의학교육 세계화의 빈틈(Med Teach, 2009)
Cracks and crevices: Globalization discourse and medical education
BRIAN DAVID HODGES1, JERRY M. MANIATE2, MARIA ATHINA (TINA) MARTIMIANAKIS2,3, MOHAMMAD ALSUWAIDAN2,3 & CHRISTOPHE SEGOUIN2,4
의료에서 국제화 관련 담론은 매우 흔하나, 의학교육자들이 여기에 관심을 가지기 시작한 것은 비교적 최근의 일이다.
While the discourse of globalization is very common in health care, it is relatively recent that medical educators have taken up these ideas and language.
의학교육에서의 세계화
Globalization in medical education
많은 국가들이 의사가 부족하여 의료인을 '수입'한다. 예를 들어 캐나다의 한 신문에서는 '캐나다가 의사를 수입하는데, 종종 캐나다보다 더 의사를 필요로 하는 개발도상국에서 의사를 들여오기도 한다. 캐나다에서 진료하는 의사의 23~25%는 해외에서 수련받은 의사이다' 라고 하며, 한 캐나다 의과대학 학장의 말을 빌어 '캐나다는 의사를 수입하고 있으며 처음부터 의사가 부족했다' 라고 하였다.
Consider for instance that many countries with a shortage of physicians speak of ‘importing’ medical trainees. For example, a Canadian national newspaper recently reported that, ‘Canada imports doctors, often from developing countries that may need them more. Between 23 and 25% of doctors practicing in Canada are foreign-trained’ and quoted a Canadian medical school dean who said, ‘Canada has relied on importing physicians, so [our schools] have under-produced from day one’ (Spencer 2008).
어떤 나라에서는 여러 이유에서 의사의 수련을 다른 나라로 '아우소싱'한다. 일부 국가 - 특히 동유럽이나 캐리비안 국가는, 의과대학을 사업모델로서 개발하였는데, 이 의과대학의 목적은 의학교육에 대한 국제적 수요에 맞춘 것이며, 가장 최근에는 다른 국가에서 의과대학 전체 교육과정을 사들여오는 경우도 있다(the Cornell Weill-Qatar Medical Schools)
Other countries talk of ‘outsourcing’ the training of doctors to other countries for various reasons including economic ones. Some countries – notably in Eastern Europe and the Caribbean have developed medical schools with business models that are specifically aimed at meeting a global demand for medical education and most recently there are instances of countries buying entire medical school curricula from other countries (e.g. the Cornell Weill-Qatar Medical Schools discussed in detail later).
On the other side of the globe, a recent article in a national Singaporean newspaper reported that the Singapore of government of was increasing the number recognized international medical schools to 160 to addressSingapore’s MD shortage. The article noted that many studentspursuing medicine were unable to secure a place at the solenational medical school (Docs trained abroad working inS’pore 2007).
Another interesting phenomenon is the concerted effort to develop medical schools expressly to capture international medical student/consumers. For example, a number of medical have created schools in Poland special schools ‘adapted Polish for the American market’. Websites for 4-year English MD programs advertise that they are ‘recog- nized by the US Department of Education’ and that they are ‘approved for the US federal loans’. Tuition costs are given to be as high as 11,200 Euros ($19,000 USD) per year (Jagiellonian University Medical College, Faculty of Medicine. School of Medicine in English, http://www.medschool. cm-uj.krakow.pl/).1
Interestingly, Poland is a country where medical school tuition for domestic students is nearly free. Itis therefore noted that, ‘medical studies in English are availableonly for persons having other than Polish citizenship, due toAct of Polish citizenship dated 15th February 1962 (Art. 2) andthe Act of Foreign dated 13th June 2003 (Art. 2)’ (MedicalUniversity of Warsaw). A similar system has developed inRomania where Cluj Medical School offers two programs; onefor francophone students and one for the other forAnglophone students (Cluj Medical School, http://umfcluj.ro).
이렇게 학생을 '수출'하고 나중에 '재수입'하는 방식은 여러 의문을 가지게 한다.. 예컨대 외국에서 수련을 받을 때 본국의 의료수요와의 일치도는 어떠한가? 와 같은 것이다.
These arrangements to ‘export’ students who can then be ‘re-imported’ as trained physicians raise many questions.
Another development is the idea of packaging curricula and other education services for sale. In some cases, the educational ‘commodity’ exchanged is material (such as curriculum, assessment sometimes tools, etc.), human resources (faculty members) and at times simply a brand that is purchased in order to share the prestige of a famous institution.
- Such contractual partnerships include the
- Cleveland Clinic (USA) and the Cairo Hospital (Egypt),
- Columbia University (USA) & Ben-Gurion University (Israel) (Ben-Gurion University of the Negev – The Medical School for International Health; http://www.cume.columbia.edu/dept/ bgcu-mdGurion.html),
- Duke University (USA) & National University of Singapore,
- Sydney University & MIU (Malaysia) and
- Harvard Medical (USA) & Dubai Healthcare City (UAE) (Allan 2004).
While ‘co-branding’ is an interesting phenomenon of globalization, ‘off-shoring’ of a whole medical school is aneven more dramatic development. A recent example is thenew Weill Cornell Medical College 11-year, in Qatar, which wasestablished as part of an $750 million contractbetween Cornell University and the State of Qatar (Mangan2001). Using the Cornell curriculum and targeting a goal of70% Qatari students, the partnership is a based on a businessmodel of medical education that results in benefits for bothCornell and Qatar
의학교육 외 분야에서의 세계화 연구
Studies of globalization outside of medical education
세계화에 관해서 가장 많이 인용되는 저자 중 하나는 Thomas Friedman이다. 그는 ‘The World is Flat’ 이라는 책에서 저지할 수 없는 국제적 통합이 진행중이며, 그러나 긍정적인 측면이 부정적인 측면보다 많다 라고 했다.
One of the most widely cited authors on globalization is Thomas Friedman. In his book, ‘The World is Flat’ he argues that there is an unstoppable global integration process underway, but that the positive benefits outweigh the negative ones.
Certainly an examination of the economic pros and cons of projects of globalization is important, but we wonder if this economic discourse of globalization is not obfuscating other important issues with particular relevance for our field.
카네기 재단이 말한 바와 같이 국제화는 '환경, 문화, 정치, 발전과 번영, 인류의 건강'에 영향을 준다.
As the Carnegie Foundation has argued, globalization also has effects, ‘on the environment, on culture, on political systems, on development and prosperity, and on human physical well-being in societies around the world’ (Carnegie Endowment for International Peace 2007).
When we look at globalization through these lenses we find authors who are concerned in three broad areas about the balance of benefit to harm that may be involved in some forms of globalization.
첫 번째 우려는 Richard Florida가 제기한 것으로, 세계화 과정과 부의 생산과 혁신이 균등하게 분배되지 않고, 오히려 그 반대라는 것이다. 그에 따르면 세계의 자원은 일부 지역에 점점 더 밀집되는 양상을 보이며, '평평'하지 않고 '뾰족'하다. Florida는 대학이 이 경제와 지식의 축적 과정에서 엄청나게 중요한 역할을 한다고 본다.
A first set of worries is raised by Richard Florida, author of a number of books on globalization. He has argued that as globalization proceeds, wealth creation and innovation are actually not becoming more evenly distributed around the world and that the reverse is true. He writes that the world is actually concentrating resources in a fewlocations and becoming not flat but ‘spiky’ (R. Florida 2002; R.L. Florida 2004, 2005). Florida argues that universities are enormously important in the process of concentrating economic and intellectual wealth in a given city or region.
기술 또는 시장화 가능한 물건으로 만드는 것에만 집중하지 않고, Florida는 '전문가와 정책입안자들은 대학이 경제 유동의 두 축 (1)생산/끌어모음/재능, 그리고 (2)관대한 사회적 분위기를 조성하는 것 - 개방적, 다양함, 실력중심, 새로운 사람과 생각을 적극적으로 포함하는 것 에 더 강력한 역할을 한다는 것을 무시하고 있다'라고 했다.
Rather than focusing on technology and the transfer to marketable products alone, Florida argues that ‘experts and policymakers have neglected the university’s even more powerful role across the two other axes of economic mobilizing development – in generating, attracting, and talent, and in establishing a tolerant social climate – that is open, diverse, meritocratic and proactively inclusive of new people and new ideas’ (Florida et al. 2006).
두 번째 우려는 John Ralston Saul이 제시한 것으로, '국가의 규제 구조는 많은 영역에서 약해지는 반면, 국제적 규제 구조는 그것을 대체할만큼 빠르게 발전하고 있지 않다'라고 했다.
A second set of concerns is raised by John Ralston Saul, in his book ‘The Collapse of Globalism and the Reinvention of the World’ (Ralston Saul 2005). Ralston Saul points out that, while national regulatory structures are weakening in many domains, global ones are not evolving fast enough to replace them.
As medical education globalizes, do we have a regulatory and policy vacuum at the international level?
마지막으로, 기존에 힘 있는 국가의 전통과 문화가 압도할 수 있다는 우려가 있다. 각 전통이나 문화에 따라 의료 및 다른 의료전달체계들이 발달해왔으며, '의료 문화'란 어느 곳에나 적용가능한 균일한 제품이 아니고, 국가나 지역 문화에 맞춰서 적용되어야 한다. 의학교육자들은 마치 의학에는 단 하나의 문화만 있는 것처럼 행동하며, 비교연구에는 별다른 노력을 기울이지 않는다.
Finally, there are authors who raise a third set of concerns about the degree to which dominant countries can overwhelm national traditions and cultures. The practices of medicine and of health care delivery arise from centuries of tradition and refinement in cultures around the world. ‘Medical culture’ is not a homogenous product that can be simply taken up anywhere, but must be adapted to the context of national and regional cultures (Abbott 1988; Freidson 2001). As we will discuss later, medical educators are prone to act as though there is only one culture of medicine (Taylor 2003) thereby investing almost no effort in comparative studies (Segouin et al. 2007).
국제화 연구를 의학교육에 적용하기
Applying globalization research to medical education
국제화의 이익이 비균등하게 분포되고 있는가?
Are the benefits of globalization in medical education uneven? Is the world getting spiky?
Sullivan 은 지난 몇 년간 영리 의과대학이 네 배 이상 증가했으며, 조만간 비영리 의과대학의 숫자를 넘어설 것이라 예측했다.
Sullivan has noted that the number of for-profit medical schools has quadrupled in the last few years and probably exceeds the number of non-profit schools (Sullivan 2007). In
For example, speaking of the new Cornell-Qatar venture, Greene commented, ‘Although we are the first, we won’t be the last medical school to do this ...It is a revenue stream...Our school has been in the black for nine straight years, but we can’t afford to lose money [with the international school]’ (Green 2007).
교육 서비스와 물품으로서 이득을 보는 이러한 의과대학은 어떤 결과를 가져올 것인가?
What is the impact of this rising imperative for medical schools to make money and commodify their educational products and services?
The presumed impacts are not only on medical schools. As medical students become global consumers of education, we need to ask what effects this will have on the opportunity to become a medical student. Does deregulated, free market medical education create disparities? In this area there is some worrisome research.
Increases in tuition have important implications for those of lower socioeconomic status and disadvantaged communities. The Association of American Medical Colleges in its 2005 report noted that for the past two decades, over 60% of medical students come from families with total incomes in the top quintile of all American families, while only 20%of medical students are from families with incomes in the lowest three quintiles (AAMC 2005).
In an era of mobility of students, faculty, curricula and even entireinstitutions, which patients and societies are today’s medicalsschools serving: local, regional, national or international?
한 웹사이트에서 폴란드 학생들은 이렇게 말했다 '내가 폴란드에 온 이유는 돈 때문이야', '언어는 좀 어렵고 초반에는 정말 힘들다' '폴란드는 외국 학생들에게 익숙하지 않고, 그들에 대한 질투가 있다' '우리에 비하면 걔네들(폴란드 학생)은 상당히 가난하다'
On visiting one site with a number of comments about medical schools in Poland we found medical students writing such things as: ‘I came to Poland because it’s good value for money’; ‘The language is difficult and makes no sense in the beginning’; ‘Poland is not used to foreigners and there is jealousy amongst them’; and ‘They are quite poor in (The Student Doctor Network Forums comparison to us’ 2008; http://forums.studentdocter.net/showthread.php?p¼ 6436557).
In a Canadian article sub-titled ‘Do our development and immigration policies amount to foreign aid in reverse?’ Krotz writes, ‘it costs $200,000 (US) to train a doctor in Zimbabwe or South Africa, and they end up in places like Manitoba (Canada), where one in three rural doctors is from Africa’ (Krotz 2008).
- Medical schools must consider social responsibility to the society in which they are located, but also to the societies their graduates will serve.
- Medical schools should track the socio-demographic characteristics of their students and explore inequities in relation to admissions policies.
- In deregulated systems, rising tuition fees should be meaningfully countered by measures to allow student from all classes and backgrounds to enter the profession.
- National governments must invest in realistic health-human resource planning – building national capacity without decreasing capacity of other countries (poaching).
국제적 의학교육 규제 기구, 표준, 안전장치는 나아지고 있는가?
Are global medical education regulatory structures, standards and safeguards evolving?
In the domain of globalization and healthcare one of the most hotly discussed topics is global mechanisms of regulating quality (Segouin et al. 2005). There are two basic approaches to quality assurance:
- evaluation (against a set of standards) of the ‘outcomes’ (e.g. examinations) or
- evaluation of ‘processes’ (e.g. accreditation).
의학교육에 있어서 outcome 측정은 역량 평가, 진료지역 평가, 진료형태 평가 등이 있다. process 평가는 의학교육을 하는 방법 그 자체(교육과정, 교육법, 교수 구성과 교육 기술)가 있다.
Translated to medical education, outcome measures include assessment of competence (examinations), and also location of practice, practice patterns, etc. Measures of process, on the other hand, include such things as the means of delivering medical education itself, including curricula, pedagogy, faculty configuration and skills, etc.
In recent years, there has been a movement to advocate identifying/creating ‘international standards’ for medical edu- cation that could theoretically be applied everywhere in the world. However, there is a body of literature emerging that suggests a significant problem with this approach.
2000년의 남아프리카에서, 그 당시 AAMC의 President였던 Jordan Cohen과 African Medical School Dean Max Price은 국제 기준에 대해서 의논하였다. 그러나 Price는 만약 미국아니 유럽의 기준이 아프리카에 적용되면 환자는 사망할 것이라고 했다. 그의 주장은 아프리카의 의대생은 졸업하면 분만에 참여할 수 있어야 하고, 마취를 할 수 있어야 하고, 수술도 할 수 있어야 하고, 그 외에 서양 의과대학에서는 요구하지 않는 여러가지 기술을 다 갖춰야 한다. 더 나아가서 Boelen은 모든 의과대학에 사회적 책무성과 관련한 기준을 넣어야 한다고 주장했다. 그는 의과대학의 사회적 책무성에 관한 국제 기준을 제안한 바가 있다.
During a keynote debate in 2000 in South Africa between then-President of the American Association of Medical Colleges Jordan Cohen and African Medical School Dean Max Price, both argued for global standards. However, Price noted that if American or European standards were adopted in Africa, patients would die. He explained that medical school graduates in Africa must be able to deliver babies, give anaesthesia, perform operations and a whole host of other competencies that are not part of the standards for western medical school graduates (Ten Cate 2002). Further, Boelen has argued that what is most important is the inclusion of social accountability into the standards for all medical schools. He has proposed a set of international standards dealing with the accountability of medical schools to their societies (Boelen 2002).
In terms of efforts to create international standards, the World Federation for Medical Education proposed, in 2003, three sets of standards that were elaborated by an international panel of experts
These standards were based on pre-existing ones taken especially from North America, though the WFME states that that cultural specificities must be taken into account. There are steps underway to further refine these standards to ensure a broad view, such as the recent efforts to adapt them to European countries as part of a project called MEDINE (Medical Education in Europe), founded and supported by the Commission of the European Union. The goal it to Europe, an harmonize medical education in imperative flowing from the Bologna Process which aims to harmonize credits and standards in higher education across the European Union (Segouin & Karle 2007).
Ralston Saul에 이어서 우리는 '국제 기준을 개발하는 것이 어렵다면, 세계화된 의학교육이 규제의 무풍지대로 존재해야 하는가?'라는 질문을 던지고자 한다. 흥미롭게도, 이 질문에 대해서 WFME는 국가적으로 인정받은 기관만이 그 인증절차에 대한 책임이 있다는 입장을 폈다. 그러나 여전히 카타르의 new Cornell과 같은 경우는 그 영향력 바깥에 있다. 교육과정이나 교육법, 평가법, 심지어는 교수까지도 뉴욕에서 바로 수입했는데 그 캠퍼스가 미국 바깥에 있는 경우에 누가 이 대학에 대한 인증작업을 할 것인가?
Following Ralston Saul, we might ask, if it is difficult or impossible to develop global standards, must globalized medical education exist in an unregulated space? Interestingly, after deliberation on this question, the WFME has taken the position that only nationally appointed agencies can be directly responsible for accreditation procedures. This raises important questions that are illustrated by the new Cornell medical school in Qatar. For the moment, it finds itself in an accreditation vacuum. While the curriculum, pedagogical approaches, evaluation methods and even many of the faculty members are taken directly from the New York school, the actual campus is not in the United States. Who is going to accredit this school?
The implication is that the Liaison Committee on Medical Education (LCME), the bodythat jointly accredits medical schools in Canada and the US,might accredit the schools in Qatar. The Dean continued, ‘theLCME has never dealt with this, but they understand this isthe beginning of the globalization of American medicine’(Green 2007). Yet indications from the LCME is that they willnot accredit any medical school outside the political bound-aries of the US or Canada (Croasdale 2003).
The questions arising: Is it possible to consider global accreditation without reverting to colonialism and all of the problematic baggage associated with homogenization and cultural dominance?
의학교육 바깥을 보면, 흥미로운 모델들이 있다. 한 예는 ISO 인증 시스템이다.
If we look outside of medical education there are some interesting models of less problematic ‘meta’ accreditation systems. An example is the ISO certification system. Based in Geneva, the ISOgroup elaborates standards at an international level but the certification is issued by national organizations that are themselves accredited by their national ISO umbrella organization.
유사하게, 의료와 관련해서는 다음과 같은 것들이 있다.
In the same vein, but dedicated to the health care system, an international project dealing with recognition of the quality of the local accreditation process for hospitals started in the mid 1995 aiming to accredit the accreditors around the world (Heidemann 1999) and the Joint Commission International (http://jointcommissioninternational.org) which accredits hos- pital all over the world.
Finally, it might seems obvious that a practical approach dealing with the twin challenges of global mobility of medical graduates and the need for international standards would be international examinations.
We might add that the whole concept of national exit examinations is a rather Anglo-Saxon phenomenon and that many countries of the world, including many in Europe do not have licensure or post training certification examinations at all(Hodges & Segouin 2008). As with the French–USA study, the context of training, familiarity with testing formats and content issues are so important that it is difficult to interpret scores of such international exams. For example, 90% of the US medical graduates pass the USMLE (national examination taken at the end of medical school in the US) while only 53% of American students who studied at an overseas school do. What do we conclude from this result? That the internationally trained students are less competent? Or that such variables as the examination format, content and administration are so different that the examination itself is an invalid comparison?(As with the French–US study)
- There should continue to be support the development of robust national accreditation systems for all countries/ regions, but also work towards some kind of international process for accreditation of accreditors (‘meta- accreditation’).
- In creating specific standards for schools that train interna- tional students, or students likely to practice in countries other than the one in which the medical school is located, standards should address the socio-cultural relevance of curricula to eventual practice location of their graduates.
- Specific attention must be given to avoiding the imposition of standards from economically or culturally dominant countries that do not fit with the cultural, economic or health-human resources needs of other countries.
Are important national or cultural differences threatened by globalization projects?
문화로 돌아와보자.
We now turn to the third areas of concern – culture.
의학교육 바깥의 문헌을 보면, 다양성의 축소되고 전통적 지식과 접근법이 억압받는 것을 우려한다.
Much literature on globalization outside of medical education warns of a risk of reduction of diversity and a suppression of traditional knowledge or approaches, by dominant groups or countries (Navarro 1999).
인류학자 Janelle Taylor 는 의학에 있어서 특히 문화별로 특징적인 측면들이 있는데, 의학교육은 이러한 차이에 무지하며 마치 '무문화의 문화'인 것처럼 행동한다고 지적했다.
Indeed, anthropologist Janelle Taylor has argued that while there are quite distinct cultural aspects to medicine, medical education tends to be blind to these differences and act as a ‘culture of no culture’ (Taylor 2003).
- China graduates 100,000 medical graduates a year from medical schools of 3-, 4-, 5-, 6-, 7- and 8-year curricula tailored to different kinds of practice.
- Scandinavian countries have a cultural value called ‘Jantelov’—(loosely the idea of not considering oneself to be too important) – that render the idea of competitive examinations inappropriate, and thus these countries have very few exams.
- Japan has a strong value of respect for elders that renders student evaluation of teachers inappropriate.
- Germany understands the purpose of medical education to be the development of in-depth scientific knowledge and until very recently did not introduce clinical skills in a significant way during the 6 years of medical school training.
- Scotland was the country in which the Objective Structured Clinical Examination first emerged and yet they have never adopted it as a licensure or certification examination partly because the discourses and practices of psychometrics are not as highly valued as the idea of conducting assessment in ‘authentic settings’.
효과에 대한 확실한 근거 없이, 모든 사람이 의학교육을 비슷한 방식으로 접근하게끔 하는 공식적인 프로세스 개발을 목표로 삼는 것은 진행되지 않아야 한다. 모든 사람이 신발을 신을 때 신발끈을 묶어주어야 한다는 것에는 동의할지 모르나, 왜 모든 사람이 어떻게 끈을 묶고 어떤 매듭을 지어야 하는가에까지 동의해야 하는가?
In the absence of convincing evidence to that effect, perhaps the goal should not be to develop formal processes that bind everyone into similar approaches to medical education, or even similar approaches to treatment and care of patients across the globe. We might all agree that tying our shoelaces is a ‘best practice’ (if one wears shoes!), but why do we have to agree on howto hold the laces or what knots to use?
Boelen C. 2002. A new paradigm for medical schools a century after Flexner’s report. Bull World Health Organ 80(7):592–593.
Cracks and crevices: globalization discourse and medical education.
Author information
- 1Toronto General Hospital, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada. brian.hodges@utoronto.ca
Abstract
- PMID:
- 19877863
- [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]
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