effort. Related learning episodes taken together could also constitute a learning project. Through the 1971 study, Tough concluded that formal education was a small portion of learning efforts initiated by adults, and that the majority of learning is a result of adults’ independent efforts.

Tough의 원 연구에 기반하여 수많은 연구가 반복되었다.

Building on Tough’s original study, numerous researchers replicated the learning projects interview protocol.

많은 부분 Tough의 원 결과를 지지한다.

For the most part, this research supported Tough’s original finding that nearly all adults participate in some form of learning project during the course of a year, and that about 70% of these projects are self-planned.

여러 반복적 연구로 학습프로젝트의 빈도와 특성을 밝힌 뒤, 연구의 방향은 학습프로젝트 방법론으로 옮겨갔다. 1990년대 두 개 연구가 있다. Clardy는 직업 관련 학습프로젝트를 연구하여서 세 종류의 학습프로젝트가 있음을 밝혔다. 

• (a) 유도된 induced 
• (b) 협력적 synergistic
• (c) 자발적 voluntary 

Once the frequency and nature of learning projects was established through many replications with a wide range of samples and settings, SDL research began to move in new directions and away from the learning projects methodology. Thus, by the mid-1980s, only a very limited number of learning projects studies was being conducted. In the 1990s, two studies were published that built on the learning projects approach. Clardy (1992, 2000) examined the vocation-related learning projects of 56 adults working in service organizations. Using grounded theory, he identified three types of learning projects: (a) induced, (b) synergistic, and (c) voluntary. 

Livingstone은 1562명의 캐나다 성인을 전화로 접촉하였다. 이 연구의 주 결과는 "대부분의 성인의 개인적/집단적 학습은 빙산에 비유할 수 있다. 표면적으로는 잘 관찰되지 않으며, 대부분이 비형식적(informal) 측면에 숨어있다"이다.

Livingstone (1999) developed an interview schedule that was heavily influenced by, but different from, Tough’s approach. Conducted as part of the New Approaches to Lifelong Learning (NALL) research network, 1,562 Canadian adults were contacted by telephone about their informal learning activities. The major findings from this study confirmed earlier research that “most adults’ individual and collective learning is comparable to an iceberg – mostly invisible at the surface and immense in it’s mostly submerged informal aspects” (p. 18).

RESEARCH QUESTIONS

In this exploratory study, we define learning project using Tough’s (1971) definition: “A series of related episodes, adding up to at least seven hours [in which] at least half of the learner’s time is to gain and retain a certain knowledge and skill” (p. 7).

자료 수집

Data Collection

7시간에 대한 Tough의 근거는 '하루 근무시간'이었고, 따라서 8시간으로 증가시킴. 

Closely following Tough’s (1971) understanding that time is an integral part of any deliberate learning effort or project, information regarding the number of hours spent on each project was collected. Tough chose seven hours as the minimum number for a learning project in the 1971 study because “a seven hour period is equivalent to one work day” (p. 14). For this project, that minimum number was increased to eight hours, which was deemed by the researchers as currently equivalent to one working day. Projects described as involving more than eight hours were followed up with a series of probing questions and multiple choice questions to better understand what was involved.

Clardy, A. (2000). Learning on their own: Vocationally oriented self-directed learning projects. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 11(2), 105-125.

Livingstone, D. W. (1999). Exploring the icebergs of adult learning: Findings of the first Canadian survey of informal learning practices. Ottawa, Ontario: Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada. (ERIC Document Reproduction Services No. 436 651).

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LEARNING PROJECTS OF GRADUATE STUDENTS: AN UPDATE OF TOUGH’S STUDY

C. Amelia Davis, Carrie Bailey, Mary Nypaver, Tracy Rees, and Ralph G. Brockett

There have been many changes in self-directed adult learning since Tough’s (1971) original study of adults’ learning projects. In an effort to understand the influence of the changes that have taken place over the past four decades, this study’s purpose was to revisit the learning project concept using an updated interview schedule reflecting changes in the area of technology. A pilot study of 40 graduate students was conducted using this updated version of the schedule. Study participants were found to be engaged in a variety of learning projects both within and outside of their academic studies. While the individual learner was the most frequently identified planner, the percentage of self-planned projects was lower than found in previous studies.