보건의료인교육에서 인지부하이론: 설계원칙과 전략(Med Educ, 2010)

보건의료인교육에서 인지부하이론: 설계원칙과 전략(Med Educ, 2010)

Cognitive load theory in health professional education: design principles and strategies

Jeroen J G van Merrie¨nboer1,2 & John Sweller3

도입

INTRODUCTION

인지부하이론은 1980년대에 처음 개발되었다.

Cognitive load theory (CLT) was initially developed in the 1980s.1

처음부터 CLT는 많은 사람들에게 반-직관적인 설계원칙을 제안하였는데, 예컨대 novice학습자들에게 풀어야 할 문제들보다 다수의 worked example을 주라는 것은 '문제풀이가 문제를 해결하는 법을 배우는 최선의 방식이다'라는 당대의 다수 견해를 반박하는 것이었다.

Right from the start, CLT provided instructional design principles that were seen as counterintuitive by many practitioners in the field of education. For example, the recom- mendation to provide novice learners with many worked examples rather than problems to solve contradicted the prevailing opinion of the time that solving problems was the best way to learn to solve problems.

의학교육에서도 CLT가 적용되기 시작했다. real-life를 기반으로 한 authentic learning task는 답이 여러가지였고 ecologically valid 하였으며, 보통 한 세션 내에 완수하기 어려웠다. CLT가 단순한 task를 가르치는데는 별 관련이 없지만, 학습자의 인지시스템에 높은 부하를 거는 complex learning task에 대해서는 매우 중요하다. 

Applications of CLT in medical education are beginning to appear.4,5 Authentic learning tasks designed on the basis of real-life tasks have many different solutions, are ecologically valid and usually cannot be mastered in a single session. Whereas CLT may not be relevant to teaching simple tasks, it is critical when complex learning tasks are used because they impose a high load on the learner’s cognitive system.7,8

인지구조

COGNITIVE ARCHITECTURE

기억시스템

Memory systems

 

CLT에서는 사람의 인지시스템이 제한된 작업기억만을 가지고 있어서 5개~9개 이상의 information element를 hold하지 못한다고 가정하며, 동시에 2개~4개 이상의 element를 actively process하지 못한다고 가정한다. 정보를 다루는deal with시간은 수 초 미만으로만 가능할 뿐이며, 거의 대부분의 정보는 (재반복으로 refresh 되지 않으면) 20초 이내에 사라진다.

Cognitive load theory assumes that the human cognitive system has a limited working memory that can hold no more than five to nine information elements (the famous ‘seven plus or minus two’)10 and actively process no more than two to four elements simultaneously. It is able to deal with information for no more than a few seconds and almost all information is lost after about 20 seconds unless it is refreshed by rehearsal.

작업기억은 장기기억에서 retrieve된 정보를 다루는데에는 한계가 없다. 실제로, 장기기억은 작업기억의 characteristics를 바꾼다.

Working memory has no known limitations when dealing with infor- mation retrieved from long-term memory. In effect, long-term memory alters the characteristics of work- ing memory.

전문성이란 schema로 조직화된 정보에서 오는 것이며, 장기기억에 조직화되지 않은 다수의 element를 가지고 추론하는 능력에서 오는 것이 아니다.

Human expertise comes from knowl- edge organised by these schemas, not from an ability to engage in reasoning with many elements that have not been organised in long-term memory.

학습자는 mindfully 단순한 아이디어를 더 복잡한 아이디어로 combine해가면서 전문가가 된다. 예컨대 illness script라는 것은 유사한 질병을 구분할 때 의사들이 사용하는 특정 유형의 schema를 말하는데, 이 schema는 지식을 조직화하는데 사용되어서 작업기억의 부하를 크게 줄여주는데, 가장 복잡한 형태의 schema조차 작업기억에서는 하나의 element로 다뤄질 수 있다.

Expertise develops as learners mindfully combine simple ideas into more complex ones. so-called ‘illness scripts’, a term that describes a particular type of schema which allows the user to distinguish between alike diseases. These schemas organise knowledge but also heavily reduce working memory load because even a highly complex schema can be dealt with as one element in working memory.

완전히 자동화된 schema는 extensive한 연습을 통해서 길러질 수 있고, central executive로서 역할을 함으로써 작업기억에서 처리되어야 할 필요가 있는 정보와 지식을 조직화한다. 이러한 상황에서는 작업기억에 한계가 없다. 반면, 새로운 정보, 즉 schema-base가 없는 경우에는 작업기억에 limitation이 생긴다.

Fully automated schemas are developed as a function of extensive practice and can act as a central executive, organising information or knowledge that needs to be processed in working memory. Under these circumstances there are no limits to working memory. By contrast, when dealing with novel information for which no schema-based central executive is available, working memory has limitations.

 

학습 프로세스

Learning processes

 

작업기억은 완전히 새로운, 비-조직화된 정보를 다룰 때는 그 capacity가 제한되는데, 왜냐하면 다뤄야 하는 element의 숫자가 선형적으로 증가하더라도, 문제해결과정에서 필요한 그 element들 사이의 조합은 기하급수적으로 증가하기 때문이다. 이러한 기하급수적 증가의 문제는 동시에 처리될 수 있는 정보의 숫자를 극심하게 제한함으로써 순응accomodate될 수 밖에 없다.

Working memory must inevitably be limited in capacity when dealing with completely novel, unor- ganised information because, as the number of elements that need to be organised increases linearly, the number of possible combinations of elements that must be tested for effectiveness during problem solving increases exponentially. This problem of exponential growth can only be accommodated by severely limiting the number of information units that are processed simultaneously.

Schema는 문제해결 프로세스동안에 구성될 수도 있다.

Schemas can be constructed during the problem-solving process

• Chunking을 통해서 by bringing elements together (i.e. chunking),

• 이미 장기기억에 있는 schema에 통합시켜서 by incorporating new elements in schemas already available in long- term memory or, more commonly,

• 이미 schema화된 정보를 습득함으로써 by obtaining already schematised information from other people.

 

Schema는 작업기억에서 single element로 처리될 수 있기 때문에 인지부하를 크게 줄여준다.

Schemas can then be treated as a single element in working memory and thus heavily decrease cognitive load associated with the performance of later tasks.

Schema가 구성되어 반복적으로 적용되어 의도한 결과를 얻을 경우 자동화될 수 있다. schema 구성에 있어서 '자동화'는 작업기억의 capacity를 자유롭게 해준다.

Constructed schemas may become automated if they are repeatedly applied and yield desired results. As is the case for schema construction, automation can free working memory capacity for other activities

 

자동화는 많은 양의 연습을 필요로 하기 때문에, automated schema는 다양한 task situation에서 일정하게 나타나는 퍼포먼스에 대해서만 개발된다 따라서 instructional design의 관점에서, 잘 설계된 instruction은 단순히 schema construction을 유도할 뿐 아니라, (다양한 task에 걸쳐 일관된 측면에 있어서는) schema automation을 일으켜야 한다.

Because automation requires a great deal of practice, automated schemas only develop for those aspects of performance that are consistent across task situations, such as routines for operating medical equipment and standard pro- cedures for using software applications. Thus, from an instructional design perspective, well-designed instruction should not only encourage schema construction, but should also support schema automation for those aspects that are consistent across tasks.6,11

 

인지부하의 유형

Types of cognitive load

 

작업기억의 부하는 세 가지에 영향을 받는다. 

Working memory load may be affected

• 내재적 부하: 학습과제 그 자체의 부하
  by the intrinsic nature of the learning tasks (intrinsic load),
• 외재적 부하: 학습과제가 제시되는 방식에서 오는 부하
  by the manner in which the tasks are presented (extraneous load), and
• 본유적 부하: 내재적 부하를 다룰 때 생기는 부하
  by the learning that actually occurs (germane load) when dealing with intrinsic load.

내재적 부하는 instructional intervention을 통해서 달라지지 않으며, task자체를 바꾸거나 학습 그 자체를 통해서만 달라질 수 있다. 작업기억에서 동시에 몇 개의 element가 처리되어야 하느냐에 달려 있으며, 이는 즉 학습 자료나 학습과제에서 element들의 상호작용수준interactivity가 어느 정도이냐에 따라 달라진다. Element interativity란 학습해야 할 element들이 고립적in isolation으로 학습될 수 있는지 혹은 그렇지 않은지 그 정도에 대한 것이다.

Intrinsic load cannot be altered by instructional interventions without altering the task to be learned (e.g. simplification) or by the act of learning itself. It depends on the number of elements that must be processed simultaneously in working memory, a number which, in turn, depends on the extent of element interactivity of the materials or tasks that must be learned. Element interactivity is the degree to which the elements of something to be learned can, or cannot, be understood in isolation.

 

단어와 문법의 예

For example,

• 단어는 element-interactivity가 낮다. 대부분의 사람들은 다른 모든 단어와 무관하게 특정 단어를 익힐 수 있다.
  vocabulary is an example of low element-interactive material in the field of language learning. Although there are thousands of words to be learned, most people can quickly learn some simple words because words may be learned in isolation from all other words.

• 문법은 element-interactivity가 높다. 문장 내의 모든 단어가 옳을 때조차 문법적으로 올바른 문장을 만드는게 어렵기도 하다. 이는 다양한 element를 동시에 고려해야 하기 때문이다.
  Grammar, by contrast, is an example of high element-interactive material. Most people have diffi- culty in generating grammatically correct sentences, even when all the words to be used in the sentence are known. This is because many elements must be considered simultaneously; that is, to build sentences that are grammatically correct, one must attend to all the words within the sentence at once while also considering syntax, tense and verb endings.

element interactivity 가 높은 학습과제는 이해가 어렵고 인지부하가 높다.

Tasks with high element interactivity are difficult to understand and yield a high cognitive load

1.

내재적 부하를 줄이는 방법은 interacting element를 포괄할 수 있는 schema를 개발하는 것이다.

The only way to foster understanding and to reduce intrinsic cognitive load is to develop schemas that incorporate the interacting elements.

따라서 element interactivity 는 한 사람이 특정 전문성의 수준에서 다룰 수 있는 interacting element의 숫자를 count해야만 추정될 수 있다.

Thus, ele- ment interactivity can be estimated only by counting the number of interacting elements dealt with by people at a particular level of expertise.

 

2.

내재적 부하와 달리, 외재적 부하는 instructional procedure에 의해서 생긴다. 외재적 부하가 생기는 사례 중 하나는, 학습자가 전혀 적절한 가이드가 주어지지 않은 상태에서 임의적으로 무엇이든 시도해서 시행착오를 거쳐 문제해결을 해야하는 상황에서 생긴다.

By contrast with intrinsic load, extraneous load is imposed by instructional procedures. Extraneous load may be imposed, for example, when learners must use trial and error or other weak problem- solving methods that require them to arbitrarily try out things without being given proper guidance,12

작업기억을 구성하는 처리장치processor에 과부하를 일으킴으로서 외재적 부하를 늘릴 수도 있다. 시각&청각 작업기억은 서로 부분적으로 독립적이다. 이해에 필요한 다양한 출처의 정보가 모두 '시각적 형태'로만 들어올 경우, (대신 written material이 청각적 형태(spoken form)으로 제시될 경우보다) 시각처리 프로세서를 과부하할 가능성이 높으며, 일부의 인지부하가 auditory processor로 shift될 수 있게 해준다.

Overloading one of the processors that constitute working memory may also increase it. Visual and auditory working memory are partially independent. If multiple sources of information that are required for understanding are all presented in visual form (e.g. a written text and a diagram), they are more likely to overload the visual processor than if the written material is presented in spoken form, thus enabling some of the cognitive load to be shifted to the auditory processor.13

 

3.

본유적 부하는 내재적 부하를 deal with할 때 사용되는 작업기억이다.

Germane load, finally, refers to the working memory resources used to deal with intrinsic cognitive load, which lead to learning.

내재적 부하를 처리하는 프로세스가 포함하는 것으로는 'previous task와 관련이 된 element' 또는 '이미 장기기억에서 available한 지식' 등이 있으며, 따라서 (어떤 과제를 하는데) 필요한 작업기억자원이 (학습에 직접적으로 관련된) 본유적 부하에 해당한다고 볼 수 있다.

These processes of dealing with intrinsic cognitive load include elements related to previous tasks or to knowledge already available in long-term memory and thus require working memory resources that correspond to a germane cognitive load that is directly relevant for learning.

CLT는 내재적 부하와 외재적 부하를 서로 additive하다고 본다. 만약 내재적 부하가 낮으면, 높은 외재적 부하가 걸리더라도 문제가 되지 않는다. 

Cognitive load theory assumes that intrinsic and extraneous cognitive loads are additive. If intrinsic load is low, a high extraneous load resulting from an inadequate instructional design may not be harmful

실제로 여러 연구를 살펴보면, 단순한 과제에 있어서는 외재적 부하를 줄이는 것의 효과가 별로 없다. 

Indeed, research has shown that instruction designed to decrease extraneous load has negligible effects on learning simple tasks (i.e. involving low element-interactive materials14).

그러나 복잡한 과제를 수행할 때, 내재적 부하+외재적 부하는 작업기억의 capacity를 초과하여 과부하를 일으킨다. 이 때  외재적 부하를 충분히 줄여주지 못한다면 내재적 부하를 낮춰줌으로써 학습에 필요한 프로세싱 자원을 만들어줘야 한다. 외재적 부하가 줄어들면, 더 많은 작업기억자원이 내재적 부하를 처리하는데 사용될 수 있고, 학습을 위한 본유적 부하를 유도하는데 사용되기도 쉽다.

However, for teaching complex tasks (i.e. involving high element-interactive materials), the sum of the intrinsic and extraneous loads may easily surpass working memory capacity and yield overload (Fig. 1a). Then, extraneous load and, if the reduction of extraneous load is still insufficient, intrinsic load must be lowered to free up processing resources necessary for learning (Fig. 1b). The more extrane- ous cognitive load is reduced, the more working memory resources can be devoted to intrinsic cogni- tive load and so the easier it becomes to induce a germane cognitive load for learning (Fig. 1c).

 

DESIGN GUIDELINES

외재적 부하를 줄이고, 내재적 부하를 관리하고, 본유적 부화를 최적화하는 주요 전략(Table 1). 또한 Expertise reveral effect (ERE)가 있는데, novice학습자에게는 잘 작동하는 원칙이 더 경험이 많은 학습자에게는 잘 통하지 않거나 심지어 역효과가 나는 것이다.

The main principles and strategies for decreasing extraneous load, managing intrinsic load and optimising germane load are summarised and illustrated in Table 1. Moreover, they are related to the expertise reversal effect, which indicates that principles that work well for novice learners may not work well or may even have negative effects for more experienced learners.

외재적 부하 줄이기

Decreasing extraneous load

 

goal-free principle. 전통적인 과제는 goal-free한 과제로 대체하는 것. 학습자에게 비-특이적 목표가 부여된다. 만약 학습자에게 구체적인 목표가 주어진다면, 학습자는 이 목표로부터 추론을 시작하여, 목표 상태와 주어진 상태goal state adn given state사이의 차이를 줄이는 접근법을 사용할 것이다. 이러한 backward 방식의 탐색과정은 높은 외재적 부하를 야기하므로, backward접근이 불가능하도록 specific goal을 제거하는 방식으로 회피할 수 있다.

Firstly, the goal-free principle suggests replacing conventional tasks with goal-free tasks, which provide learners with a non-specific goal

• e.g. replace ‘find the most probable aetiological explanation for these symp- toms’ with ‘find as many aetiological explanations for these symptoms as you can’

If learners are given a specific goal, they start reasoning from this goal and try to find operators that reduce the difference between the goal state and the given state. This backward search process yields a high extraneous load that can be avoided by eliminating a specific goal that renders working backward from the goal impossible.

worked example principle. 전통적인 과제를 worked example로 대체하는 것. 학습자가 '해답을 생성'하기보다는 '공부'하기 때문에 weak problem-solving methods에서 오는 높은 외재적 부하를 줄일 수 있다.

Secondly, the worked example principle suggests replac- ing conventional tasks with worked examples that must be carefully studied by the learners. Because learners study rather than generate solutions, this reduces the high extraneous load caused by weak problem-solving methods.

completion principle. 전통적인 과제를 completion task로 바꾸는 것으로, 정답의 일부를 알려주고 학습자가 나머지를 완수하게 하는 것이다. worked examples와 유사하게 completion task는 외재적 부하를 줄여준다.

Thirdly, the completion principle suggests replacing conventional tasks with completion tasks, which provide a partial solution that must be completed by the learners. Like worked examples, completion tasks reduce extraneous load caused by weak problem-solving methods because giving part of the solution reduces the size of the problem space.

split attention principle. 다양한 시간과 공간에 나눠져서 제공되는 여러 출처의 정보를 하나의 통합된 정보로서 제공하는 것이다(그림 2). 통합된 정보는 다양한 source의 정보를 의식해서mentally 통합할 필요가 없으므로 외재적 부하를 줄여준다.

Fourthly, the split attention principle recommends replacing multiple sources of information that are distributed in space or time, such as pictures and accompanying text or a piece of equipment and instructions for operating it, with a single, integrated source of information (Fig. 2 ). The integrated information source reduces extraneous load because there is no need for the learners to mentally integrate the information from different sources.

modality principle. (문자로)기술된 설명문+시각적 정보(다이어그램)(unimodal)를 (말로 기술된) 설명문+시각적 정보로 대체하는 것이다(multimodal). multimodal한 정보는 작업기억의 시각적 처리와 청각적 처리를 모두 활용하기 때문에 가용작업기억용량을 증가시켜서 외재적 부하를 줄여준다.

Fifthly, the modality principle recommends replacing a written explanatory text and another source of visual information such as a diagram (unimodal) with a spoken explanatory text and the visual source of information (multimodal). Multimodal information presentation reduces extraneous load because it uses both the visual and the auditory processor of working memory and thus, in effect, increases available working memory capacity.

redundancy principle. self-contained한 다수의 정보출처를 하나의 정보출처로 대체하는 것이다. single source는 외재적 부하를 줄여준다.

Sixthly, the redundancy principle suggests replacing multiple sources of information that are self-con- tained (i.e. they can be understood on their own) with only one source of information. The single source reduces extraneous load that is caused by unnecessarily processing redundant information.

 

 

 

내재적 부하 관리하기

Managing intrinsic load

그러나 내재적 부하는 학습자료의 특성과 학습자의 전문성의 상호작용을 통해서 결정되기 때문에, 학습자의 이해수준을 변화시키지 않고서는 내재적 부하가 줄지 않는다. 학습자가 학습자료를 완전히 이해하기 위해서는 궁극적으로 학습자료는 full complexity로 제공되어야 한다. 학습자료를 낮은 element interactivity에서 점차 높은 element interactivity 로 제시하는 다단계전략이 필요하다. 

However, because intrinsic load is determined by the interac- tion between the nature of the materials being learned and the expertise of the learner, it cannot be altered without reducing learners’ level of under- standing. For learners to fully understand the material, it must ultimately be presented in its full complexity. Multiple-step strategies rather than single-step principles are needed for sequencing materials from low to high element interactivity, so that tasks are presented in their full complexity only in a later learning phase.

 

Manipulating the fidelity of the learning environment. 학습환경의 fidelity 조절도 한 가지 방법이다. 왜냐하면 high-fidelity 환경은 일반적으로 interacting element의 숫자가 더 많기 때문이다. low-fidelity에서 시작해서 medium-, high-, 그리고 궁극적으로는 real environment로 가야 한다.

Manipulating the fidelity of the learning environment is another way to gradually increase the number of interacting elements because high-fidelity environ- ments will typically contain more interacting ele- ments than low-fidelity environments.6 It may be better to

• start with low-fidelity simulations (e.g. textual problems or case descrip- tions of prospective patients), then

• continue with medium-fidelity simulations (e.g. computer-simulated patients or simulated patients [SPs] played by peer students),

• continue with high-fidelity simulations (e.g. SPs played by actors), and

• end with the real environment (e.g. real patients during an internship in hospital; see example16).

 

내재적 부하를 늘려서 본유적 부하 최적화하기

Optimising germane load by increasing intrinsic load

Variability of task situations. 인지부하를 줄이는 것은 과부하를 예방하면서 처리리소스를 확보하여 진정한 학습에 투입될 수 있게 한다. Paas and van Merrie¨nb- oer는 처음으로 learning task의 variability를 germane load에 연결지었다. 학습과제의 variability는 비슷한 상황에 발생할 가능성을 높임으로서 학습자로 하여금 cognitive schemas 를 만들게 해준다.

The reduction of cognitive load prevents overload and frees up processing resources that can be devoted to genuine learning. Paas and van Merrie¨nb- oer17 were the first to relate variability of learning tasks to germane load. Variability of task situations encourages learners to construct cognitive schemas because it increases the probability that similar features can be identified

예를 들면 산-염기 균형을 학습할 때, 다양한 학습과제는 이 개념을 과호흡, 과소호흡, 아스피린 과용량 등등으로 연결짓게 한다. Variability가 높아지면 내재적 부하가 높아진다. 학생들은 어떤 문제가 같거나 다른 카테고리에 들어가는지를 배우게 되고, low variability에서는 무시될 수 있는 중요한 특성을 배우게 된다.

For example, when students learn about acid-base bal- ance, different learning tasks should relate this concept to hyper- and hypoventilation, aspirin over- dosing, loss of fixed acid through excessive vomiting, and so forth. Increasing variability increases intrinsic cognitive load. Students must learn which problems belong to the same or different categories, an important aspect of the task which is ignored under conditions of low variability.

Contextual interference. Contextual interference 도 variability와 관련이 있다. 인접한 학습과제가 정확히 동일한 skill을 요구한다면 variability가 낮은 것이다. Contextual interference 가 높은 경우 본유적 부하를 높임으로써 내재적 부하를 높이게 된다.

Contextual interference is related to variability. It is low if adjacent tasks in a practice schedule rely on exactly the same skills and it is high if adjacent tasks rely on different skills. As expected, high contextual interference increased intrinsic load by increasing germane load (i.e. including elements related to adjacent tasks) during practice and improved learning outcomes.

self-explanation effect. 내재적 부하(그리고 이에 따른 본유적 부하)는 자기자신에게 개념을 설명할 때 훨씬 더 높아지는데, 왜냐하면 장기기억으로부터 prior-knowledge를 불러와서 사용함으로써 고려해야 하는 interacting element가 훨씬 많아지기 때문이다.

A third design principle is related to the so-called self-explanation effect. The intrinsic load and hence the germane load associated with explaining a concept to oneself are far higher than when simply processing the information because the number of interacting elements considered is deliberately in- creased by including prior-knowledge elements from long-term memory.

전문가-역설 효과

Expertise reversal effect

ERE는 일종의 interaction effect로서, 장기간에 걸쳐 운영되는 프로그램의 설계에 CLT가 적용될 때 고려해야 한다. 이 효과는 전문성의 수준과 인지부하의 영향의 상호작용이다. 따라서 instructional method는 학습자의 전문성이 향상됨에 따라 이를 고려한 multi-step strategies가 필요하다.

An interaction effect that is particularly relevant when CLT is applied to the design of programmes with longer duration is the expertise reversal effect (see overview20). This effect is an interaction between several basic cognitive load effects and level of expertise. Thus, multiple-step strate- gies are needed to sequence instructional methods in such a way that they take the growing level of expertise of learners into account.

Kalyuga 는 전문성이 높아지면 worked example effect는 처음에는 사라지고, 나중에는 역효과가 난다. 지식이 많은 학습자에게 worked example은 redundant하며, 외재적 부하만 가할 뿐이다. 즉, 훈련프로그램은 처음에는 worked example로 시작해서 나중에는 conventional task로 끝나야 한다.

Kalyuga et al.21 demonstrated that, with increasing expertise, the worked example effect first disappears and then reverses. Worked examples become redun- dant for more knowledgeable learners and so impose an extraneous load. These findings suggest that a training programme should ideally start with worked examples and smoothly work up to conventional tasks.

completion strategy 를 비롯한 여러 fading guidance strategies가 스킬 습득의 여러 phase에 걸쳐서 효과적임을 보여주었으며, example-problem pairs를 사용한 전통적 방식보다 학습성과가 높았다.

Renkl and Atkinson24 and Atkinson et al.25 concluded that both the completion strategy and other fading guidance strategies are effective to manage cognitive load throughout the various phases of skill acquisition and yield higher learning outcomes than the traditional use of example-problem pairs.

Kalyuga 는 전문성 수준이 올라갈수록 integrated condition의 장점은 처음에는 사라지고 점차 역효과가 나서 나중에는 separate condision이 integrated condition보다 낫다.

Kalyuga et al.26 demonstrated As levels of expertise increased, the advantage of the integrated conditions first disappeared and eventually reversed with the separate condition being superior to the integrated condition.

경험이 많은 학습자에게 text는 불필요하다. novice에게는 dual mode가 시각정보만 제공된 것보다 낫지만, 경험이 많아지면 청각적 요소는 불필요해지고 없는 것이 낫다.

The text had become redun- dant for experienced learners. Kalyuga et al.27 found that among novices, dual mode, auditory and visual presentations were superior to visual-only presenta- tions, demonstrating the modality effect. With more experience, the auditory component became redundant and was best eliminated.

CONCLUSIONS

 

 

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Med Educ. 2010 Jan;44(1):85-93. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2923.2009.03498.x.

Cognitive load theory in health professional education: design principles and strategies.

van Merriënboer JJ1, Sweller J.

Author information

• 1Department of Educational Development and Research, FHML, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands. j.vanmerrienboer@educ.unimaas.nl

Abstract

CONTEXT:

Cognitive load theory aims to develop instructional design guidelines based on a model of human cognitive architecture. The architecture assumes a limited working memory and an unlimited long-term memory holding cognitive schemas; expertise exclusively comes from knowledge stored as schemas in long-term memory. Learning is described as the construction and automation of such schemas. Three types of cognitive load are distinguished: intrinsic load is a direct function of the complexity of the performed task and the expertise of the learner; extraneous load is a result of superfluous processes that do not directly contribute to learning, and germane load is caused by learning processes that deal with intrinsic cognitive load.

OBJECTIVES:

This paper discusses design guidelines that will decrease extraneous load, manage intrinsic load and optimise germane load.

DISCUSSION:

Fifteen design guidelines are discussed. Extraneous load can be reduced by the use of goal-free tasks, worked examples and completion tasks, by integrating different sources of information, using multiple modalities, and by reducing redundancy. Intrinsic load can be managed by simple-to-complex ordering of learning tasks and working from low- to high-fidelity environments. Germane load can be optimised by increasing variability over tasks, applying contextual interference, and evoking self-explanation. The guidelines are also related to the expertise reversal effect, indicating that design guidelines for novice learners are different from guidelines for more experienced learners. Thus, well-designed instruction for novice learners is different from instruction for more experienced learners. Applications in health professional education and current research lines are discussed.

Comment in

• Medical education and other disciplines. [Med Educ. 2010]

PMID:

 

20078759

 

DOI:

 

10.1111/j.1365-2923.2009.03498.x

[PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]