효과적인 소그룹학습 (AMEE Guide No. 48)

효과적인 소그룹학습 (AMEE Guide No. 48)

Effective small group learning: AMEE Guide No. 48

SARAH EDMUNDS1 & GEORGE BROWN2

1University of Westminster, UK, 2University of Nottingham, UK

Effective small group learning in medicine is a much more challenging task than is often realised; it is relatively easier to have a meandering discussion with a group of medical students. It is much more difficult to get them to discuss constructively, to question and, most important of all, to think. Indeed many texts and articles on learning in small groups put too much emphasis on the role of the tutor and too little on the role of the students. But, as Stenhouse (1971) observed, ‘ . . . developing small group teaching depends as much on student training as on teacher training’.

Groups and their effectiveness

개인이 모였다고 그룹은 아니다.

Strictly speaking, a collection of individuals is not a group until they interact.

그룹의 크기에 대하여

What counts as a small group depends on the cultural context. In the UK, 6–8 is often regarded as a small group for learning purposes ( Jaques 2003; Exley & Dennick 2004; McCrorie 2006).

Below a group size of four, leadership is usually shared between the members; 

over 12, well-defined leadership is needed; 

over 20, strong leadership is needed. 

Early work by Bales et al. (1951) suggested that a group of three or four was best for developing critical thinking and decision making.

토론기술 발달을 통해 얻을 수 있는 것

These benefits include the development of discussion skills and thinking, exploration of attitudes and sharing and reflecting upon experiences. 

소그룹의 장점

Broadly speaking, small groups are better than large groups at promoting thought and developing attitudes and values, and as effective, but not as efficient, as large group teaching, at imparting information (Bligh 2000). However it would be wrong to assume that all small groups are superior to all large groups for these tasks. The size of the group may not be as important as what the group does.

그러나 방법이 전부는 아니다.

So differences in method are not the whole story. We suggest that skills, not methods, are the key to the effectiveness of small group learning.

Skills of small group learning

소그룹 학습에 필요한 핵심 기술

The core discussion skills of small group learning are questioning, listening, responding and explaining.

튜터는 언제 어떤 기술을 사용해야 하는가를 아는 메타스킬이 중요하다.

Most important of all for the tutor is the meta-skill of knowing when to use a discussion skill. All the above discussion skills can facilitate thinking. In other words, discussion skills can develop cognitive skills.

Asking questions

질문의 기능

Questions have a number of functions in small group learning situations: to arouse interest and curiosity in a topic, to assess the extent of the students’ knowledge; and to encourage critical thought and evaluation. Skilfully used questions are ‘a potent device for initiating, sustaining and directing conversation’ (Dickson & Hargie 2004, p. 121).

질문의 종류

• Narrow–broad : 좁은 질문은 간단한, 사실에 대한 답을 요구할 때 좋음. 그러나 토론의 맥을 끊는 질문이 될 수 있음

Narrow questions typically request a brief, factual response and have a correct answer. They allow the tutor to control the discussion but if used too frequently can inhibit discussion. Broad questions on the other hand tend to require a more wide ranging answer and can be answered in a number of different ways, they frequently start with the words ‘why’, ‘what’ and ‘how’.

'내 생각을 맞춰봐' 식의 질문은 학생의 동기를 매우 저하시킬 수 있으므로 유의

Bligh (2000, p. 243) describes this as a game of ‘guess what I’m thinking’ and advises that it can be very de-motivational for students.

• Recall-observation–thought : Recall질문은 시작할 때 좋음. 

Recall questions can be useful at the start of a discussion to assess knowledge and to start the thinking processes of students. It has long been known that higher level cognitive questions lead to greater achievement (Redfield & Rousseau 1981). 

학생이 생각하게 만드는 질문을 하고 싶다면, 스스로 던지는 질문이 어떠한지부터 생각해봐야 한다.

Brown and Atkins (1988, p. 71) suggest ‘. . . if we want to ask questions that get students thinking then we have to think about the questions we are going to ask’.

• Confused–clear

• Encouraging–threatening : 일반적으로 Encouraging style이 필요

You should generally try to adopt an encouraging style of questioning in order to facilitate discussion. This is not to say that the questions you ask should be easy, rather be aware of factors such as tone of voice, stance and phrasing that can make the difference between an intellectually difficult question being perceived as threatening or challenging.

• Prompts: 힌트를 주는 질문

These are useful as a way of giving hints

Probes : 탐색질문

근거 요구 ask for more evidence

 ‘What evidence is that claim based on?’,

 ‘What does the author say that supports your argument?’

명확화 They can also ask for clarification, e.g.

: ‘Can you give me an example?’,

 ‘Does that always apply?’,

 ‘Is there an alternative viewpoint?’ 

연결, 확장용 질문 Linking or extension questions can be used to encourage students to build on one another’s responses, e.g.

 ‘Is there any connection between what you have just said and what Jenny said earlier?’,

 ‘Does your comment support or challenge what we seem to be saying?’,

 ‘How does that contribution add to what has already been said?’

무슨 질문을 할지 준비해야 함.

In preparing to lead a small group learning session, it is helpful to prepare the questions you will ask. This is often an overlooked part of preparation

Listening

튜터는 학생이 말한 것을 기억해두었다가 적절한 때에 활용할 수 있어야 하며, 이렇게 할 때 토론의 연속성이 높아진다.

It is very important to listen well to what is said during small group discussions, try to hear the explicit and underlying implicit meanings of what is said. All members of the group have a responsibility to listen, but the tutor has a special responsibility for retention of what has been said so that they can recall this at appropriate times to help the students remember and see how ideas are linked. Doing this can increase continuity in the discussion (Brookfield & Preskill 2005).

Responding

A general point to keep in mind is to be as encouraging as possible.

답이 틀렸을 때 긍정적 대답을 해주는 것이 쉽지는 않지만, 학생의 기여를 인정할 수는 있다. 답에 어떤 점이 잘못되었는지(학생이 아니라)를 알려줄 수도 있음.

It may seem more difficult to respond positively when an answer is incorrect but it is still possible to thank the student for their contribution. If you feel it is appropriate, then confront the student with possible flaws in the answer (but not the student!).

These responses include: reflecting back; perception checking; paraphrasing; and silence. 

• 그대로 되돌려 말하기 Reflecting or saying back to a person what he or she has just said to you is a method which is used in counselling to encourage elaboration. In small group learning, reflecting back allows tutors to show the students they have been listening to what has been said whilst leaving the agenda of discussion with the student (Bligh 2000). 
• 튜터가 이해한 말로 다시 확인하기 Perception checking involves the tutor checking his or her understanding of what the student meant by using phrases like: ‘What I think you’re saying is . . . . . . ’, ‘So what you’re saying is . . . .’. This can be useful to help the students clarify their thoughts more accurately. If they correct their tutor’s perception then they are analysing and distinguishing their thoughts from those of their tutor (Bligh 2000). The approach can be particularly useful when discussing complex ideas; it increases understanding, and the confidence that arises from this can encourage more students to participate in the discussion. 
• 말 바꾸어 되돌려 말하기 Paraphrasing is similar to reflecting back but the tutor uses his or her own words. This approach can help to make the discussion more precise. For example, the tutor can rephrase the comment using the appropriate technical term. ‘OK. So you think it is a renal tumour which requires nephrectomy?’
• 침묵 Silence during a group discussion is something that makes many tutors feel uncomfortable and there is a tendency to respond to students’ comments without hesitation in order to avoid such situations. However, silence can be a constructive, positive aspect of discussion (Brookfield & Preskill 2005) and it has been shown to increase student learning (Dillon 1994). It gives students time to reflect, to think through new ideas and make sense of them. Silences can be short, 5–10 s or longer; Brookfield and Preskill (2005) advocate occasional use of silences of up to a minute as a useful tactic! We would add that one should preface such a lengthy silence with ‘Let’s spend a minute thinking about that’.

Explaining

A working definition of explaining is that it is ‘an attempt to provide understanding of a problem to others’ and understanding in this situation involves ‘seeing connections which were hitherto not seen’ (Brown 2006, p. 196).

effective explaining are:

• 명확하고 유창하게 Clarity and fluency – defining new terms, avoiding vagueness
• 강조를 하며 흥미롭게 Emphasis and interest – use of intonation, pauses and paraphrasing
• 사례를 활용하여 Using examples – clear and appropriate ones, use the students’ responses if appropriate
• 구조화하여 Organisation – use of linking words and phrases
• 피드백 Feedback – check for understanding

너무 초반에 설명을 많이 해주면 그룹이 수동적이 될 수 있음. 그룹의 학생들이 어떤 과제를 시도한 이후에 설명을 활용하는 것이 좋음.

If used too early in a session, explanations can induce passivity in a group. It is usually better to leave explanations until after the group have attempted the task for the session; including the explanations as part of the session summary can be effective.

Opening and closing

소그룹을 어떻게 시작했느냐가 이후 진행의 분위기를 설정한다.

The opening of a small group session sets the tone for the rest of that learning session and it can influence subsequent meetings as well. Beginning with a mini lecture on the previous lecture or seminar can feel like an appropriate start but it often has the effect of inducing a passive mode on the group and it is difficult to engage the students in discussion later in the session.

'짧은 시간 내에 할 수 있는 간단한 과제로 시작해서 점차 복잡성, 시간, 사이즈를 늘려나간다'

Bligh (2000, p. 266) in his book ‘What’s the point in discussion?’ provides a useful maxim for small group learning: ‘start with simple tasks in small groups for short periods of time, and then gradually increase their respective complexity, size and duration’.

REST를 활용한 오프닝

Guidance on opening the first session with a group can be summarised by the mnemonic REST which the authors use in workshops on small group teaching. 

• 라뽀 R – Establish rapport with the group and between members of the group.
• 상호 기대 확인  E – Discuss mutual expectations of the roles of tutors and students.
• 소그룹 진행의 구조 설명 S – Outline the structure of the course and of the small group session.
• 과제 제시 T – Set a brief, but relevant task and provide feedback on the groups’ achievement of the task and their interaction.

Preparation

1번이 아니라 2번/3번부터 생각해야 함.

(1) What do I want the students to learn?

(2) How do I want them to learn it?

(3) How will I find out whether they have learnt it?

Rather than starting with question 1, some tutors plan the session by thinking about question 2 or 3 first.

마인드맵이 유용할 수 있음

A mind map is a helpful way into the above questions.

강의를 준비하는 것 보다 소그룹을 준비하는 것이 시간은 덜 걸려도 더 어려울 수 있다. 강의는 학생이 무엇을 아는가에 대해서 고려해야 하는 반면, 소그룹은 학생이 무엇을 아는가와 더불어 소그룹에서 무어라 말할 것인가를 함께 고려해야 함.

In general, preparing for small group learning is quicker but more challenging than preparing for lectures. A neat way to think about the difference between the two settings is that in lectures, the lecturer has to take account of what the students know whereas in small group learning the tutor also has to take into account what students know but also what they will say in a group.

Common errors in small group sessions

서로 상대방이 하는 말과 상관 없는 말만 하는 "집단적 독백"이 생길 수 있으며, 토론이 전체적인 토론이 아닌 여러 개의 일대일 대화가 되어버리거나, 학생과 튜터간 문답이 되어버릴 수 있다.

A common limitation of small group discussion is that each student contributes their own point which has little relationship with those made by the rest of the group (collective monologue) or the discussion breaks down into a series of one-to-one conversations, or a series of questions and answers between a student and a tutor.

Facilitating methods

'소그룹을 더 작은 그룹으로 나누기',그리고 튜터 앞에서 말한다는 두려움을 줄여주기 라는 기본 원칙을 따른다.

With the exception of seating arrangements, all are based on the principles of ‘making the small group smaller’ and reducing the fear of talking in the presence of a tutor.

Seating arrangements

좌석 배치가 상호작용에 영향을 준다.

It has long been known from studies in social psychology (Argyle 1983; Saran 2005) and everyday observations that seating arrangements affect interaction. Steinzor (1950) long ago demonstrated in experiments and naturalistic observations that interaction was strongly influenced by direction of gaze.

Thus, if a student is looking at the tutor whilst speaking, the tutor should switch gaze to another student and gesture or use a facial expression (Figure 3).

Thinking time

'사고'는 뇌간에서 반사적으로 일어나는 것이 아니고 '시간'이 필요한 일이다.

Thinking is not a brain stem response: it takes time.

'말하기 전에 생각하기'는 좋은 조언이며, 기다려주는 시간과 침묵의 시간을 갖는 것이 도움이 된다는 연구들이 있다.

‘Think and scribble before you talk’ is good advice for many students. It is based on the research on the use of wait time (Tobin 1987; Amin & Eng 2009) and silence (Brookfield & Preskill 2005).

• Buzz groups

Thinking time can be followed by a buzz group(s).

The buzz groups are usually followed by a plenary discussion. To avoid the plenary discussions becoming boring and repetitive, one can skip the plenary; make it brief; ask each group for only one point or question and comment on it; collect the comments on a flipchart and summarise then perhaps pose a related or deeper question.

• Snowball groups (pyramiding)

• Cross-over groups (jigsaws)

Generic methods of small group learning

For convenience, it is useful to distinguish: 

• 학생이 말할 수 있게 유도하는 방법 facilitating methods which encourage students to talk; 
• 소그룹세션의 접근법들(구조) generic methods, the approaches used for small group learning sessions; and 
• generic methods 내에서 사용하는 방법들 specific methods which may be used within generic methods. 

튜토리알과 세미나는 서로 바꿔가며 사용되기도 함.

It should be noted that the terms tutorials and seminars are often used interchangeably.

• Tutorials

The purpose of the post lecture tutorial is ostensibly to clarify understanding. In practice, it has a few handicaps.

The problem solving tutorial may follow steps shown in Box 6. Modified essay questions (MEQs; Knox 1989; Coates & Khan 2002) are useful devices for structuring problem solving tutorials.

However, it is important for students to know the goals of the session – it can be very irritating to be required to jump through hoops without knowing why.

• Seminars : Paper chase, Powerpoint, the Springboard

The original method of the seminar could be characterised as ‘a paper chase’

Nowadays, seminars are based on PowerPoint presentations by a student or group of students and perhaps require the presenters to teach the topic rather than merely present it (see GMC recommendations in Rubin & Franci-Christopher 2002).

A third form of seminar is ‘the springboard’ in which the tutor provides a stimulus for discussion such as a controversial presentation, a DVD clip or audio-recording.

• 워크숍 Workshops

The broad approach is given in Box 7. The authors use the approach known as GAITO (Goals, Activities, Inputs, Timing, Order of events; from Brown & Atkins 1988) in designing workshops.

• 연합체 Syndicates

In this method, a topic is split into sections and the group divided into teams. Each team works on a section of the topic and presents its views at a plenary.

Research on methods of small group learning

여러 소그룹 방법의 효과성은 학생의 기술이나 동기부여보다는 튜터의 기술의 동기부여에 따라 변한다. 즉, 어떻게 그 방법이 활용되느냐가 중요한 것이다.

For, as indicated earlier, the effectiveness of a method depends upon the skills and motivation of tutors and, to a lesser extent, the skills and motivation of students. In short, its effectiveness depends on how that method is used.

Roles and responsibilities in small group learning

튜터의 역할을 다음과 같이 기술했다.(leader, guide, facilitator, neutral chair, commentator, ‘drop-in wanderer’, counsellor and absent friend.)

Jaques (2000) states the roles of tutors are leader, guide, facilitator, neutral chair, commentator, ‘drop-in wanderer’, counsellor and absent friend.

효과적인 소그룹을 위해 학생들이 바라는 것

She reported that the major views of focus groups of students were that for a group to be effective, the tutors should ‘ . . . promote thinking and problem solving, were not threatening, encouraged interaction, did not lecture, highlighted clinical relevance, and wanted to be there’. (Steinert 2004, p. 296).

강의자가 강조하는 지점과 학생이 강조하는 지점에 차이가 있음.

Whilst they agreed on the broad purposes of small group learning of encouraging discussion and developing communication, the lecturers emphasised getting students to talk and think and the role of the students was to participate. The students emphasised gaining understanding and clarifying obscure points and the role of the tutor was to inform as well as to guide.

학생과 튜터의 역할과 책임이 무엇인지에 대한 논의가 필요

Finally, it is worth emphasising that the roles and responsibilities of the tutor and students should be discussed, agreed upon and made explicit at the outset of a course

The dynamics of groups

면박을 주는 선생님은 토론을 억제할 가능성이 높고, 그 학생들은 주제를 싫어하게 된다. 지지적이고 방향을 가르쳐주는 투터는 긴장을 완화시키고 자신감과 자존심을 높여주며 업무능력을 향상시키고, 성찰적 학습을 증진시킨다. 학습과정에 대한 성찰을 하는 그룹이 과제에만 집중하는 그룹보다 더 효과적이며, 경쟁적인 그룹보다는 협력적인 그룹이 더 효과적이라는 사회심리학적 연구결과는 이미 오래 전부터 알려져있다. 과제의 난이도는 상호작용에 영향을 미쳐서 너무 쉽거나 너무 어려운 과제는 그룹을 분열시킬 수 있다. 이상적인 과제는 그룹의 안전지대(comfort zone)의 경계에 있으면서 튜터와 학생들이 관련성을 느끼는 주제여야 한다.

For example, a teacher who uses humiliation as a strategy is likely to inhibit discussion and thought and engender dislike of the topic (Lempp & Seale 2004). This may be because high anxiety is evoked and this blocks retrieval and reduces cognitive capacity (Tobias 1985). A tutor who is supportive and gives guidance and feedback is likely to reduce anxiety, build confidence and self esteem, improve task performance and promote reflective learning (Bligh 2000; Hattie & Timperley 2007). It has long been known in social psychology that groups which reflect upon their learning processes are more likely to be more effective than those that focus solely on the task and groups in which members are cooperative rather than competitive are also more likely to be more effective (Bales 1970; Johnson & Johnson 1987). The ease or difficulty of a task affects interaction. Too easy or too difficult a task can cause fissures in the group. Ideally the task should be on the borders of the comfort zone of the group but clearly defined by the tutor and perceived as relevant by the students.

Belbin (2004) suggests that an effective management team take on the roles and responsibilities shown in Box 8 and Figure 6 (Box 8 and Figure 6 are to be found on the website www.medicalteacher.org and in the printed AMEE Guide available from AMEE office through www.amee.org).

Problem individuals in groups

학생간 문제를 완벽하게 예방할 수 있는 방법은 없으나 모르는 것보다는 알아두는 것이 낫다.

There are no foolproof methods of eliminating interpersonal problems caused by individuals in groups but the old adage ‘to be fore-warned is to be fore-armed’ applies.

Ask yourself four diagnostic questions:

(1) Is there a problem beneath the problem?

(2) Is the problem for the individual or the group?

(3) What is the priority – group morale or the task?

(4) What strategy or tactics can you use?

. Beforehand

. On the spot

. Privately

. Privately afterwards

. Reminders

Evaluating small group learning

Summary

1. (1) Small group learning sessions are an interaction of tutor, students and task. Their primary purpose is to develop discussion skills and thinking.
2. (2) Evidence indicates that small group learning sessions are better than large groups at promoting thought and developing attitudes and values.
3. (3) Skills used by the tutor and students are more important than the methods used. The core skills are questioning, listening, responding and explaining. Other important skills are opening and closing sessions and preparing small group learning sessions.
4. (4) Facilitating methods, such as thinking time and buzz groups, can encourage students to talk and can
5. improve the major methods of small group learning.
6. (5) Both tutors and students have roles and responsibilities in small group learning sessions. How they carry out those roles and responsibilities affects the dynamics of the learning group.
7. (6) Attention to socio-emotional well-being as well as the task of the group is more effective than a focus on the task alone. Individuals can cause interpersonal problems which affect the group or task adversely. No foolproof solution to these problems is available but one can minimise the problems by pre-empting them. Accurate diagnosis of the problem can assist in reducing its effects and provide solutions.
8. (7) Sessions of small group learning can be evaluated by examining products, such as achievement and student satisfaction, or by analysing and reflecting upon the processes of interaction in the group. If one wants to develop the communication and cognitive skills of members of the group, then studies of the processes are more appropriate and important than product studies.

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Med Teach. 2010;32(9):715-26. doi: 10.3109/0142159X.2010.505454.

Effective small group learning: AMEE Guide No. 48.

Edmunds S1, Brown G.

Author information

• 1Department of Psychology, University of Westminster, 309 Regent Street, London, UK. edmunds@westminster.ac.uk

Abstract

The objective of this educational guide is to outline the major facets of effective small group learning, particularly applied to medicine. These are discussion skills, methods, the roles and responsibilities of tutors and students, the dynamics of groups and the effects of individuals. It is argued that the bases of effective small group learning are discussion skills such as listening, questioning and responding. These skills are the platform for the methods of facilitating discussion and thinking. The facilitating methods strengthen the generic methods, such as tutorials, seminars and electronic tutorials. However, the success of these methods is dependent in part upon the roles and responsibilities taken by students and tutors and the consequent group dynamic. The group dynamic can be adversely affected by individuals. Evaluation of the processes of small group learningcan provide diagnoses of the behaviour of difficult individuals. More importantly, studies of the processes can help to develop more effective smallgroup learning.

Comment in

• Effective small group learning: Guide supplement 48.1--viewpoint. [Med Teach. 2011]

PMID:

 

20795801

 

[PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]