기술을 활용한 자기주도성 함양(IJSDL, 2013)

기술을 활용한 자기주도성 함양(IJSDL, 2013)

FOSTERING TECHNOLOGY AND SELF-DIRECTION: THE IMPACT ON ADULTS IN EDUCATION, BUSINESS, AND EVERYDAY LIFE

Naomi Boyer, Jeffrey Beard, Lila Holt, Joanne Larsen, Janet Piskurich, and George Piskurich

기술의 발전보다 21세기에 더 빠르게 발전한 분야는 없을 것이다. 하나의 예를 들자면, 1996년에는 총 4개의 인터넷 연결이 있었다. 2013년, 매 초 80개의 연결이 추가되며, 2014년 동안에는 초당 100개의 연결이 추가된다. 

It would be difficult to identify an area in which change has been more omnipresent and rampant in the 21st century than in the all-important area of technology. Just one telling example: in 1996 there were a total of four (4) internet connections on the planet. In 2013, 80 connections per second are being added, with 100 connections per second expected during 2014. By 2020, projections indicate that the number of internet connections will reach 50 billion--from zero to 50 billion, all during half of a human lifetime.

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8세부터 18세까지의 2000명의 아이들을 대상으로 한 연구에서, 젊은 세대는 "미디어 멀티테스커"이다. 다양한 형태의 기술을 하루에 평균 7.5시간 이상 사용한다. 비록 연구가 젊은 세대에 맞춰져 있지만 가정에 그러한 최신기술이 존재하여 최소한 노년층도 이러한 기술에 노출되고 있다.

The findings, based on 2000 children from ages 8-18, are clear that young people today are “media multitaskers,” using various forms of technology an average of more than 7.5 hours per day. While the study focused on young people, the study reported an increase of technology presence in the home indicating adults are at least exposed, if not users, of these technologies.

최신 기술의 활용은 흥미와 필요에 의하지만 연령에 의해서 제한되지는 않는다. 많은 성인들이 필요가 생기면 기술에 적응한다. 최근의 보고서를 보면 71%이상의 성인이 일상적으로 인터넷을 활용하고 90%이상의 직장에서 이메일을 어떤 목적이든 사용한다. Horrigan은 성인들이 젊은 세대와 비슷한 속도로 - 특히 인터넷 접근에 대해서는 - 전자기기를 활용하고 있다고 보고했다.

It appears that technology use is primarily derived from interest and need and is not limited by chronological age (Horrigan, 2009). Many adults are required to use technology in the workplace and older adults often have to adapt to using technology as the need arises. Recent reports reveal that over 71% of adults use the Internet daily and over 90% of today’s workforce use email for some purpose (Rainie, 2010). Horrigan (2009) additionally discovered that adults are embracing the use of electronic devices at a rate comparable to young people - especially in relation to Internet access.

디지털 학습자

The Digital Learner

요즘 학생은 유치원부터 대학까지 컴퓨터 기술과 인터넷으로 가득찬 세상에서 자라왔다. 이 1980년대 이후 출생자들을 'Net Generation' 혹은 '디지털 네이티브'라고 부른다. Net Gen은 1980~1984년생을 지칭하며 약 9천만명에 달한다. Barnes Marateo, Ferris 등은 "이 세대는 디지털, 사이버 기술과 함께 자라난 첫 세대라는 점에서 특이하다"라고 했다. 

Most of today’s students (kindergarten to college) were raised in a world filled with computer technology and an Internet where information can be instantly obtained. This new generation of learners was born after 1980 and are commonly referred to as the Net Generation (Net Gen) or “digital natives” (Prensky, 2001). The Net Gen represents a population born between 1980 and 1994 and involves approximately 90 million people (Davidson & Goldberg, 2009; Johnson & Romanello, 2005; Notarianni, Curry-Lourenco, Barnham, & Palmer, 2009; Oblinger & Oblinger, 2005a; Sherman, 2006; Tapscott, 1998). Barnes, Marateo, and Ferris (2007) suggest that “[t]his generation is unique in that it is the first to grow up with digital and cyber technologies” (But Net Geners Learn Differently section, para. 3). Current college students have grown up in a digital world with the Internet and cell phones and communicate using various media options (Beyers, 2009; Davidson & Goldberg, 2009). These communication formats include texting, instant messaging, email, and social networking tools like Facebook and Twitter (Beyers, 2009; Horrigan, 2009; Lorenzo, Oblinger, & Dziuban, 2007).

미국 교육부의 직업 및 성인교육팀에 따르면 디지털 기술은 다음의 것을 포함해야 한다.

According to the U.S. Department of Education, Office of Vocational and Adult Education, digital technologies must be included: 

The use of digital technologies for learning both supports local efforts to educate adult learners and their teachers and extends educational opportunities to reach new groups of students. The thoughtful integration of digital technologies into the traditional scheme of education and their use to develop new ways of learning is necessary to ensure students have the tools to thrive in a complex and rapidly changing technological society. (Technology and Distance Learning, 2008)

자기주도학습

Self-Directed Learning 

많은 사람들이 SDL을 정의했다. 그리고 일부 정의는 '사람들이 자신이 바라는대로 정의하는 바람에 비뚫어졌'다. Owen은 이러한 SDL 정의의 왜곡을 "무계획적인 명명"이라고 말하며, 이 때문에 같은 개념을 다양한 이름으로 부르게 되었다고 했다. Carre는 20개 이상의 서로 다른 SDL에 대한 이름을 찾았고, Hiemstra는 200개 이상의 variation을 찾았다. 

Many have defined self-directed learning (SDL), and some of these definitions may have "been skewed by those who choose to define it as they wish" (Brookfield, 1986, p. 18). Owen (2002) attributes a distortion of the SDL definition to "haphazard nomenclature" (p. 1) leading to many names for the same general concept. Carré (1994) found well over 20 different names used for SDL, while Hiemstra (1996) discovered over 200 variations in conference proceedings. Self-direction in adult learning has been labeled as 

• self-teaching, 
• self-planned learning, 
• inquiry method, 
• independent learning, 
• selfeducation, 
• self-instruction, 
• self-study, 
• self-initiated learning, and 
• autonomous learning (Owen, 2002). 

이 모든 이름들은 '한 사람의 고립된 학습'이라는 인상을 주나 Knowles는 SDL은 주로 다양한 종류의 도우미(교사, 튜터, 멘토, 동료)와 함께 이뤄진다고 했다. SDL은 스스로의 학습의 방향을 정하는 개인과 그 과정에 포함되는 다른 사람들을 포함한다.

All of these labels give the impression of one person learning in isolation, whereas Knowles (1975) wrote that SDL usually takes place in association with various types of helpers such as teachers, tutors, mentors, and peers. SDL can involve an individual directing his or her own learning with other people involved in the process. 

어떤 사람들은 SDL을 자율학습이라고 정의하는데, '자기주도'는 혼자서 공부하는 것 만으로 생각되어서는 안된다. Brockett과 Hiemstra는 다음에 대해 SDL의 신화라며 대해서 이렇게 이야기했다. "SDL은 고립되어 일어나는 것이라는 것은 잘못된 신화이다. 진정으로 자기주도성의 효과를 알기 위해서는 교수법 차원에서, 그리고 개인의 특성 차원에서 SDL이 발생하는 사회적 환경을 인식하는 것이 중요하다"

While some have defined self-directed learning as autonomous learning, selfdirection should not be perceived only as learning by oneself. Brockett and Hiemstra (1991) caution against the myth that SDL “takes place in isolation. In order to truly understand the impact of self-direction, both as an instructional method and as a personality characteristic, it is crucial to recognize the social milieu in which such activity transpires" (p. 32).

사람은 가장 효과적인 방법을 선택하면서, 그것이 다른 사람에게도 가장 잘 맞는 방법일거라고 생각한다. 그러나 어떤 생각이나 개념을 (특히 교육학에서는) 만병통치약으로 생각해서는 안된다. SDL은 학습을 촉진하는 유일한, 혹은 최고의 방법이 아니다. 반대로 학습자의 학습에 대한 개인적 책임을 강조하는 것처럼, SDL은 어떤 맥락인지 어떤 목표인지에 따라서 함양할 가치가 있고 고려할 가치가 있는 것이다.

Humans adopt methods that are most effective for use and often assume that what works for one must be the best approach for others. However, as with any idea or concept (especially in education), one must not be quick to proclaim a “one size fits all” strategy. SDL is not the “only” or “best” way to facilitate learning for self or others; however, as it pertains to learners assuming personal responsibility for their own learning, SDL is worthy of cultivation and consideration dependent upon the context and objective.

Brockett과 Hiemstra는 SDL이 성공적인 학습으로 도달하는 유일한 접근법이 아니라는 것을 명확히 했다. 다만 교육자가 학습자들이 학습에 개인적인 책임과 참여를 하도록 이 방법을 선택할 수는 있다. 어떤 학습에 들어설 때 자기주도성의 수준이 성공의 지표가 되지 못한다고 했다. 그러나 성인교육자는 성인들이 "학습에 대한 개인의 책임"을 가질 수 있도록 해야한다.  

Brockett and Hiemstra (1991) make it clear that SDL is not the only approach that leads to successful learning, but one that educators of adults may choose in order to enable learners to assume personal responsibility and involvement in their own learning. They go on to explain that the level of self-direction demonstrated by a learner upon entering a learning experience is not necessarily indicative of success; however, the adult educator can play a role in assisting adults to “assume personal responsibility for their own learning” (p. 27). In this article SDL will be defined as Knowles (1975) posited:

자기주도성을 통한 기술 활용

Learning to use Technology Through Self-Direction: Learning Technology Itself

새로운 기술이나 기기의 사용을 익힐 때는 직접 경험이 중요하다. Dewey는 "직접 경험하는 과정과 교육 사이에는 매우 가깝고도 필수적인 관계가 있다"라고 했다. 학습자가 직접 경험을 해야 한다는 생각은 새로운 것은 아니지만, 어떤 주제가 '테크놀로지'에 대한 것일 때는 더욱 그러하다. Jarvis는 "모든 학습은 경험과 함께 시작한다"라고 했고, Linderman은 "성인교육에서 최고의 가치는 학습자의 경험이다"라고 했다.

Learning to use new applications or electronic devices involves the user’s hands-on experience. Dewey (1938) suggested “there is an intimate and necessary relation between the process of actual experience and education” (p. 20). The idea of the learner gaining actual experience with a topic of study is not new, but may be more desirable when the subject is technology. Jarvis (1987) posited “all learning begins with experience” (p. 16) and Lindeman (1926) argued that the “highest value in adult education is the learner’s experience” (p. 6).

SDL접근법은 교육 세팅이 학생들이 새로운 테크놀로지를 사용하는 것을 배울 수 있도록 되어 있을 때 좋은 결과를 가져온다. Clinton과 Reiber는 SDL접근법을 석사 프로그램에서 사용하였다.

The SDL approach is being used with good results in educational settings where students are learning to use technology. Clinton and Rieber (2010) use an SDL approach in an instructional technology master’s program through a series of studio courses. The program uses an SDL approach that Candy (1991) refers to as assisted autodidaxy (self- education with instructor guidance, e.g., independent study).

의학교육에서의 사례 

Case Example: Medical Education

• The 1984 Association of American Medical Colleges (AAMC) Physicians for the Twenty-first Century: Report of the Project Panel on General Professional Education of the Physician and College Preparation for Medicine acknowledged that advances in scientific knowledge and technology were already occurring at such a rate that doctors for the new century must learn throughout their professional lives rather than simply master current information and techniques (AAMC, 1984). Recommendations were made that medical students should be adequately prepared for active, independent, self-directed learning; and that medical schools should provide opportunities for development of learning skills and evaluate students’ abilities to learn independently. 
• Almost 10 years later, the AAMC Assessing Change in Medical Education-The Road to Implementation (ACME-TRI) report further recommended that “faculty members’ first goal should be to foster their students’ life-long learning by helping them to develop their learning skills” (AAMC, 1993). 
• The Liaison Committee on Medical Education (LCME) was formed as the nationally recognized accrediting agency for medical education programs in the U. S. and Canada. LMCE accreditation standard ED-5-A states, “A medical education program must include instructional opportunities for active learning and independent study to foster the skills necessary for lifelong learning (LCME, 2010).

Changes in medical education focused on the goal of meeting accreditation standards and graduating medical students who are skilled learners have fostered development of a number of novel medical school curriculum models. These models include those that are strictly problem-based (Blumberg, 2000) or clinical presentation- based (Mandin, 1997), plus an increasing number of hybrid approaches. 

• In the problem- based curriculum students read medical cases, set learning issues and independently fulfill the self-prescribed learning necessary to fully understand the aspects of each case with a learning facilitator serving only as a guide. 
• In contrast, the clinical presentation-based curriculum relies more on experts to model and encourage inductive rather than deductive reasoning approaches toward clinical diagnoses.

Teachers and learning facilitators who foster self-directed learning in undergraduate medical education use online resources in a wide variety of ways. 

• In a problem-based learning curriculum, a study was designed to explore why only a subset of medical students used the available online resources to fulfill their self-prescribed learning needs (Piskurich, 2004). We asked the students to describe experiences that they felt had made them better online learners. Interestingly, their comments included many of the behaviors that have been proposed for the improvement of self-directed learning (Guglielmino & Guglielmino, 2004).
• Even for the more expert-driven clinical presentation-based medical school curriculum model, the effort to meet LCME accreditation standards is resulting in a push to move lecture content out of the lecture hall and to use class time for more active learning; thus more medical schools are embracing “flipped-classrooms” where various digital formats are used to move content previously delivered as in-class lectures to homework delivered online, thus freeing up class time for simulation and application exercises (Prober & Heath, 2012).

단점: 의과대학생이 받아들이기를 거부한다. 

One drawback is that medical students who relied heavily on lectures delivered in lecture halls to attain the grades and standardized test scores to gain acceptance into medical school are initially reluctant to adopt these more self-directed approaches to learning. Initial resistance to self-directed learning has long been recognized (Long, 1994) and can result in poor student perceptions of faculty who employ teaching-learning interactions that foster self-direction. 

임상표현 모델에서 ARS 시스템의 활용, 성공적.

In the clinical-presentation model, audience response systems have been successfully utilized to give students a choice in the design of upcoming classes (Piskurich, 2012). Providing this opportunity for learner input into the class design and role of the learning facilitator had a positive impact on student level one evaluations, even when the sessions were delivered in the “flipped classroom” format.

AAMC (Association of American Medical Colleges). (1984). Physicians for the twenty- first century: Report of the project panel on the general professional education of the physician and college preparation for medicine. Journal of Medical Education, 59, 1-208.

AAMC. (1993). Educating medical students: Assessing change in medical education-the road to implementation (ACME-TRI report). Academic Medicine, 68, S33.

Piskurich, J. F. (2012) Fostering self-directed learning in medical school: When curricular innovation is not enough. International Journal of Self-Directed Learning, 8(2) 44- 52. Retrieved from http://sdlglobal.com/journals.php

Prober, C. G., & Heath, C. (2012). Lecture halls without lectures: A proposal for medical education. New England Journal of Medicine, 366(18), 1657-1659.

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FOSTERING TECHNOLOGY AND SELF-DIRECTION: THE IMPACT ON ADULTS IN EDUCATION, BUSINESS, AND EVERYDAY LIFE

Naomi Boyer, Jeffrey Beard, Lila Holt, Joanne Larsen, Janet Piskurich, and George Piskurich

Technology has become the backbone of everyday life and is integral to our daily process. Whether the word “technology” relates to the technical infrastructure such as networks, Internet, or software programs, or the tools that we use to be productive, communicate, and learn, matters not; in all of these areas, the technological world requires individual self-direction and adaptability to remain current. Through case examples, the intersections of technology, self-directed learning, and everyday life are presented to portray the implications of technology for adult learning and development. While technology alone is not a panacea for the facilitation of learning, the coupling of self-direction with technology does provide the opportunity to fundamentally alter the way in which individuals perceive, construct, and engage with learning activities.