자기주도학습성과 문화와 경제 지표와 관련성(IJSDL, 2011)

자기주도학습성과 문화와 경제 지표와 관련성(IJSDL, 2011)

An Exploration of Cultural Dimensions and Economic Indicators As Predictors of Self-Directed Learning Readiness

Paul J. Guglielmino and Lucy M. Guglielmino

국제적 차원에서, 유네스코는 "Revisiting Lifelong Learning for the 21st Century" 보고서를 발간하였다. 이렇게 주장한다.

At the global level, Revisiting Lifelong Learning for the 21st Century, a publication of the UNESCO Institute for Education (Medel-Añonuevo, Ohsako, & Mauch, 2001), asserts:

ICT가 우리의 사회에 점점 더 파고들수록, 개개인의 학습에 대한 역할이 더 강조된다. 국제화로 인해서 새로운 기술과 역량의 습득은 더욱 더 중요해졌다. 오늘날, 불과 5년전과 비교해도 같은 삶과 직무스킬을 가지는 것 만으로는 충분하지 못하다. 학습하는 법을 학습하는 것, 문제해결법을 익히는 것, 비판적 이해와 예측학습 등은 모든 사람에게 요구되는 역량 중 아주 일부에 해당할 뿐이다. 우리는 여전히 향후 20년간 이뤄질 무역과 직업 중 60%에 대해서 전혀 모른다.

As information and communication technologies (ICTs) permeate our societies and communities, the role of the individual learner is highlighted. Globalization has produced outcomes and processes which make the learning of new skills and competencies of paramount importance. Today it is no longer enough to have the same living and working skills one had five years ago. Learning to learn, problem solving, critical understanding and anticipatory learning - these are only a few of the core skills and competencies needed for all, at a time when 60% of trades and jobs to be performed in the next two decades or so are not yet known. (p. i)

이 분석에서는 또한 다음과 같이 말한다.

The analysis also notes, 

평생학습은 근래 점점 더 개개인에게 초점을 맞추고 있다. 학습자의 평생학습 책임을 강조하는 것은 더 많은 주체성(agency)를 개개인에 부여하는 것이며, 이는 구조나 기관에게 책임을 맡기는 평생교육과는 상반된다.

“…Lifelong learning as it is presently promoted has become more individual-oriented…. The emphasis of lifelong learning on the learner could be interpreted as assigning more agency to individuals in contrast to lifelong education’s thrust on structures and institutions” (p. 4). 

개개인이 자신의 학습에 더 책임을 져야 한다는 것은 EU의 보고서에서 더 강조되고 있으며, 경제적 성장과도 명백한 관련이 있다.

The recognition of the need for individuals to assume more responsibility for their own learning is even more pronounced in the work of the European Union (European Commission, 2006) and is more explicitly linked to economic well-being.

연구의 목적

The purpose of this study was to determine whether the self-directed learning readiness of country samples could be predicted by Hofstede’s cultural dimensions scores for power distance (PD) or individualism (IN) or by the economic indicators of gross national income per capita (GNIPC) or gross domestic product per capita (GDPPC).

평가도구

Instruments and Assessments

국가 문화에 대한 호프스테드 척도

Hofstede’s Dimensions of National Cultures.

국가를 분류하는 네 가지 기준이 있다.

The values that distinguished countries (rather than individuals) from each other grouped statistically into four clusters. These became the Hofstede dimensions of national culture: 

• Power Distance, 
• Uncertainty Avoidance, 
• Individualism versus Collectivism, and 
• Masculinity versus Femininity. 

Between 1990 and 2002, these dimensions were largely replicated in six other cross-national studies on very different populations from consumers to airline pilots. (Hofstede, 2011, p.1)

Power Distance. 권력에서 낮은 위치에 있는 사람이 권력이 불균등하게 분포되어있다고 생각하는 정도. PD가 높은 나라에서는 지도자 뿐 아니라 일반인들도 불평등이 심하다고 생각한다.

Power distance refers to the extent to which the less powerful members of organizations and institutions accept and expect that power is distributed unequally. In cultures with a high level of power distance, the society's level of inequality is endorsed by the followers as much as by the leaders.

Individualism. 집단주의에 반대되는 것으로서, 개개인이 그룹으로 통합되는 수준을 말한다. 

Individualism and its opposite, collectivism, represent the degree to which individuals are integrated into groups. 

• In highly individualist societies the ties between individuals are loose: everyone is expected to look after her/himself and her/his immediate family. 
• In collectivist societies, people are integrated from birth into strong, cohesive in-groups, often extended families that protect them in exchange for unquestioning loyalty. Collectivism in this dimension refers to the group, not the state; it has no political meaning.

SDLRS

The Self-Directed Learning Readiness Scale (SDLRS).

Developed by L. Guglielmino (1978), the SDLRS is a 58-item, Likert-type instrument designed to assess individual attitudes, values, skills, and personality characteristics supportive of self- direction in learning. The self-scoring form is called the Learning Preference Assessment (Guglielmino & Guglielmino, 1991).

신뢰도, 검사-재검사 계수

Reported reliability figures (Cronbach alpha) range from .72 to .94. Finestone (1984) and Wiley (1981) reported test-retest reliability coefficients of .82 and .79 respectively. Based on a population of 3,151 individuals from the United States and Canada, a split-half Pearson product moment correlation with a Spearman-Brown correction produced a reliability figure of .94 (Guglielmino & Guglielmino, 1991).

Data Sources

17개국, 7355명 대상

SDLRS mean scores were obtained from studies previously conducted in 17 countries. The original researchers collected data from 7,355 individuals. All of the subjects were adults in educational settings or in the workplace.

Results

Self-Directed Learning Readiness and Individualism

Self-Directed Learning Readiness and Power Distance

Self-Directed Learning Readiness and Income

Self-Directed Learning Readiness and Productivity

Conclusions and Discussion

문화와 자기주도학습성향

Cultural Dimensions and Self-Directed Learning Readiness

본 연구 대상자의 결과에 따르면, 개인주의와 권력거리는 SDLRS과 유의한 관계가 있다. 개인주의가 높은 경우 SDLRS가 더 높다. 자기와 자기 가족에 대한 책임이 높아지는 것이며, 더 큰 집단에서 자신을 보호해줄 것이라는 기대가 낮은 것이다. 

Based on the samples studied, there are significant predictive relationships between the cultural dimensions of Individualism and Power Distance and readiness for self-directed learning. As one might logically predict, countries with higher scores for Individualism have higher mean scores for self-directed learning readiness. It is natural that when individuals take the responsibility for providing for themselves and their immediate families and do not have a strong expectation that a larger reference group will aid and protect them, they are more likely to exhibit the characteristics associated with a high level of self-directed learning readiness.

호프스테드의 정의에 따르면, 개인주의는 이기적인 것을 나타내거나, 다른 사람을 희생시키는 것이 아니다. 그보다는 높은 개인주의는 더 큰 집단에 대한 충성을 조건으로 지원을 받기를 기대하기보다는 자신과 가족에 대한 책임을 인정하는 것이다. 사실, SDLRS에 높은 점수를 받은 일부 개인과 집단은 다른 사람을 돕는 것도 열심히 하는 것으로 나온다.

Based on Hofstede’s definitions, Individualism should not be seen as a selfish focus on oneself and one’s family at the expense of others; rather, high Individualism scores reflect an acceptance of responsibility for providing for oneself and one’s family without the expectation that some larger entity will provide support in return for allegiance. In fact, some of the individuals and groups with the highest recorded SDLRS scores are in positions devoted to helping others, as documented in Liddell’s (2007) research with heads of charitable foundations;

권력거리(PD)가 큰 나라에서는 SDLRS가 낮았다. 인구집단의 많은 사람들이 다른 사람보다 권력을 덜 가지고 있다고 생각하거나 이러한 권력의 불균등함을 인정하는 사람이 그것을 노력으로 바꿀 수 있다고 믿지 않는 것도 당연해보인다. 개인의 독립적 학습에 대한 동기가 낮아질 수 밖에 없다.

In contrast to the strong positive relationship with Individualism, in countries in which there is a large discrepancy in the power of various levels of society and those who are at lower levels accept and expect these power differences, the levels of readiness for self-directed learning are lower. It appears logical that if large portions of the population see themselves as having less power or status than others and either accept this unequal balance of power as the natural order of things that will never change or believe that they are unable to change it, regardless of the effort expended; their independent thought, initiative, and the drive for independent learning would be lessened.

SDLRS는 workplace performance나 higher levels of management와 연관되어 있으며, SDLRS가 높은 두 집단이 미국 사업가 혹은 여성CEO인 것에서 SDLRS가 국가의 경제지표와 연관된 것도 놀랍지는 않다.

Since levels of readiness for SDL have been found in previous studies to correlate with workplace performance (Durr, 1992; Guglielmino & Guglielmino, 1983, 2008; Hillard & Guglielmino, 2007; Oliveira, et al., 2010; Roberts, 1986, Zsiga, 2007) and higher levels of management (Durr, 1992; Liddell, 2007; Roberts, 1986) and two of the samples with the highest levels of readiness for SDL were top U.S. entrepreneurs (Guglielmino & Klatt, 1994) and top female corporate executives (Guglielmino, L., 1996), the strong relationship between self-directed learning readiness of country samples and economic indicators of those countries is not surprising.

다음과 같은 연구를 해 볼 필요가 있을 것이다. 국가적으로 현재 SDL을 촉진하고자 하는 한국이나 말레이시아에서 장기적으로 변화(문화, 경제지표)의 변화가 있을까?

Research to address the following question also appears to be merited: In countries where a national effort is currently being made to promote self-directed learning, such as Malaysia and Korea, can long-term changes in self-directed learning readiness of country samples, cultural values, or economic indicators be documented?

높은 SDLRS는 다음과 연관된다.

In addition, higher levels of self-directed learning readiness are not only associated with 

• positive personal characteristics or conditions such as life satisfaction (Brockett, 1982), 
• flexibility and creativity (Torrance & Mourad, 1978a, 1978b), 
• emotional intelligence (Muller, 2007); 
• on a country level, they are also very closely associated with higher levels of income and productivity.

Knowles는 30년 전에 이미 이렇게 말했다.

Malcolm Knowles (1975) presciently observed more than 30 years ago:

"왜" 자기주도학습이 필요하냐는 질문에 대한 답은 "생존"이다. 개인으로서의 생존, 인류의 생존. 우리가 말하는 것은 '하면 좋은 것' 또는 '바람직한 것'이 아니다. 우리는 아주 기초적인 인간의 역량 - 스스로 배울 수 있는 능력 - 에 대해 말하고 있고, 이 새로운 세계에서 어느 순간 필수적인 것이 된 그것이다.

The “why” of self-directed learning is survival—your own survival as an individual, and also the survival of the human race. Clearly, we are not talking here about something that would be nice or desirable….We are talking about a basic human competence—the ability to learn on one’s own—that has suddenly become a prerequisite for living in this new world. (pp. 16-17)

European Commission. (2006). Adult learning: It is never too late to learn. Brussels, Belgium: Commission of the European Communities.

European Commission on Education and Training. (2007). Key competences for lifelong learning: European reference framework. Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities. Retrieved from http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/education_culture/documents/publications/keycomp_lifetime_en.pdf

Medel-Añonuevo, C., Ohsako, T., & Mauch, W. (2001). Revisiting lifelong learning for the 21st century. Hamburg, Germany: UNESCO Institute for Education. Retrieved from http://www.unesco.org/education/uie/pdf/revisitingLLL.pdf

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An Exploration of Cultural Dimensions and Economic Indicators As Predictors of Self-Directed Learning Readiness

Paul J. Guglielmino and Lucy M. Guglielmino

This study explored Hofstede’s (2011) cultural dimensions scores for Power Distance and Individualism and the economic indices of gross national income per capita (GNIPC) and gross domestic product per capita (GDPPC) as possible predictors of self-directed learning readiness in 17 country samples. The predictive relationships were significant and exceeded Cohen’s (1992) criterion for a large effect size for each regression. The variance accounted for was also significant for each variable. The relationship with Power Distance was negative; the others were positive